INDEX

S. No Topic Page No.

Week 1
1 Review of Thermodynamics 1

2 Rankine Cycle 19

3 Performance of Rankine Cycle 32

4 Binary vapour cycle and co-generation 45

5 Problem Solving (Rankine Cycle) 58

Week 2
6 Steam Generators 67

7 Fire Tube Boilers 80

8 Water Tube Boilers 93

9 Boiler Mountings and Accessories 103

10 High Pressure Boilers (Part-1) 117

Week 3
11 High Pressure Boilers (Part-2) 127

12 Draught 137

13 Performance of Boiler 149

14 Combustion of Fuel 162

15 Combustion of Fuel (Problem Solving) 175

Week 4
16 Boiler Trial 186

17 Nozzles and Diffusers - Momentum and Continuity Equations 199

18 Nozzles and Diffusers- Efficiency and Critical Pressure 210

19 Nozzles and Diffusers- General Relationships and Supersaturated Flow 219

20 Problem Solving (Nozzles and diffusers) 229

Week 5
21 Steam Turbine 242
22 Compounding of Steam Turbine 255

23 Impulse Steam Turbine 265

24 Impulse Steam Turbine Performance 280

25 Problem solving (Impulse Steam Turbine) 289

Week 6
26 Impulse Reaction Steam Turbine 304

27 Impulse Reaction Steam Turbine Performance 318

28 Energy Losses in Steam Turbine 329

29 Condensers 343

30 Problem Solving (Steam Turbine) 359

Week 7
31 Gas turbine cycle 370

32 Gas Turbine cycle Performance Evaluations 381

33 Gas Turbine cycle - Modifications 392

34 Problem Solving (Gas Turbine Cycle) 401

35 Centrifugal Compressors 417

Week 8
36 Centrifugal Compressors Characteristics 434

37 Axial Flow Compressor 446

38 Axial Flow Compressor Characteristics 460

39 Jet Propulsion 475

40 Problem Solving 489

 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 01
Lecture No # 01
Review of Thermodynamics

I welcome you all in this course on this team and gas power systems and today we will start with
the review of thermodynamics. The topic to be covered in this course are basic term in
thermodynamics processes.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:37)

Laws of thermodynamics now there are certain basic terms in the thermodynamics which we are
supposed to understand before we start with this course.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:52)

1
The first system in thermodynamics if prescribed a region of space or finite quantity of matter
surrounded by an envelope called that is the boundary. And the system is the three types of
systems.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:04)

One is closed system second is open system and third one is isolated system. So system is
prescribed region of space is it can be a physical entity or it can be an imaginary volume in the
space on which the thermodynamics studies are concentrated. In close system for example this
room this room can be considered as a closed system if we seal all the doors and windows of this
room.

2
Then in this room heat transmission can take place through the ceiling or the wall or the floor of
the room but transfer cannot take place. So in a close system mass transfer is not possible but
heat transfer is possible now second type of system is open system in open system mass and heat
transfer both are allowed. For example if I open the doors and windows of this room then air can
come into the room and air can leave the room also and heat transmission through the walls and
the ceiling and the floor of room can take place then this room becomes an open system.

Now third type of system is isolated system means there is no mass transfer and there is no heat
transfer that is possible if I insolate all walls of this room and floor of this room close all the
windows. In that case there will not be any heat transmission from the surroundings and room
will become an isolated entity. Now surroundings anything outside the system is surrounding so
anything entire universe outside this room is surrounding and system and surrounding together
they make universe.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:11)

Now state unique condition of the system at an instant of time described by its properties. So
state of the system can be described by the properties and minimum two properties are required
to describe the system okay and. So state can be defined with the help of two properties.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:34)

3
Now process suppose system is moving from state 1 to state 2 right and it moving from state 1
and state 2 it passes through in number of state now combinations of this number of states
together will form a process let us say process 1 to 2 + cycle. A cycle thermodynamic cycle can
be defined as there is a combination of a cycle is the combination of thermodynamic processes
let us say from state 1 to state 2, state 2 to state 3, state 3 to state 4, state 4 to state 5 and state 5 to
state 1.

So final state of the last process an initial state of first process if they are same then this is called
a thermodynamic cycle in thermodynamics there are two things heat and work.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:32)

4
The entire the philosophy of the thermodynamics is based on the interaction between heat and
work. So in thermodynamics there are two types of work one is boundary work and his shaft
work or flow work. Now in boundary work the work is done by the movement of the boundary
suppose there is a system if there is a movement in the boundary of the system movement in the
boundary of the system work will be supposed to be done by the system.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:05)

An example is given there is a piston cylinder arrangement and inside this red line this is the
system. Now if we are giving heat form the bottom while giving heat of the bottom this gas
inside this piston cylinder arrangement will expand. The weight is constant so pressure is
remaining constant due to expansion of the gas the volume of the system will increase and work
will be suppose to be done and in this case in the boundary work the work is expressed by pdv
from state 1 to state 2.

Another type of work is shaft work in shaft work there is no movement of the boundary of the
system. Boundary of the system are fixed for example air compressor so the physical boundary
of the compressor is fixed. But if you measured pressure at the inlet and outlet you will find
compressor outlet pressure is higher than the inlet pressure. And work is done on the gas to
increase the pressure vice versa in case of turbines.

5
In a turbines the expansion of gas takes place and due to expansion of the gas the pressure drop
is there and due to this pressure drop we get shaft work from the gas turbines. And this shaft
work is expressed by –vdp from state 1 to state 2 where V is the specific value and dP is pressure
drop.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:41)

Now after this will discuss the laws of thermodynamics there are four laws of thermodynamics
zeroth law, first law, second law and third law of thermodynamics. Zeroth law is the youngest
law now zeroth law is the most basic law of thermodynamics which gives the concept of
temperature.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:02)

6
Now this law it states if two thermodynamics systems are in two thermodynamics are in two
thermodynamics systems are each in equilibrium with the third then they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other it means if they are three bodies suppose A, B and C. Now A and B
is they are in thermal equilibrium it means there is no heat transmission between A and B either
from A to B or B to A.

Now B and C also in thermal equilibrium it means there is no heat transmission from B to C or
from C to B. So definitely this A and C shall also be in thermal equilibrium this is stated by the
zeroth law of thermodynamics and this law gives the concept of temperature in thermodynamic
systems.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:59)

Now the first law of thermodynamics the first law of thermodynamics states that in a cyclic
process net heat process given to the system is equal to the net work done by the system. First
law of thermodynamics does not speaks anything about the internally the concept of internal
energy is derivative of the first law of thermodynamics.
(Refer Side Time: 08:24)

7
So in a cyclic process as I mentioned earlier cyclic process is a combination of processes where
let us say 1, 2, 3, 4. So 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4 and 4 to 1 so it is the combination of the processes
where initial state of the first processes is the final state of the final processes. So in a cyclic
process cyclic integral of heat given to the system is equal to cyclic integral work by the system
right.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:06)

Now let us take a cyclic process A to B this is A sorry 1 to 2 so 1 to 2 going to from 1 to 2 I am

2 1
going through path A and coming back by path B. So according to this ∫ δ Q A + ∫ δ QB =
1 2

8
2 1

∫ δ W A+ ∫ δ W B . So here we have taken cyclic integral to heat interaction in cyclic integral of

1 2

work interaction.

Heat transfer process from 1 to 2 and heat transfer in process 2 to 1 work done in process 1 to 2
and work done in process 2 to 1. Now instead of coming by B if I come to state 1 by C path C
now in this case again we will use this equation 1 to 2 δQ A + 2 to 1 δQB = 1 to 2 δWA sorry now
this is not B this is C 2 to 1 δW C ok. Now I subtract this equation from this equation so - - - - Q A
will be cancelled out right.

And 2 to 1 δQB - 2 to 1 δQC is equal to and this also will be also cancelled out. So 2 to 1 δW A
plus sorry this is - 2 to 1 δW C right. So we have subtracted this equation from this 1 and finally
we are getting this equation now this is WB not WC this is WB right.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:44)

Now we arrange this terms and we will get integral 2 to 1 δQ B - integral 2 to 1 δWB = integral 2
to 1 δQC - integral of 2 to 1 δWC.

Now δQ - δW from 2 to 1 by path C = δ Q - δW from 2 to 1 via path C or we can write like this.
Then QB -δWB by path B = δQC - δWC by path C right. Now we can choose another path D we
come back from 2 to 1 by D as well in that case we will get another term δQ D - δWD. So it means

9
we choose any path this difference is going to remain constant if you coming from state 2 to state
1 irrespective of path so we take this path also E.

Irrespective of path taken we will getting a constant now this constant is the W is constant
because this delta this is also energy this is also energy. So this constant has to be term of energy
and it is expressed by E now E involves everything kinetic energy potential energy plus internal
energy. But in a close system the change in the kinetic energy or in terms this is dE this is dE
change in potential energy is negligible.

So a new term as come into the picture that is δQ - δW = dU and dU is change in the internal
energy of the system and this is A derivative of the first law of thermodynamics however the law
remains same in a cyclic process net heat given to the system is equal to the net work done by the
system. Now after the first law we can take up the thermodynamic processes then you will take
the second law.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:41)

A certain thermodynamic processes standard thermodynamic processes now first is isothermal

process isothermal process as it is clear from the name itself if we take on PV diagram pressure
volume diagram isothermal process will be depicted by a curve like this in isothermal process the
temperature remain constant and the product of pressure and volume is A constant. So at a
constant temperature T1 from state 1 to state 2 and isothermal process will follow a like this.

10
If I change the temperature suppose I change the temperature like T 2 another curve parallel to
this curve will be formed but these two curves will never cut each other because they are parallel
to each other. So this is temperature T2 and temperature T2 is greater than T1 now another process
is Isobaric process in isobaric process as it is clear from name itself the pressure is constant. So
the pressure is constant means if you are going from state 1 to state 2 then pressure will remain
constant this is known as Isobaric process.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:08)

Another process is Isochoric process in Isochoric process if I depict this process on pressure and
volume diagram then it is a constant volume process from state 1 to state 2. Now the next
process is polytropic process in polytropic process PV raised to power n is equal to constant. So
if I want to show polytropic process expansion process it is going to be like this 1to 3.

Another process is adiabatic process an adiabatic process there is no heat interaction in

surroundings. So such type of process are known as adiabatic processes and another is isentropic
process in isentropic process the entropy remains constant. So a reversible adiabatic process is

ᵞ
known as isentropic process and then it is like this PV = C where gamma is the ratio of specific
heat at constant pressure the specific heat at constant volume of this.

11
Adiabatic process can be isentropic process if it is reversible process but in adiabatic process
there is a condition that there should not be heat interaction with the surroundings. But entropy
generation due to internal resistance of the system can be take place right. So that is why a
reversible adiabatic process can only be isentropic process where change in entropy is 0.

The first law of open system because this first law of open system is very much relevant to his
course on steam and gas power.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:05)

Now first law for open system states that heat interaction, work interaction is equal to change
into enthalpy has come into picture cdc change in kinetic energy and gdz change in potential
energy. Now this enthalpy h of any gas is u + pv pressure and product of pressure and volume
this product of pressure and volume is also known as flow energy. So internal energy if we have
to find internally of the gas then it is h - pv.

So we will be using frequently using these relations in the subsequent lectures and there we will
discuss the application of the first law of thermodynamics for open system in case of turbine
compressor nozzles and heat exchangers.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:54)

12
After this we will take up the second law of thermodynamics.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:02)

The second law of thermodynamics has a lot of relevance because this law states in a nutshell
that if we draw certain amount of heat from a reservoir the equivalent amount work can not be
produced.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:19)

13
It means there is a thermal reservoir means a body which has very high thermal capacity right.
Thermal capacity means the product of m and c mass and specific heat or we can say a body
which is having a very high thermal capacity or we can say that you draw any amount of heat
from this the temperature of body will not change because Q = mc∆T.

So if this is tending to infinity mc then definitely this ∆T will be tending to 0 for a certain
amount of heat drawn from the thermal reservoir. So for a thermal reservoir if you draw certain
amount of heat you cannot do certain amount of certain amount of equivalent amount of work
cannot be done. Now it has two statements Kelvin plank statement and Clausius statement.

The Kelvin plank statement says then it is impossible construct a device that will operate in a
cycle and product no effect other than a rising of weight and the exchange of heat with the single
result. That is what I have said earlier so this type of device is not possible which works on a
cycle which operates on a cycle and net effect is the transmission of conversion of heat which is
drawn from the reservoir in equivalent amount of work.

There is another statement also for the second of thermodynamics and it says that heat by own it
is cannot from lower temperature to higher temperature. Now the exact statement of the Clausius
statement is like this it is impossible construct a device that operates in a cycle produces no
effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler body to hotter body right. So both statements

14
are not different they are same and violation of one statement will automatically lead the
violation of another statement.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:34)

Now we can first of all we can assume there is a violation of this Clausius statement now if there
is a violation of Clausius statement then heat by its own can flow from lower temperature
reservoir or lower temperature body to a higher temperature body.

So heat certain amount of heat can by itself can flow from lower temperature to higher
temperature QL this is QL and there is a heat engine which is drawing certain amount of heat from
high temperature body and rejecting QL to the lower temperature body and net work done by this
heat engine which is working from the cycle will be QH - QL right as shown in the slide also.

Now if we club these tow slides these two devices now it is something like QH - QL is drawn from
here an equivalent amount of work being done because Q L is heat is rejected here and same
amount of heat is drawn from the lower temperature reservoir so this can be eliminated.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:51)

15
Now again violation of the plank statement now lead to the violation of Clausius statement.
Suppose we are able to made one device with sole effect is to draw a certain amount of heat from
high temperature reservoir that is QH and do equal amount of work W = QH and QL is going to be
in that case zero or this thermodynamic device has 100 % efficiency.

Now in this case suppose I want to draw a certain amount of heat from lower temperature
reservoir that is TL and this QH will be use to pump the heat to the high temperature reservoir that
is Q + QH. Now if I club this two devices right now in this case what is happening we are taking
QH amount of heat and it is transmitted from lower temperature and it is being transmitted to
higher temperature this Q sorry Q amount of heat from lower temperature and it is being
transmitted to higher temperature without any external work.

Because QH which is going here it is moving in this loop only right so this is automatically
violation of Clausius of statement so both statements are same and the conclusion of both the
statement is that we cannot have a device which is working on thermodynamic cycle and sole
effect is the conversion of heat from sorry sole effect is withdrawal heat from a reservoir and do
equal amount of work

16
And according to the Clausius statement the device is not possible which sole effect is transmit
of heat from lower temperature to higher temperature without any external work. Now we will
discuss the difference between gases and vapors.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:48)

(Refer Slide Time: 24:51)

Now if you draw a PV diagram pressure and volume and this is X = 0, X = 1 the constant this is
temperature line constant temperature line is almost vertical it is not vertical then horizontal and
then it takes another curve shape state 1, 2, 3 and 4 straight four. Now we keep on increasing the
pressure when we keep on increasing the pressure this constant temperature line also keep on
shifting.

17
And at the critical temperature the curve becomes almost horizontal and then we get go like this
we move far away from the critical temperature the curve has its nature and when the
temperature is greater than is greater than two times the critical temperature it follows the law of
PV raised to power C that is product of pressure and volume is constant as in the case of gas. So
the vapor can be considered as a gas when critical temperature is greater than two times the
critical temperature.

For example for water the critical temperature is 373.950 C critical temperature of water is 373.95
degree centigrade and you convert this into Kelvin it becomes 647.1 kelvin right. Now water can
be considered as a gas when the temperature is two time of this absolute temperature and it turns
out to be 1021.050 C .

So at this temperature of a steam the steam can be concerned sorry considered as a gas that is
why we have steam tables because steam does not follow the law ideal gas law PV = RT.
Because this law is for ideal gas is at near the temperature is steam can also be we can drive the
properties of the steam using this equation. Now if the pressure is very low of this temperature it
is irrespective of the pressure but if the pressure is very low let us say pressure is less than 10
kilo pascal.

In that case irrespective of the temperature the vapor will be considered as a gas that is why in air
conditioning air conditioning analysis or in refrigeration on air conditioning when we take air
consist of water also. So water vapor in present in the air is considered as gas because partial
pressure of water vapor in the air is less than ten kilopascal however in the case of steam power
plants when the steam had a pressure of 40 bar or 50 bar it is not considered as gas that is why
we need is steam table in order to find the properties of this steam.

So that is the end for this lecture on review of thermodynamics in the next class we will take the
rankine cycle thank you.

18
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 01
Lecture No # 02
Rankine Cycle

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems and today we will
discuss about the Rankine cycle. Now topic to be covered in this lecture are first law of open
system Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle performance parameters of Rankine cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:37)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:40)

19
The first law of open system states that δ Q - δW in an open system = dh + cdc + gdz
cdc is change in kinetic energy and this is change in potential energy and dh means change in
enthalpy. We will take the case of turbine for first of all so turbine is a device where steam is
passed at high pressure inlet is high pressure steam and outlet is low pressure is steam or gas and
this turbine produces power shaft power.

Now in this case delta Q is 0 process is supposed to be the ideal case and isentropic process so
there is no heat interaction with the surroundings. The change in potential energy is also
considered 0 if there is a no change inlet and outlet velocity or there is an insufficient change in
inlet and outlet velocity of the fluid this is also 0.

So - δW = dh and dh is nothing but h 2 - h1 or we can say the turbine output = h 1 - h2 it means the
work output we are getting from the turbine is the difference of an enthalpy at inlet and enthalpy
at outlet of the turbine. Now the second thing is nozzle because the part before the turbine in
order to increase the velocity of the steam the nozzle is used it is fixed before the turbine in some
of the case in many of the cases it is part of the turbine itself.

So nozzle is a very important part of steam power generation system in case of nozzle again if
we write δQ - δW = dh + cdc + gdz. So nozzle is nothing but a passage of varying cross section
in order to increase the velocity of steam again now state 1 to state 2 there is no heat transfer this
process is also considered to be isentropic process so there is no heat transfer with the
surroundings nozzle does not produce any output there is not shaft output of the nozzle. So this is
also 0 change in potential energy in most of the cases is 0.

So dh = - cdc or h2 - h1 = -( C22 - C12 ) / 2 or we can write h1 - h2 =( C2 2- C12 ) / 2 right. In most of

the cases in nozzles it is assumed that the inlet velocity is tending to 0 it is negligible in
comparison to the outlet velocity. So C2 can also be taken as √ 2(h1−h2)

So this is another second application now third application can be in case of pump now pump is
also used in steam power plant just to pump the field water. And here also we can make use to
first law for open system dh + cdc + gdz so this is 0 right in pump it is again it is considered to

20
be an reversible adiabatic process isentropic process this is 0 and change in kinetic energy is also
considered to be 0.

So dh is equal to - δw because in the pump work is done on the system so work consumed by the
pump is W and this = h 2 - h1. And enthalpy of fluid outside the pump and enthalpy of the fluid
which is entering the pump so and this is enthalpy of fluid which is entering the pump this is
enthalpy of fluid at a this is state of this is the state 2 and this is state 1 and h 2 - h1 will give the
work consumed by the pump.

Now after this first law of open system will take up Carnot cycle now in a Carnot cycle there are
four processes.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:02)

If we show Carnot cycle and P-V diagram there four processes there are two adiabatic processes
and two constant temperature processes. So these process starting from state 1 to state 2 adiabatic
state sorry state 2 is here and state 2 to state three is temperature constant and then 3 to 1 sorry 3,
2, 4 this is 4, 3 to 4 is again adiabatic process now if it is cyclic processes where alternate
processes alternative processes are constant temperature and constant entropy.

Now this process has to take place in minimum possible time if we have to maintain this process
as isentropic process. So this process 1 to 2 has to be very fast now process 4 to 1 it is constant

21
temperature process the constant temperature process has to be very slow because if this is
process is no change in internal energy. Now if you transform this Carnot cycle on temperature
entropy diagram it is going to be a rectangle because temperature is remaining constant from
process 4 to 1.

And 1 to 2 there is isentropic process it is going to be vertical line in on temperature entropy

diagram 1 to 2 now 2 to 3 is again constant temperature process. So this is let us say T L and this
is TH and we get state 3 and state 3 to state 4. Now if we use gas a liquid fluid here then there is a
problem as I mentioned here because alternative processes have to be very fast and very slow.

So that is very difficult to realize in practice now we can go very close to the Carnot cycle if we
use the fluid and were in process 4 to 1 phase change takes place because when the phase is take
place during heat addition then temperature remains constant. So we ensure that process 4 to 1
and 2 to 3 phase is takes place then we can come very closer to the Carnot cycle. So instead of
using a ideal gas if steam is used in a Carnot cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:47)

Now if steam and water is used in a working fluid in a Carnot cycle then we can have this is
saturation line x = 0 and this is x = 1 there the water vapor is dry and saturated and this is
saturated liquid. So when the liquid starts boiling the temperature will remain constant so here

22
we can realize process 4 to 1 four, process 1 to 2 isotropic expansion, entropy will remain
constant and again for process 2 to 3.

We can condense the water vapor during condensation the heat will be rejected and temperature
remains constant and at state 3 we can compress this mixture of because in this region it is going
to be a mixture of water vapor and the liquid water. So the process 2 to 3 will remain in two
phase region where temperature remains constant. So this is how we can come close to the
Carnot cycle but they are found again there are problems in this system also.

The first problem is way to take a because all these processes will be taking in different physical
entities because process 4 to 1 will be taking place inside a boiler right so this is state 4 to state 1
for 1 it will go to a turbine four sorry this is 1 and this is 2 and from 2 to3 shall takes place inside
the condenser 2 to 3 and 3 to 4 shall takes place inside a pump.

So all the processes all this processes they will take place inside different entities not a single
entity. So now the question is when the process 2 to 3 is complete here in the condenser then
vapor has to be removed exactly at this quality from the condenser otherwise will not be able to
realize the state 4 second thing is we have compressors which can compress the gases.

We have pumps which can increase the pressure of the liquid but we do not have the any device
which can compress the mixture of the liquid and vapor because the moment you start
compressing this mixture the condensation will start in device will not work at all with high
efficiency we can develop a device but the efficiency will be low. So this solution is not
workable because we have problem from state 3 to state 4.

The second thing is if you look at the length of this cycle stroke of the cycle this much right and
area is the work or energy produced in the cycle is this much area of PV diagram. So I am able to
develop a Carnot engine it is going it may be very efficient engine because no engine can have
efficiency then an engine working on Carnot cycle between two temperatures T H and TL but in
that case the engine will be highly efficient and bulky.

23
So in engine working on the Carnot cycle nay be on this size if I take a gas engine working on a
diesel cycle may be of this size right. So not only efficient size of the engine is also important
now here let us go back to this issue is important because in process 3 to 4 a lot of energy will be
consumed if we are able to make any device which can compress this mixture to this saturated
liquid state.

So rankine need one modification and he made one modification instead of condensing mixture
of state 3 mixture is condensed upto state 4 sorry state 5 this is state 4, state 5. Now entire vapor
is converted into the liquid this is saturated liquid and when entire vapor is converted into the
saturated liquid now this liquid the pressure of this liquid can be increased with the help of a
pump and we get state 6 this is temperature and this is entropy and after attainting this pressure
this six the liquid is sent to the boiler for heat exchange and process 6 to 1 takes place inside a
boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:52)

So now this Carnot cycle is modified as rankine cycle if we show the cycle on P-V diagram it is
going to be like this sorry on temperature entropy diagram this is going to be like this state 1,
state 2, state 3 and then state 4 and state 5 the moment the vapor is condensed up to state five the
volume is reduced drastically for example at atmospheric pressure if we take saturated steam and
if you compare the volume of saturated steam is saturated liquid.

24
The volume of saturated liquid is same is approximately 1600 times greater than the volume of
saturated liquid. It means if we take 1 liter of saturated liquid at atmospheric pressure if we
convert entire this 1 liter of water into the steam. We will be getting approximately 1600 meter
cube of steam per kg or 1 liter of water and so the change in volume is very high.

So when all the steam is condensed in a condenser the volume of gas is produced of fluid is
reduced drastically and it is very easy to compress because here the work consume will also be
very less because it is going to be vdp from state 5 to state 6. Now this high pressure liquid will
be sent to boiler and where heat exchange from state 6 to state 4 and state 4 to state 1 will take
place from state 1 again fluid will enter the turbine and the work will be produced.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:00)

Now performance parameters are of Rankine cycle in order to find the performance parameter
one is efficiency of the Rankine cycle efficiency of the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle.
Thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is output of the turbine that is the work we are gaining
and work done in the pump work consumed by the pumps.

So it is h1 - h2 - work consumed by the pump is often it is insignificant if you compare this value
it becomes significant and sometime it is neglected also divided by heat given this is h 1 – h6. This
is amount of heat given to the system and this is work output of the system now if we take the

25
thermal efficiency of Carnot cycle it is going to be (h1 - h2) – (h4 – h3) because this is significant
here it is significant we cannot neglect it divided by h1 – h4.

Now I will take one numerical and i will compare the performance of these two cycles the
numerical states.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:17)

A steam power plant operates between a boiler pressure of 40 bar and the condenser pressure of
0.04 bar can be these limits calculate for these limits the cycle efficiency work ratio and specific
steam consumption cycle efficiency thermal efficiency of the cycle. Now work ratio is the
network divide by turbine work that is the work ratio. So here the work ratio can be

h1−h2−w p .
h1−h 2

Now if you compare the work ratio of a Carnot cycle and a Rankine cycle work ratio of Rankine
cycle will turn out to be much higher than the work ratio of a Carnot cycle. Now the second one
is specific steam consumption specific steam consumption is steam consumption specific steam
consumption is steam consumption per kilo-watt hour this also we can drive from these values.
So in order to start this we take first Carnot cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:48)

26
So in case of Carnot cycle the pressures are for 40 bar and 0.04 bar now temperature this is T H
and this is TL so TH or we can take T2 also in some of the books it is taken as T 1 and T2. So T1 is
saturation pressure at 40 bar because the pressure is 40 bar so at this pressure accordingly
saturation pressure will be taken these temperature you can take from the steam tables you
purchase steam table available in market and you purchase any of the steam table because steam
table will be frequently required at this course and take this steam table has Mollier diagram also.

Because we will be using sometimes we will be using Mollier diagram also so from stream table
there is a table for saturation property is where for every pressure you will get the saturation
temperature. So from that stream table I have taken at 40 bar pressure the saturation temperature
is 250.35 degree centigrade now if I convert this into the kelvin then it is going to be 523.35
kelvin because you had 273 you will be getting temperature in kelvin.

Now similarly you can calculate the temperature T2 at 0.04 bar it is 28.96 degree centigrade and
if you convert this into the kelvin again you will be getting 302.11 kelvin. So we have two
temperatures and I hope all of you can find the efficiency of the cycle because efficiency of the

T2
cycle Carnot cycle is 1 - will give you the efficiency of the order of 42.3%.
T1

27
But if I ask you to find the output of the turbine now output of the turbine will be work. Now this
work is net work so this network involves the work develop in the turbine - work done in
compression. So this is the network is h1 - h4 heat supplied multiplied by the efficiency and the
network you will get h1 and h4 you will get from the steam table the at 40 bar pressure the
enthalpy of saturated vapor and enthalpy of saturated liquid. So h1 and h4 will give you will get
the network as 724.7 kilo-joules per kg right.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:01)

Now turbine work suppose I want to find the turbine for then turbine work is h 1 - h2. So h1 we
can get from the steam tables saturated such a enthalpy of saturated vapor h 1 this we can take
from the steam table but what about h2. h2 is not given in the steam table so in order to find h 2 we
will take s1 = s2 it is a property of this process s1 = s2, s1 we can take from the steam table.

So s1 is 6.0696 kilo joules per kg kelvin and that s 1 = s2 now s2 we know in this process because it
is a constant pressure process and 0.04 bar pressure. So for 0.04 bar pressure we know the
entropy of the liquid and entropy of the vapor. So we can always take s2 = sf+ x (sg – sf) now
from here we can calculate the value of x and in this case the value of x is 0.701.

Now once we have the value of x here x is the quality of vapor once we have the quality of the
vapor at this rate to we can find h 2 because h2 is hf + x sg - sorry hg - hf at this pressure 0.04 bar

28
pressure. So from here we will get the value of h 2 now have value of h1 and h2 we can find the
turbine work at h1 - h2 and in this case the turbine work is 974.4 kilo-joules per kg right.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:43)

Network was network was 724.7 kilo joules per kg this was the network and this is turbine work.
So difference of these two works will give the energy consumes with the process 3 to 4 is equal
to that is work of the compression is to 49.7 kilo joules per kg. So this is the amount of energy is
being consumed sorry in the process 3 to 4.

Now the work ratio is 724.7 divided by 974.4 this is the network this is the turbine work and this
is going to be 0.744 and specific steam consumption is equal to net output is how much 724.7
multiplied by 3600 that will give the specific steam consumption it is going to be 4.97 kg per
kilowatt hour.

So we are getting all the values efficiency work ratio and specific steam consumption in case of
Carnot cycle. Now this is rankine cycle this vapor is completely condensed pressurized and the
you get 5 state 6 and then from state 6 heating takes place we can get enthalpy 8 state 5 but what
about enthalpy 8 state 6 because heat added value is going to be.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:25)

29
Here in case of rankine cycle heat added is going to be = h 1 - h6 work in the pump is h6 - h5 but
the issue is how to find h6 work is pump is h6 - h5 and work in pump is also - vdp from state 5 to
state 6 in liquid if you pressurize liquid the change in specific volume is insignificant that is why
on a P-V diagram if we look at the P-V diagram of liquids at a constant temperature this line is
almost a vertical line at a constant temperature and then it goes like this and then again it goes
like this.

So this can be taken as constant and dP is the pressure difference so we can always take specific
volume at state 5 multiplies by P6 – P5. I have done this calculation and the specific work is the
pump is approximately 4 kilojoules per kg it is almost insignificant if you compare the output of
the turbine. In case of rankine cycle the work of the pump or pumping work was coming out to
be 249.7 kilo joules per kg.

So you can compare the energy consumed in the Carnot cycle and energy consumed in rankine
cycle in pumping the fluid. Now again in order to find the efficiency of the cycle
(Refer Slide Time: 28:20)

So thermal efficiency of the cycle is going to be h 1 - h6 sorry h1 - h2 - pump work divided by h1 -

h6 now we have all the values. h1, h2 with us h5 with us add the pump work you will get h6.

30
So using this equation the thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle comes out to be 36.6 % which
is less than the Carnot cycle in Carnot cycle you are getting 42.3 % here we are getting only 36.6
% but at the same time you can see we ate getting more output more output work output is in this
cycle is h1 - h2 it is same as was in the case of Carnot cycle - work of the pump and were here
work of the pump is very less only 4 kilo joules per kg and it is comes out to be 970.4 kj/kg.

So in this rankine cycle the efficiencies lower than this but are getting more output in this case
and this is poor practical cycle if we compare with the thermal cycle now I will end my lecture
here in the next lecture we will see how we can improve the efficiency of a rankine cycle.

31
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 01
Lecture No # 03
Performance of Rankine Cycle

I welcome you all in this course of steam and gas power systems today we will discuss the
performance of Rankine cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:32)

In today’s lecture we will cover effect of operating parameters on the performance of rankine
cycle losses in rankine cycle improving the performance of rankine cycle how we can improve
the performance of rankine cycle?
(Refer Slide Time: 00:48)

32
Now in a rankine cycle as you know there are four processes if you draw the rankine cycle on the
temperature entropy diagram this is saturation line for the liquid this is saturated line for
saturated vapor x = 0, x = 1 quality is 1 and this is state 1 expansion in turbine state 2 then
complete condensation of the liquid vapor liquid in the condenser in complete condensation of
vapor of condenser is state 3 then increasing pressure it is a vertical line 3 to 4 in a pump and
then 4 to 5 and 5 to 1.

This process takes place inside a boiler and process 1 to 2 in a turbine and 2 to 3 in a condenser
and 3 to 4 in a pump in process 3 to 4 pressure is increased. Now in this case suppose I increase
the pressure of the boiler instead of going up to four this process is extended up to let us say 6
and this high pressure again the heat is added and then we get is state 7 and state 8 and after eight
expansion takes place.

So this is one cycle 3 to 4 but instead of going to 3 to 4 we go to 3 to 6 and this is how we have
done that the pressure of the boiler is increased and we are getting state 8 the pressure at state 8
is higher than the pressure at state 1 in this process we are losing this much of work by
increasing the pressure and at the same time we are gaining this much of work what is the net
effect?

33
Net effect may be increase in output and if we go for high pressure this may decrease the output
as well that is one thing another thing is efficiency of the cycle. Efficiency of the cycle is work
output divided by heat added it is possible that the work output is increased but efficiency will be
reduced in order to judge the efficiency increase in efficiency or decrease in efficiency we will
try to find mean temperature of heat addition.

Mean temperature of heat addition is in first cycle it is ( s 1 - s3 )Tm = h1 - or s4 sorry ( s1 – s4 )Tm =

h1 - h4. So from here we can get the value of mean temperature of heat addition now if you
compare this mean temperature of heat addition with the mean temperature of heat addition at S 8
- S6 multiplied by Tm1 this is Tm2 this is Tm1 = h8 - h6.

Now if you compare this mean temperature heat addition you will find that this Tm 2 is larger
than Tm1 right. So mean temperature of heat addition is important here because if you look at the

Carnot cycle it is 1 - sorry this is = 1 – TL/TH right heat of the source and heat of the sink sorry

temperature of the source temperature of the thing. So if we keep on increasing the temperature
of mean temperature heat addition efficiency of the system or efficiency of the cycle will
increase.

So here in this case when we increase the pressure of heat addition in the boiler the efficiency of
the cycle increases at the same time the quality of the vapor this is coming out the turbine it
keeps on reducing that is also a major issue we will discuss it later on and here in this case the
heat rejected in condenser is also reduced that is one case. Another case is instead of increasing
pressure if you reduce the pressure inside the condenser instead of increasing the pressure in the
boiler.

If you reduce the pressure inside a condenser if you reduce the pressure inside a condenser then
instead getting state 2 we will be getting state 10 and then we can condense the entire gas and
then pressure can be increased and we will be getting this process so 10, 11, 12 then 12 to 4 then
this cycle will be completed I can redraw this because many curves are creating confusion. So

34
here there is one original cycle X = 0, X = 1 that is one original cycle state 1, state 2, state 3 and
state 4.

Now I am reducing the pressure in a steam condenser so pressure is reduced we are getting state
5 this is state 5. So now state 6 then condensed up to here. Now the vapor is condensed up to
state 7 and then pressurized to state 8 and then state 4 so now here the pressure is reduced but the
moment the pressure in the condenser is reduced we get additional work this much work and
some adding heating to be done from state 8 to state 4 right.

But if you again if you refer this equation when the T L is reduced the efficiency of the cycle is
increased. So efficiency of the cycle can be increased either by increasing pressure as inlet of the
turbine or the boiler pressure or reducing pressure inside the condenser the moment we reduce
the condenser the output of the turbine increases because outer of the turbine is now in the
modified cases h1 - h6 earlier it was h1 - h2.

So enthalpy at state 6 is less than the enthalpy at state 2 so that is why we are getting more output
and the area of diagram has also increased when we reduce the pressure inside the condenser.
Now the point is to what extent we can extent the pressure in the condenser can we go up to the
vacuum. We cannot go up to the vacuum because theoretically we can go close to the vacuum
not up to the vacuum close to the vacuum.

But in the actual practice it is very difficult to attain very low pressure because it is advisable
because in the condenser we use normal water in the condenser for condensing the steam.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:15)

35
So it is a most of the cases it is a shell and tube type of heat exchanger where inside tube there is
cooling water and shell is filled with the wet steam and this wet steam when it is comes into the
cold tubes or cold wall of this tubes cold walls of this tubes it gives heat to the flowing water
inside this tube this water this is flowing inside this tube or cooling water and that heat is taken
away. So definitely the temperature of the vapor should be greater than temperature of the
cooling water otherwise the vapor will not condense.

So we have to maintain saturation pressure of the vapor so that such a in such a manner or which
we have to choose the saturation pressure of the vapor in such a manner that the corresponding
saturation temperature is high than the temperature of cooling otherwise condensation will not
take place. So in previous numerical also you have seen that approximately 0.04 bar pressure the
temperature was approximately 280 C .

But if we go further below this the temperature will reduce to 20 degree centigrade or 15 degree
centigrade but you will not find cooling water at this temperature. So there is a restriction on
reducing the pressure of the condenser at the same time when you increase the pressure in the
boiler, the boiler has to be robust right that will increase the fixed cost of the boiler as well fixed
cost of the equipment’s as well.

36
Now losses in rankine cycle because there are physical processes and in actual practice are ideal
process is difficult to realize. So there has to be losses in all the processes some of the losses we
can discuss here for example this is state 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 say expansion is a vertical line or a
isentropic expansion but in actual practice it is not isentropic expansion some friction losses and
other losses are there so this line is no longer a vertical line it is an inclined line it means during
expansion there is a change in entropy right.

In compression also the real process is not a vertical line it is an inclined line because there is a
loss due to friction other things and there is in increase in entropy. Pressure loss in piping also
takes place by piping and bends and pressure loss during flow of steam from pump to the boiler
that also takes place during condensation also there is a pressure loss but the main loss is which
we take into account or which we normally discuss is losses in the turbine and to some extent
that losses in the pumps because the energy consumed by the pump is itself if you not significant.

If you compare the power developed by the turbine right so main losses are confined to the
losses in power developed by the turbine now the thing is how to improve the performance of
rankine cycle improving performance means to get more output with a given output or you
increase the how to increase the efficiency of a rankine cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:14)

37
So in order to increase the efficiency of the rankine cycle one process is supe- heating of vapor
now if we show on temperature entropy diagram super heating of vapor. So the liquid which is
entering the boiler it is 1, 2, 3, 4, 4 to 5 sensible heating the then 5 to 1 phase change here we are
getting saturated steam. So instead of expanding the steam from this point we can super heat this
steam up to state six and then expansion can take place 6 can get 7.

So instead of expanding steam at the point the steam is superheat the moment we are
superheating the steam the moment we are super heating the steam the mean temperature of heat
addition increases. So when there is an increase in mean temperature of heat addition the
efficiency of the cycle will increase and of course by super heating we get more output but super
heating.

So we are getting benefited by both the both ends one side we are one hand we are getting higher
output on the other side the efficiency of the cycle has increased but the issue is again to what
extent we can go here can we go 1000 degree centigrade or 2000 degree centigrade to what
extent we can go here state temperature and state 6.

So temperature of the state 6 in turbines is restricted to 640 degree centigrade normally because
if we go beyond that it will have effect on the performance of the turbine because this is the
metallurgical limit of the turbine material so metallurgical changes can takes place so it is always
advisable not to go beyond 640 degree centigrade temperature.

Otherwise in the turbine itself some metallurgical changes will take place now the issue is how
further we can improve the efficiency of the system. Second thing is here is when during
expansion when liquification of the part of the vapor takes place when part of the vapor suppose
here at the exit X = 0.8 suppose it means out rate of the turbine consists of 80 % vapor and 20 %
liquid.

This liquid is in the form of droplets and droplets are moving with very high velocity at the exit
of the turbine the velocity is high right and the steam is not steam is not still out of the turbine.
So here also in this case in this portion or in this part of the expansion the velocity is quite high

38
and with this high velocity this mixture is striking the turbine blades as I said earlier the density
of liquid is much much higher than the density of the vapor may be 1000 times 50 depending on
the pressure.

1000 times, 1500 times or 2000 times so the moment of the droplet is into that proportion. So
momentum is high of this high momentum droplets when they strike the blades the erosion of the
blades takes place. So in turbines while designing a turbine this quality is restricted to 0.85 and it
is preferred it should be 0.9. In any case it should not be less than 0.85 so there is another
restriction here we cannot reduce the condenser pressure here there is a restriction now how to
improve the performance.

Another way of improving the performance is to increase the pressure that we have already
discussed if we increase the pressure and we can go up to this temperature both the temperatures
are same. So this is 5 this is state 1, 6 to 7 and this is 8, 9, 10, 11. So at state 11 the temperature is
same as state 6 right but here in this case the efficiency will be more because mean temperature
of heat addition is higher though we are having the same temperature at both the state 6 and 11.

Another way of improving the performance can be reheating of steam reheating means steam is
expanded right here or I will draw another it will create. So reheat cycle is I will explain you a
reheat cycle reheat cycle is in this cycle the expansion takes place in number of stages.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:23)

39
This is original cycle so 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 now reheat cycle what we can do before this or at this point
may be a let us say is 6 we reheat we take out the fuel and reheat it up to 7 and then expand it
this is 8. So this is how we can improve the quality of the vapor which is coming out the turbine.
Now in this case the reheat cycle additional heat heating has been done in process 6 to 7 and you
can see more heat is taken away by the condenser.

And at the same time the area of this diagram has increased so definitely output will increase so
this process then 6 to 7 then 9 to 10. They can take place in reheater us and expansion processes
or power develop in the turbine can take place in different number of stages. Now let us say this
is one turbine this is high pressure turbine this is low pressure turbine and you can have
intermediate pressure turbine also IP1 and IP2 or IP3 and number of turbines.

But by visual inspection you can easily judge which one is high pressure turbine in which one is
low pressure turbine because in high pressure turbine the size of the high pressure is turbine is
the smallest. It is the smallest turbine because the specific value of vapor at high pressure is low
as a pressure reduces the specific volume of the vapor increases as the specific volume of the
vapor increases size of the turbine increases.

So definitely for high pressure you will get turbine of smaller size and for the lowest pressure
you will get the turbine of the turbine of largest size. Now another method of improving the

40
performance is the regeneration in the process of regeneration I will discuss the regeneration in
subsequent lectures but here I will give you an idea.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:14)

In rankine cycle temperature this is entropy suppose this is rankine cycle so 1, 2, 4, 5and this is 6
this feed water instead of heating this feed water in a in in boiler if we can circulate this feed
water in the casing of the turbine. So it can get heat from the casing of turbine and at this point 5
the water the saturated water will enter the boiler and this can be done by simply just taking
turbine after the turbine the condensation condenser condensation and after the condensation the
water is circulated in the casing of the turbine.

And after the exit of the casing of the turbine it will go to the boiler and from boiler to the
turbine. So one bore root has been made now here after compression when the water enters the
turbine there are certain assumptions that temperature of the steam inside the casing is
infinitesimally higher than temperature of the water right. So and the perfect heat transfer takes
place between the between steam in the water and all these conditions are realized in that case
suppose let us take saturation case.

Instead of so because the heat is taken away from the steam instead of being the vertical line this
process will become like this to certain extent right and this heating this will be removed because
heating will be taking place inside the boiler and if you look at the energy wise the area of this is

41
going to be the area of this. This area is going to be this area right so now here we are heating at
this temperature rejecting heat at this temperature right the efficiency of the cycle will become
the efficiency of the Carnot cycle.

This is all imaginary things have not but the idea is very good just heating the water with the
help of steam which is flowing in the direction. But in actual practice what is being done this
steam part of the steam is extracted and heating of feed water is done. Instead of circulating this
steam in the turbine casing at different stages the steam is trapped because this steam consist of
very high energy and this steam of high energy steam or this steam is used for increasing the this
for doing the sensible heating of the feed water okay.

We will take up one numerical in numerical solving and we will discuss this in details now after
this we will discuss in numerical short that is about the reheating cycle. So in reheating cycle we
will take the same numerical as we did in previous lecture.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:52)

A steam power plant operates between a boiler pressure 40 bar and condenser pressure of 0.04
bar calculate of this limits cycle efficiency where we show that is alright but suppose instead of
expanding the steam in the condenser directly to the condenser.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:14)

42
The steam is expanded up to 5 bar this P 6 is 5 bar and then again it is reheated up to this
temperature T1 is T7 and this temperature is how much let us say this is it is not given here let us
assume it to be 400 degree centigrade taken. Let us assume this saturation temperature at this 40
bar was so let us say T5 was not T5 6 7 8 let us say this is 9. So T 9 was 250.35 degree centigrade
and T1 is 400 degree centigrade pressure is 40 bar.

So for this purpose if you look at this steam table in the steam table superheated steam is given
there right.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:16)

43
So you can see this steam table and find out from steam table directly you can find out enthalpy
at state 1 right it is expanded to 5 bar. State 6 it is again reheated to state seven and then again
now here how much heat is added here h9 - h4 right and h7 - h6 sorry h1 - h4. h1 - h4 h1 you can take
from the steam table h4 you can always calculate h3 is known and then the pump work add pump
work you will get h4.

So h1 - h4 + h7 - h6 enthalpy at divided so this is the heat given to the system. Now work output
work output is h1 - h6 + h7 - h8 so work output is h1 - h6 + h7 – h8 how to find h6? Now again we
will use the same technique s1 = s6 now s1 we can directly take from the steam table s 6 will find if
the value of entropy at 6 is I mean saturation and enthalpy is greater than this it means this steam
is wet right.

So in that case the s1 = sf + x(sg – sf) at whatever the pressure is 5 bar pressure right from here we
will get the value of X. Again we will put the value of X then we will get h 6 = hf + X(hg- hf) at 5
bar. Once we know the enthalpy at 6 enthalpy at 7 we can take from superheated table.

Superheated table we will get the enthalpy at 6 similarly we will find the enthalpy at 8 right once
we have enthalpies at all salient points we can easily calculate the thermal efficiency if specific
steam consumption and work ratio right this is the end of this lecture and in the next class we
will start with the binary vapor cycle.

44
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 01
Lecture No # 04
Binary vapor cycle and co-generation

I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems and today we will discuss
binary vapor cycle and co-generation.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:31)

In today’s lecture we will be covering super critical rankine cycle binary vapor cycle and co-
generation.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:41)

45
Now in the last lecture as we discussed that when we increase the pressure or boiler pressure of
the cycle rankine cycle the efficiency of cycle improve so this is a typical superheated vapor
rankine cycle 1, 2, 3 sorry 1, 2, 3, 4 and then 5 and 6 this is temperature and entropy. But if I
want to improve the efficiency of the cycle I will have to increase the boiler pressure either
boiler pressure or reduce the condenser pressure.

Now if I increase the boiler pressure the net temperature of heat addition will increase and I will
get more output from the turbine in some of the cases in some of the thermal power plants the
pressure is increased beyond the critical temperature. Critical temperature of steam is
approximately 374.95 degree centigrade and this critical pressure is approximately 22 mega-
pascal 21 bar and if the vapor is pressurized beyond this point I mean the heating take place like
this.

So the boiler will be operating beyond the critical point and the boil the system or the cycle
becomes the super critical cycle. So super critical cycle the heat addition in the fluid takes place
beyond the critical point rest of the process are same there is no change in rest of the processes
only change is the pressure of heat addition in the work fluid.

Now after this super critical rankine cycle we will come to the binary vapor cycle when we say
in super critical cycle. When we are operating at high pressure definitely the design of the boiler

46
has to be very robust right and for the robust design I mean thicker plates we will have to be used
and in overall cost of the plant is high right. Now instead of doing this if we replace the steam or
water vapor by some other fluid right and with some other which has very high boiling point.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:28)

Now what is the normal boiling point is the boiling point of the fluid at one atmospheric pressure
right. So at one atmospheric pressure the normal boiling point of the water is let us say100
degree centigrade. So we can we should go for fluid which has higher normal boiling point if
suppose any fluid is having normal boiling point of 200 degree centigrade.

So will not have to go for a higher pressure the system can work on relatively lower pressure and
the cost of the plant can be reduced and further the efficiency of the system will also increase.
Now in the case of the binary vapor cycle the binary word has come because we are using two
fluids one fluid is water one is water another can be either of these three but normally which is in
practice it is mercury is used I will show you the thermo physical properties of the mercury.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:46)

47
The mercury has normal boiling point of 356 normal boiling point of mercury is 356.73 degree
centigrade that is a normal boiling point of the mercury. So in binary vapor cycle what is exactly
done then I will show you the schematic arrangement or arrangement on temperature entropy
diagram.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:17)

There two cycles which are operating one is mercury cycle or let us say the superheated or
saturated the making difference saturated that is one cycle. So one, two X =1 , X = 0
temperature entropy. So 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 this is mercury cycle this is working on high temperature
now another cycle which is steam cycle and this cycle is working at lower temperature because

48
normal boiling point of water is much less than the normal boiling point of this those 5 this is 6,
7, 8, 9, 10 in this 11.

So arrangement is made then heat rejected during this process 2 to 3 it does not go wasted so the
heat rejected in this process 2 to 3 is used for generating the steam in process 9,10, 11,6. So they
are coupled so heat in rejected during process 2 to 3 does not get wasted whatever heat is
rejected is it is taken away by the steam which is flowing in it.

So there is a heat exchanger the arrangement is like this from one side this vapor mercury vapor
enters from the other side the high pressure water enters and heat exchange takes place and water
is converted into this steam and this vapor of mercury gets condensed. So we have two cycles if
you look at the thermo physical property of these two fluids they were interesting mercury at
0.07 pressure the temperature is 236.5 , 236.5 let us take temperature at 0.07 bar or 7 kilo pascal.

At 7 kilo pascal the mercury is 236.5 and water is 0.07 39 degree centigrade. Even at 12.7 bar the
water is that only 190.5 degree centigrade. Well mercury as 12.7 is 527.5 it is quite high. So
mercury cycle even if it is working it here it is 12.7.

So if it is suppose it is working at 15 bar or 14 bar it will cross 600 degree centigrade

temperature but the system will work relatively higher lower the pressure in comparison to the
case of water at the same temperature. Now look at other properties height of the liquid that is
enthalpy of the liquid that is 32.4 here163.35 right enthalpy of the vapor and enthalpy of the
vapor here and enthalpy of the vapor is 2571.7.

Water is a unique fluid which has I mean very high latent heat in comparison to the other
chemicals or other fluids available it is typically very high for water for other fluids for example
refrigerants the latent heat of the order of 160 and 170 and 200 but for wanted the latent heat
goes up to 2200 or 2300 kilo joules per kg. Here also we can see for mercury the enthalpy of the
vapor is only 360 enthalpy of saturated vapor at 12.7 bar is only 360.74 kilo joules per kg.

49
However in the case of water it is 2785.7 kJ per kg. So if you compare the thermo physical
properties so as for as the energy is concerned what water it turns out to be much superior than
mercury but the property of the mercury is the normal boiling point. The normal boiling point is
356.7 degree centigrade.

So if we take mercury if we start heating the mercury will boil at a temperature of five 356.73
degree centigrade.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:09)

So now let us take one example solve try to solve a numerical in a binary value cycle the
memory vapor entering the turbine is dry and saturated at 12.7 bar. So here will be putting the
values it is 12.7 bar right and condenser pressure is 0.07 bar. The steam cycle operates between
the pressure 30 bar this is thirty bar and the condenser pressure the steam cycle is also 0.07 bar
and extremely is superheated to 350 degree centigrade.

So T6 is 350 degree centigrade right and if you compare the properties this properties of no
properties of mercury is not here okay. So we will adopt the same process I can give you some
numerical values we will adopt of the same process to find the output of the cycle I think they
should not be any problem in finding out the output of the cycle if we have the thermo physical
properties at the saturation points like at this point and this point and this point for mercury right.

50
As we have done in the previously we can here also we can find the efficiency of the cycle or
output of the cycle. Similar manner we can find the output of this cycle as well right and the net
output of the cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:03)

Net output of the system is going to be net output of the system is going to be sorry net output
net output of the system is going to be how much h 1 - h2 + h6 – h7 per kg of respective fluid it is
possible that here the mass flow rate here is different form the mass flow rate in the cycle. I am
just taking per kg of circulating fluid and efficiency how much heat is added heat is added only
in this process that is it.

Because beat addition in this process is through rejection of heat in the previous cycle right. If
we do this sort of clubbing of or coupled cycle the efficiency of the system also improves. I will
show you how the efficiency of the coupled cycle is improved.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:19)

51
Let us take a Carnot cycle I will start with Carnot cycle let us take a Carnot cycle one efficiency

Q2 Q2
of one is 1− . Q2 is this Carnot cycle due this heat rejected Q1 is heat supplied so 1− . will
Q1 Q1
be the efficiency of the cycle now another cycle which is using this as source of rejected heat
efficiency of two is going to be is it clear.

So here Q2 is going to be = (1- η1) ×Q1 right and here Q3 is going to be = (1- η 2) ×Q2 now another
cycle which is operating between 1 and 3. Now if you take this coupled cycle now the couple
cycle efficiency overall efficiency of this coupled cycle is cycle working between 1 and 3 so it is
Q3 by Q1 right = 1- Q 2 ( 1−η 1 ) /Q 1 ,Q2 again you can put = 1- here I will do hmmm so overall
efficiency is going to be = 1 - efficiency of 1 divided by efficiency of 2 multiplied by efficiency
of 2. This is Q2 and divided by Q1 and this is also Q 1 this Q1 and Q1 will be cancelled out. So 1 -
overall efficiency is = (1 - η1)×(1 - η 2).

Now here coupling has been done and efficient and if you have N number of cycles then if we
keep on going efficiency of 3 multiplied by 1 - efficiency of 5 and so on.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:01)

52
Now η0 we can multiply this this is 1 - η 1 - η 2 + η 1 η 2 if there are two cycles then we can say the
η0 = η1 + η 2 - η1 η2 right. Now if we have take first efficiency is 40% another is 50%.

So first cycle couple cycle first cycle efficiency is 40% and this is 50%. So overall efficiency is
going to be 0.4 + 0.5 – 0.4 ×0.5 that is going to be equal to 0.9 -0.2 = 0.7 or 70 %. So individual
cycle efficiency was 40 % and 50 % but we have coupled cycle the efficiency as increased to
70%.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:35)

53
Now in addition to this now after this there are certain advantages of binary vapor cycle. In
binary vapor cycle when mercury is used if we take the combination of mercury and water and
mercury is used for high pressure cycle then in at high temperature the pressure of mercury is
moderate. For example at 540 degree centigrade temperature the pressure of the mercury is less
than 14 bar.

The mercury is stable at the high temperature there is another advantage of using mercury in the
cycle. In addition to this liquid mercury has high density and therefore the separation of liquid
and vapor in case of mercury is easier. The feedback to the boiler by hysteresis against the
mercury can be fed to the boiler by hydrostatic head only the pump is not required in this case. If
you want feed mercury in the boiler through hydrostatic pressure only the mercury can be fed
because the density of the mercury is very high.

The mercury can be sent to the boiler at the hydrostatic head because the density of the mercury
is high so pump can be eliminated pump which is used for increasing the pressure of the fluid
which is coming from the condenser to the pressure of the boiler that pump can be eliminated
and the mercury can be fed into the boiler through hydrostatic pressure or as the hydrostatic
head. The specific heat of the mercury is very low it is only 0.13 kilo joules per kg kelvin.

If you remember this specific heat of the water is 4.18 kilo joules per kg –K it is more than thirty
times specific heat of the mercury. So in case of temperature entropy diagram or for mercury the
liquid line is a steeper and which makes this mercury cycle closer to the Carnot cycle. Another
point is the favor of the mercury is that specific enthalpy of mercury is low thus it results in low
jet velocity in mercury turbine and it is compensated by density of the mercury in this cycle.

In the cycle the mercury is used the thermal efficiency of the cycle is high it is higher than the
rankine cycle running on the steam. So the thermal efficiency of the thermal cycle is higher than
the thermal efficiency of the cycle working with steam as the working fluid.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:12)

54
There are certain disadvantages of the use of mercury in binary cycle first of all mercury is toxic
in nature. Secondly the cost of mercury is high and the supply of mercury is limited the mercury
is pervasive. So tendency of mercury is leak through joints and cracks is very high. So the joints
and the leaks the enter cracks have to properly leak proof otherwise the mercury will leak
through this joint and since it is toxic in nature in can cause the hazard.

The latent heat of mercury is very low so for generation of same amount of power high quantity
of mercury is required the contact angle of mercury is high so it does not wet the surface
therefore the heat transfer in the case of mercury is poor. So there are certain disadvantages of
mercury using in a binary vapor cycle. So what is combined heat and power CHP it is known as
CHP.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:29)

55
CHP combined heat and power in CHP processes in a single process the work is done I mean we
extract the work shaft work from a turbine and from the same process the heating process heat
process heat is also taken. So heating is done the work is done by the sample I will show you one
such of one of the cycle.

So it is sequential generation of two different forms of energy one is work another is heating and
this heating is done it is sort of process heating in the different processes may be in the
mechanical or chemical industries. One of such arrangement can be that you have a turbine now
exit of the turbine is going to the condenser and condenser to the pump this is typical
arrangement and pump to the boiler and boiler to the turbine this is a typical arrangement of a
rankine cycle from turbine.

Turbine to condenser, condenser to pump and pump to boiler now in back pressure turbine what
happens instead of using condenser. The steam coming out of the turbine is used for some
process maybe industrialization or some chemical process. So steam is not condensed in
condenser and the steam goes for the process it is known as back pressure turbine even in in
some of the sugar mills you will find this type of back pressure turbine and there many industries
where it is being used.

56
So the pressure so the steam coming out of the turbine does not go the condenser it goes to for
some process and process heating is done. So from the same source to sequences of the processes
we are getting from here we are getting the shaft output and after the shaft output we doing the
heating also. So this is known CHP combined heating and power generation it is also possible
that the process heat after the process the water is not usable.

So we can provide the fresh water or after the process the water can go to the pump and cycle is
completed. Now another type of the CHP is extraction condensing I mean this process the
condenser is there for the process heat the steam is extracted from a certain stage of the turbine
during the expansion the steam is extracted at the particular pressure used for the process right
and then after the process it is sent to the boiler through a different pump it is more of the same
thing.

So this is known as the combined heating and the power system where power is generated at the
same time process heating is also done or steam can be used for some other processes and this is
also known as co-generation I end my lecture here in the next class we will be solving one
numerical related with the rankine cycle.

57
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 01
Lecture No # 05
Problem Solving (Rankine cycle)

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we will solve a
numerical based on vapor power cycle
(Refer Slide Time: 00:41)

This numerical is based on regenerative steam cycle and the statement of the numerical is in a
regeneration steam cycle implying two close feed water heaters. Feed water heaters are used for
feeding or used for heating the water which goes to the boiler and that is known as feed water. So
it has the steam supplied to the turbine at 40 bar pressure.

So steam at the inlet of the turbine is 40 bar temperature is 500 degree centigrade temperature.
Condenser pressure is 0.035 bar approximately it is it is exactly 3.5 kilopascal then intermediate
bleeding pressure are 10 bar and 1.1 bar find the amount of the steam bled at each stage output of
the plant per kg of the steam and efficiency of the cycle.

58
Now here in this case as I stated earlier the feed water heating is done with the help of the steam
this can be done in two ways one is we pass the feed water through the casing of the steam
turbine but that process is not the very practical process. So instead of that the steam is tapped
from the steam turbine at various locations.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:51)

Suppose it is steam turbine steam will be tapped from various location and this steam will be
used for heating the feed water going into the boiler. So first of all we will draw a temperature
entropy diagram for the processes then physical we will draw the schematic diagram and then we
solve it very well. Now this is temperature and entropy X = 0 and here X = 1.

Now steam is at 40 bar pressure and 500 degree centigrade pressure if we look at this steam table
at 40 bar pressure this is 40 bar pressure the saturated temperature is 250.35 degree centigrade.
Therefore the steam is superheated so state 1 is superheated steam this is state 1 now after state 1
it is expanded to state 2 with the turbine.
During expansion process the steam is tapped at two location and after the expansion it goes to
the condenser where complete condensation of the steam takes place this is vapor power cycle.
And then I will shift this line otherwise create confusion so here 3 to 4 process taking place in a
pump and after the pump it goes to the boiler and in the boiler super heating of the vapor takes
place.

59
This is the normal rankine cycle for power generation with the facility of super heating. Now for
okay now here steam is being tapped because during this process 1 to 2 the expansion of the
steam is taking place and steam is tapped at two points as stated here at 10 bar pressure and 1.1
pressure per bar pressure.

So a ten bar pressure steam is tapped perhaps the steam will remain superheated in this state ok
and the super heating takes place and then complete condensation of vapor takes place and this
heat is transmitted to the feed water because the tap is steam from here is used for heating the
feed water right. So my state let us say 6 we get 6 here and this is state 7 and this is state let us
say this is 11.

So from 7 to 11 condensation of superheated vapor takes place this superheated vapor comes
from the tapping and this vapor is used for increasing the temperature of feed water heater.
Another tapping takes place this may be superheated or let us say it is close to the saturation. So
here again the tapping takes place and again condensation takes place somewhere here.

So this state is 8 and after 8 by steam the steam tapped it may be superheated or that will find out
while solving the numerical right. So this is steam again condensed and heating from 4 to 5 takes
place in second heat exchanger and ok this point is nine right. So this is entire arrangement I am
repeating this is a rankine cycle. In rankine cycle from the turbine they are two tappings and this
tappings are to feed to heat the feed water because now when the feed water is heated now the
heat required at the boiler will be only h1 – h6.

Earlier without feed water heat arrangements the energy required in the boiler was h 1 - h4. So this
much heat is coming from the tapped steam suppose the tapped steam is y 1 here y2 here okay 1
kg of the steam is calculated. y1 of the steam is tapped here and y 2 fraction of the steam is tapped
here right. So y1 let us say y1 tapped here and y2 is tapped here and will make the cycle like there
is a boiler right and from the boiler the steam is going to the turbine so it is state 1 right.

Now after state 1 it is going to state 2 this is state 2 from state 2 it is going to the condenser it is
going to the condenser process 2 to 3 is taking place. Now after process two to three it is going to

60
the pump right and pump three to four this process takes place two to four inside the pump. So
after the pump it goes to two different heaters feed water heaters there are two different feed
water heaters as shown here after the pump it was to the first feed water heater.

And then second feed water heater so first water heater using y1 fraction of his team okay and y 1
it is fraction of it is team is entering at state 7 this is state 7 right and it is leaving the feed water
this is a feed water heater and this is leaving it at state 11 each team is getting condensed from
state 7 to state 11 right. And steam entering from here is 0.5 and getting heated up to state 6 they
are not getting fixed indirect heat exchanger there is a I mean there is a no mixing at all.

So 5 to 6 the steam the water feed water is getting heated in a closely heater am repeating the
steam tap at state 7 right. And it is cool to state 11 this energy is used for heating the feed water
from the state 5 to state 6. So state 5 to state 6 the feed water is heated at state 6 is going to the
boiler it is going to the boiler and from 6 to 1 the heating is taking place inside the wall.

Now in first feed heater the second heater steam is again depth y 2 from here and this steam at
state 8 right and after state 8 where it is going it is reducing to 9. Now one thing we have to see
here that steam available at this pressure is 10 bar and this is 1.1 bar because once the
arrangement is clear to you so all know numerical is not a big issue but in the generative heating
one has to understand the arrangement of the feed water heater and the energy transfer right.

So here pressure is 1.1 bar and here pressure is 10 bar so what should we do now in this case
expansion devices are provided at both the places. So this 10 bar pressure is reduce to 1.1 bar
only then we can mix this fluid with this fluid right. So expansion takes place okay and this
expansion we get state 12 and this also gets expanded and we get state 10 because students are
often condensed why this expansion is taking place this expansion is taking place otherwise we
cannot mix this water with this water.

Because after condensation also the enthalpy is quite high at 11 also the enthalpy is high this
enthalpy can further be used for heating this feed water. So now they are connected right and this

61
is state 12 and all the heat is imparted to this feed with this feed water moving in this pipeline
and this goes to back to the condenser how the condenser is at again state 10.

So pressure at 10 = pressure at 3 because pressure balancing is very important otherwise there

will be a reverse flow of the fluid and everything will be chaotic state. Now here in this
arrangement now let us look at the mass flow rate. y 1 has been tapped from here y 2 has been
tapped for here.

So here is repeating only 1 - y1 - y2 right the mixture or the condensing which is going from here
to here at state 10 this is y 1 + y2 and they are mixing in the condenser and then they are getting
pumped to the boiler. So this is the entire arrangement for this problem now we can do the
energy balance the rest of the things are like simple numerical on the vapor power cycle we can
start with h1 enthalpy at one state 1.

Now we have to find enthalpy at all the state what is remaining finding out enthalpy at all the
states and value of y1 and y2 that is it. If we have these values we can always find the value of
everything find out then steam bled at each stage output of per kg of steam and cycle efficiency.
Now actually it is superheated steam so we will have to refer the table for superheated vapor.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:39)

62
So I have taken out the properties of superheated vapor at 10 kilo pascal 10 bar it is 1000 kilo
pascal. So at 1000 kilo pascal and 500 degree centigrade sorry it is not 10,000 it is 40 bar this is
40 bar. So superheated steam at 40 bar pressure and 500 degree centigrade the enthalpy is 3446.0
kilo joules per kg of steam right.

Now how to find S7 because we need S7 also how to find S 7 in order to find S7 this process 1 to 7
is isentropic process right. So entropy at state 1 how much entropy at state one at 500 degree
centigrade the entropy is 7.0922 kilo joules per kg-K S2 at 10 bar is same.

But if you look at the saturation properties at ten bar pressure the entropy is 6.585 it means the
vapor at state 7 is superheated right. So we will take the vapor as superheated and in this case at
10 bar we will have to find we will have to do interpolation between 250 and 300 degree
centigrade because entropy will lie 7.0922 entropy will like between these two between these
two temperatures and between these two enthalpies right.

So this we have done and the value of h7 is 3033.85 kilo joules per kg right. So it is lying
between these two right similarly we will find the enthalpy at state two in order to find
somewhere here S2 again is how much is equal to S1 = 7.0922 kilo joules per kg-K right. Now if
we look at the thermo physical properties or properties of steam at 3.5 kilo pascal.

The entropy 8.5211 it means entropy of the gas 8.52 this 8.5211 it means after expansion or its
state 2 the vapor is wet it is quality is less than 1 right. And S 2 = S1, S1 = Sf + xSfg at 3.5 kilo
pascal and this tunes out to be and this will give you the value of X and X turns out to be 0.824.

Values can be taken out from here it is there all the values are given in the steam table and with
the help of this X we can find the value of h 2 it is hf + x hfg and this is going to be = 11.882
+0.824×2437.68 = 2120.47. Now what is remaining eight similarly we can find the value of
enthalpy at 8 so we can have enthalpy at state 1, state 7, state 8 and state 2.

Assuming that the proper the entropy during this process remains constant okay after finding the
values these values now h8 I have calculated the h8 is 2591.4 kilo joules per kg right. So now we

63
have enthalpy of all the states these enthalpies we can always take from steam table right now
what is remaining.

Now here in this case we can neglect the power and if you want to find the net from work then
work of the pump is specific volume at 3 × (P4 – P3) in kilopascal that will give you pump work
in kilowatt and specific volume at 3 is specific volume of liquid at 3.5 kilo pascal that is going to
be this much right.

Now after now what is remaining now remaining is the value of y 1 and y2 if we have the value of
y1 and y2 we can find the rest of the things right. So in order to find y 1 and y2 will have to make
heat balance here and here in both these two heaters heat balance we heat how much heat is
coming to the heater. How much heat is coming to the heater and how much heat is leaving the
heater or enthalpy for the fluid leaving the heater enthalpy of the fluid coming to the heater.

Now in order to do that we will do that energy balance that is energy of the fluid available here is
y1 h7, y1h7 is energy coming from here right. This is heater one this is okay plus fluid entering h 5
enthalpy of 5 is equal to how much energy of the fluid leaving the heater that is h 6 + y1 h11 is it
clear because this this you have to understand very clearly that the energy which is enthalpy
which is coming to the heater enthalpy of sum of the enthalpy of incoming fluid is equal to sum
of the enthalpy of outgoing fluid.

So incoming fluid of enthalpy is y 1 h7 + h5 fluid is coming to the heater plus = h 6 because this 1 -
y1 – y2 y1 + y2 will make 1. So the mass of the fluid mass of the water which is flowing in this
pipe is 1 kg per second right. And y 1 and h11 we have all the values and from this we can find the
value of y1 and y1 here is 0.147.

It means 14.7% yes you may be wondering how I have taken h 6 right because h6 and h11 are very
close to each other. So they are very close to each other so we have taken the same value there is
not much enthalpy difference practically right. So y1 is 0.147 now energy balance for this another
heater which is at low pressure.

64
Now in this heater again the energy is coming or enthalpy of incoming fluid from state 12
enthalpy of incoming fluid from state 8 enthalpy of incoming fluid from state 4 and enthalpy of
outgoing fluid.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:54)

So they have to be balanced and the final equation is going to be and the final equation is going
to be y2 h8 this is enthalpy of fluid at 8 we have already calculated y 2 we do not know y1 h12 this
is y1h12 h11 it is only isenthalpic expansion. So h 12 = h11, h4 is enthalpy at state 4 three pump after
pumping we are getting state 4 = h5 + (y1 + y2 )h9 h9 and h10 both are same right is it clear
because h5 is also this I did not show earlier this is also the outgoing heat right outgoing energy.

Now we have done we have 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 okay right. So now by y 1 is already with us the rest of
the enthalpies are with us and this gives the value of y 2 as 0.124. So y1 we are getting 14.147 or
14.7 % and then y2 is 12.4 % here at state 8 right.

Now we have all the values in order to find the heat given to the system or heat transfer in the
boiler that is going to be h 1 - h6 right and what about the output? Output of the turbine now we
will have to take output in three stages first stage is 1 to 7 where the mass of the steam is 1 kg.
Another state is 7 to state 8 here mass of the steam is 1 = state 1 – y1 , 8 to 2, 1 – y1 – y2.

65
So now if we have to calculate the value of output of the turbine for calculating of output of the
turbine we have to take h1 – h7 + (1 – y1)(h7 – h8) + (1 – y1 – y2)(h8 – h2). This will give us the
output of the turbine once we have the heat giving to the system and output of the heat given in
the cycle net heat given in the cycle and output of the cycle.

We can find the efficiency of the cycle what was to be found here find out the steam he amount
of the steam tapped at is this stage we have already calculated. Output of the plant and out of the
plant you do by yourself I am giving you the answer to this 1132.87 kilo joules per kg that is
output of the plant. Heat given in the cycle for the boiler is 2683.5 kilo joules per kg right.

Efficiency will be this is W/Q and that will turn out to be 0.422 or 42.2%. The rest of the things
you can do by yourselves and you can match your results are you answers will be these answers
that is all for today next class we will start with the steam generators

66
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 02
Lecture No # 06
Steam Generators

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we will discuss on
steam generators. Now steam generators are used as it implies from the name of itself they are
used for generating the steam.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:29)

And in a rankine cycle if you remember temperature of entropy diagram state 1, state 2, state 3,
4, 5 and 1. So process state 1 from process state 2 to state sorry from process state 4 to state 1
takes place inside the boiler after pumping when the pressure is increased through a pump the
fluid or the liquid or feed water goes to the boiler and this heat addition in heat water takes place
inside the boiler.

So basically boiler in a in a thermal power plant or in a rankine cycle is used for steam
generation and this steam is subsequently expanded in a turbine and that is how the output is
attained from the cycle. Now in this course we will be covering the boilers there is steam
generators.

67
(Refer Slide Time: 01:51)

(Refer Slide Time: 01:57)

Boiler system and type of boiler by definition a boiler is an enclosed pressure vessel where heat
generated to the combustion of the fluid is used for converting water into the steam because here
the feed water is going to the boiler and subsequently it is converted into the steam. But when the
water is converted to the steam there is enormous increment in the specific volume of the water it
is approximately 60 it may go up to 2000 also.

So it is approximately 1600 times but the boiler has some confined space it is a I mean almost
constant volume that is why instead of increasing the volume the pressure is increased. So the

68
steam available from the boiler is at high pressure and high temperature. Now regarding the
requirement of the good boiler because before we design a think we study any equipment we first
we understand what are the requirement of that equipment.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:03)

The requirement of the good boiler is maximum quality of the required pressure temperature and
quality it is obvious when we are installing or purchase a boiler it should give maximum quantity
of the steam and required pressure temperature and quality. There three things which are
important not only pressure and temperature but of the steam whether it is a wet steam or
superheated steam that is also equally important.

Lighted weight and compact boiler has to the light in weight so transportation is easier it has to
be compact it should occupy minimum floor area. Safe in working with minimum joints boiler
should have because it is a high pressure vessel. So if it has minimum number of joints the
chances of leakages will also be minimized. Initial installation and maintenance cost should be
low.

So anything we purchase it has to be low cost and high quality so same is the same is the case
here so initial installation and maintenance cost should be low. Capable of quick start and it
should meet the fluctuation in the demands say demand of a steam in any prime mover is not

69
constant it may vary and it may depend upon the load. So the boiler should be able to or boiler
should be capable of meeting this fluctuation in demand.

All parts should be accessible for inspection and repair because boilers are always under
inspection right. So the all the parts should be accessible for the inspector for the inspection and
of course for repair as well, There must be refractory material used for the boiler because later on
in subsequent lectures I will explain you in details the working of the boiler then you will find
that the refectory mason work work is also an integral part of a boiler that we will discuss later
on.

Heating surface should be free from contamination because if contaminations are there the heat
transfer will not be very effective so the heating surface will be free from contamination. Now
regarding the boiler systems every boiler or every machine as certain systems.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:26)

So regarding the boiler systems number one is water treatment system. Now water treatment
system is we cannot use tape water in the boiler because two TDS of tape is water is quite high
and it is not permissible to be used it is not permitted to be used in a boiler because when the
water heating takes place in a boiler the solubility of salts in water reduces drastically.

70
When temperature exceeds 44 or 45 degree centigrade and these materials they get reciprocated
on the surface and scaling is formed and this is scaling works as a insulators. Suppose there is a
boiler tube if scaling is done on the surface of the boiler tube this will hamper the heat transfer
right. So in order to avoid this scaling the water treatment is done ideally we should use distilled
water in a boiler.

But distillation is very energy intensive process so instead of a distillation demineralization of

water is done and the water is less than conductivity of less than 5.0 micro siemens per meter is
used for feed water in the boiler now this sorry this for is this is micro siemens. No siemens is
inverse of ohm if you remember your electrical engineering then resistance of any conductor is
proportional to length of the conductor and the area of the conductor and resistance is a constant.

If a constant in specific resistance L by A now specific resistance row is RA by L and the unit of
his specific resistance is ohm meters. Now conductivity is opposite of this one by row so it turns
out to be 1 by ohm meter and this 1 by ohm is known as siemens S it is denoted by S. So the
conductivity of the water is expressed in terms of siemens per meter conductivity of water as to
be less than 5.0 micro siemens per meter.

That reflects the purity of water now portable water can have conductivity of 250 micro siemens
per meter. Now sea water if you look at sea water can never be used for boiler but if you look at
the connectivity of sea water it turns out to be 5 into 10 to power 6 micro siemens per meter or 5
siemens per meter. So it is quite high I am just giving you values to compare the quality of water.

So in ideally in a boiler were water has to be distilled water but we cannot use distilled water so
we use the water with a thermal conductivity of sorry electrical conductivity of less than 5.0
micro siemens per meter now there is a in addition to the this water treatment system. There is
another system which is known as feed water system feed water is the water which goes to the
boiler but it does not go by its own.

So there to be system is place now feed water system includes hmm a feed pump and feed check
wall. Now feed check wall is a sort of non-return wall because when the water enters the boiler

71
the pressure of this fluid will rise and back flow may takes place though the feed check wall is
sort of a non- return wall which is used in the boiler and which does not allow water to flow from
boiler to pump.

So there is only unidirectional flow of the feed water and in addition to this there is steam system
also. Now steam system means the steam is generated in the boiler in almost all the boiler it is
stored in a drum right. It is stored in a drum the steam from a drum is taken if we want to do the
super heating of the steam. Now when the steam is stored in a drum part of the drum is filled by
the saturated water and part of the drum will be filled with the steam.

So you will never get a super-heated steam so here in this case what we do we provide a pipe
which takes saturated steam to the boiler or the fluid gases and then we get a super-heated steam
from this outlet right in addition to this there is a steam check valve and there number of safety
valves right. It includes there in steam system now forth is blow down system right.

Now blow down system is it is a blow down valve okay and it is provided at the bottom of the
wall. Suppose you have switched of the boiler when you have switched off the boiler it means
you are not supplying heat or it disconnected from the from the or you are not providing any fuel
to the boiler subsequently the boiler will switch off and whatever water is available in the boiler
it will blow down through this system so there if boiler as to be a boiler must have a blow down
system also.

Fifth is fuel supply system right a boiler may use solid fuel it may use liquid fuel so if it is liquid
fuel there has to be liquid fuel pump which will pump the liquid fuel into the furnace if solid fuel
has to be supplied the several arrangement for supplying the solid fuel. So this is also a part of
the steam generation system air supply system and seven is flew gas system because air available
in air combustion system is often no sufficient.

So air as to be circulated in the combustion chamber there are two ways of circulating the air
eight we use natural draft or we use induce draft or force draft or the induce draft and force draft
or attained by a providing sense. So there I a separate system for air circulation in the boiler flue

72
gases also because flue gas because the heat exchange takes place between the flue gas and the
water.

So for the circulation of the flue gases also there is a system in the boiler and the chimney or
baffles are provided in order to manage flow of flue gases in the boiler. Then different type of
boilers and they can be classified on different type of parameters first is orientation.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:05)

Orientation of vessel of the boiler right if it is if the vessel is horizontal it is over the horizontal
boiler. If vessel is vertical it is vertical boiler if the vessel is inclined if it inclined boiler right.
Type of firing it is firing of the flue. Now how the fuel is fired in some of the boiler or initially
when the boiler were manufactured the firing was provided within the boiler some a grate was
provided now grate the new term grate

Grate is a place or a platform it is perforated or it has having a several rods and this buffer I will
show you the plan of the grate it is going to be something like this a number of solid rods right.
And fuel lies over this rods air is circulated. Suppose this grate air is circulated to the grate which
facilitates the burning of the fuel. Now ash form in the grate suppose this is the grate ash form is
the grate is collected in ash pit.

73
Ash pit is just below the grate so the type of firing most of the boilers in the earlier stage were
internally fired right the grate was inside the boiler body like I will not the boilers otherwise you
will get confused some of the boilers this combustion takes place outside the boiler. I will give
you example like steam locomotive if you have seen there is a steam locomotive the combustion
of fuel takes place outside the boiler.

There is a big furnace inside the furnace normally coal or wood stock is used boilers the fuel in
was used. Now a days steam engines are used in public transportation of goods transportations
but that time because in India in think in nineties early nineties around 93 or 94 all the steam
engines were discarded and now we are using diesel locomotives or electrical locomotive
electrical locomotives.

So coal was burned outside and the flue gases were circulated inside the boiler in order to
generate steam right. So they are externally fired boiler and internally fired boiler so old boiler
you will find in in in new boilers also many of them I mean majority of boilers are internally
fired by these. Now based upon now third is based on fuel which fuel you are using the most
popular for the boiler is coal right.

Coal is used then gases are also used even for this package type of boilers furnace oil is used.
Furnace oil is a petroleum product that is used in small capacity boilers LDO is used then LDO is
light diesel oil the normal diesel which is available on the petrol pump. So LDO is used can be
used say for any fuel furnace oil is can be used as a fuel it is for the boiler coal, gas but gas can
be used only for a stationary boiler for moving boiler gas cannot be used right.

And Woodstock can also be used if it is available in plenty fourth is based on the circulation of
air this I have already told you circulation of air it is a natural circulation of air in the boilers or
the air is circulated using a blower or a induced draft is created or air is that there are two types
of air circulation.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:39)

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Suppose in a passage I have to circulate a air one method is I put a blower here and circulate the
air in the passage that is known as force draft. Another way is I put a fan here or blower here
which sucks the air through this passage it is known as induce draft. So either you go for induced
draft in the boiler or force draft in the boiler or it can be a natural circulation.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:17)

Now another type of classification is extent of fire extent of fire means it is a fired boiler or it is
unfired boiler because in some of the boiler the firing does not takes place hot cases or circulated
sometimes waste hot gases are available. So these gases are circulated in the boiler in order to
generate the steam. Another classification of the boiler is tube content this is a very popular

75
classification of the boilers for according to the tube content classification are the number one is
water tube boiler.

Number two is fired tube boiler right in a typical arrangement of the boiler there is a shell and
there are number of tubes may be in single tube or N number of tube. Now a days most of the I
mean high pressure boilers are they are water tube boilers where water is circulated inside the
tubes and the shell is filled with flue gases. There can be two arrangement right few gases they
flow in the tubes and shell is filled with the gases or shell is filled with the flue gases and water
flows inside the tube.

So the water flows inside the tube and shell is filled with the flue gas or the boiler housing it may
not be shell that is also true that in a boiler housing when the boiler housing is filled with the flue
gases and water flows inside the tube then it is called as water tube boiler. So most of the modern
high pressure boilers and earlier also number of boilers they were water tube boilers another type
of boiler is fire tube boilers in fire tube boilers there is a necessarily there as to be shell and this
shell is filled with partially filled.

It is not filled fully filled but it is partially filled with the water and fire flows inside the tubes
and number of tubes are also less fired tube boiler there may be one fire tube or two fire tubes
now these two classes of fire boilers will be separately discussing in in in two subsequent
lectures. Next lecture will be on fire tube boiler and another one on the water tube boiler.

So with this two boilers number of these two boilers the number of fire tube boilers and number
of water tube boilers we will be discussing in those lectures. Now what are the advantage
because there are two types of boilers so this may have certain advantages over this or this may
have certain advantage over this now the advantage of fire tube boiler over water tube boiler
sorry the advantage of water tube boiler over fired tube boiler.

The biggest advantage is that the safety suppose because the steam is a steam is take from the
boiler with high pressure as you have seen in the previous lecture the steam was supplied at 40
bar. So if the steam is filled with the shell right by accident suppose this shell burst it is going to

76
cause enormous damage. Now instead of that the high pressure steam flows inside the tube and it
is housed in the shell damage will be less I do not I do not say that there will not be any damage.

Damage will be there but damage will be less here right that is why most of the high pressure
boilers right they are water tube boilers but definitely fire tube boilers have certain advantages.
So advantages of fire tube boilers wills start with. First of all they are very flexible I mean fire
tube boilers fire tube boiler they are flexible in operation what is the meaning of flexibility
operation because the entire shell is filled with the boiler.

Suppose there is a sudden demand of more demand this steam or there is a sudden drop in the
steam it can be accommodated in fired tube boiler it can be done in water tube boiler also but
immediately it can be done in fire tube boiler. That is one advantage second is if there is feed
water failure say failure can take place anywhere are any stage in water tube boiler right if feed
water failure supply system fails overheating of tubes will takes place.

In case of fired tube boiler because shell is filled with the water so if there is a failure in the
supply of feed water the damage will not be that serious. So that is another advantage of fired
tube boiler and the third one is maintenance is low simple and maintenance is low their
maintenance is less why maintenance is less? Just simply saying maintenance is less will not
become very less it is less because in water tuber boiler scaling takes place.

So if there is a bundle of tubes so each individual each of the tube as to be clean now a days they
are clean with the help of chemicals. So the maintenance cost of water tube boilers is higher in
comparison to the fired tube boiler right.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:16)

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Now again we will discuss the advantages of water tube boiler first of all safety okay if accident
takes place in water tube boiler is less severe. Steam generation rate is large steam generation
rate is large further we can operate on higher pressure why we can operate on higher pressure on
water tube boilers. Because pressure is the pressure of its steam and in any cylinder stresses are
hoop stresses can be expressed by two T right Pd/2t.

Now here for a same thickness if the diameter is increased or in order to maintain same level of
stress if we increase diameter thickness of the place as to be increase. Now in fire tube boiler is
fill in the shell diameter may be 2 meter or 3 meters right. Accordingly thickness has to be taken
for shell thickness to be taken.

However in the case of water tube boiler the diameter of the water tube may be 1 inch or 2 inch 2
centimeter or 3 centimeter or 4 centimeters. So we can go for the same thickness we can go for
very high pressure. So normally high pressure boilers are therefore water tube boilers so in water
tube boilers maximum pressure can go up to 200 bar 150 bar.

In fire tube bar the pressure is restricted to approximately twenty bar normally we do not go
beyond 20 bar and second thing is the water tube boiler are easy to fabricate because shell is not
under pressure right. So the main part which is under pressure is the tube of the boiler so they are
easy to fabricate and install and assemble at the sight right. So if we compare fire tube boiler

78
with the water tube boiler so pressure is fire tube boiler approximately 20 bar here it can go to
we can go to up to 300 bar pressure right.

Because in super critical thermal plants this water tube boilers are used so it is so the pressure in
fact the pressure in the water tube boiler is decided by the metallurgical limits of the material to
what temperature the material can sustain.

Efficiency of this is 85 it is slightly more 85 to 90 % and sometimes in some of the fire tube
boilers it is 70 % in old if you look at the old efficiency of the old fire tube boiler it is 65 or 70 %
efficiency is also high for what water tube boiler inspection is fire tube boiler inspection is easier
in fire do boiler in water in boiler inspection I mean there were some number of tubes.

So inspection has to be frequent and I mean for inspection has to be done in water tube boiler
and basically because the scaling the problem is scaling that has to be taken care of so frequently
first of all we have ensure that the feed water is in both the cases if that is true for both the cases
the feed water it does not have this TDS is low for the feed water the conductivity is less than 5
micro siemens per meter and the frequent cleaning of the tube has to be carried out in water tube
boiler right.

That is not the case in the fire tube boilers right so in the next two classes first we will start with
the fire tube boiler in the next two lectures first we will start with the fire tube boilers and then in
subsequent lectures we will take up water tube boilers and we will be taking certain examples
right of fire tube boilers and water tube boilers that is all for today thank you very much

79
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 02
Lecture No # 07
Fire Tube Boilers

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we will discuss
different fire tube boilers.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:32)

We will start with the LANCASHIRE boilers then we will discuss on cornish boiler COCHRAN
boiler and locomotive boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:51)

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So LANCASHIRE boilers was widely used in earlier days and it was very popular steam boiler
Lancashire boiler it was invented or it was fabricated in nineteen sorry eighteen forty four by
WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN in earlier days it was it used to be very popular boilers it consist of it
shell because it is a fire tube boiler it consists of a shell diameter of the shell is in a range of two
to three meters inside the shell there are two fire tubes of same size and the diameters if these fire
tubes varies from 80 centimeter to 100 centimeter or 0.8 meter to 0.9 meter.

Then length of this boiler is I mean length of the cylinder is 7 to 8 meters in this boiler because
the flue gases or the gases after burning the fuel passes through this tubes this shell is filled to a
certain level is filled with the water the rest of the place filled with the water and steam is stored
at the top.

The pressure of the steam can go up to 20 bar pressure in this boiler and if I draw a this is the
side view if I draw elevation of this boiler it is because these two tubes from the elevation they
will appear to be single tube now fuel is burned here in this portion as I explained you earlier a
grate is a platform it is a perforated platform or a platform having a number of rods okay.

And in this platform the number of rods the perforated platform and in this platform the fuel is
burned and below the grate there is ash pit from where the as can be removed. So below this
there is ash pit and here the fuel is burnt and this is known as fire bridge. So the fuel cannot go to

81
this direction because this is the tube at this tube does not uniform section at the side end it
diameter of this tube is reduced in in order to increase the velocity and the ash is collected here.

Now if I look at the plan of this boiler this is side view okay the plan will be here in first angle
plan of the boiler now in the plan of the boiler two tubes will appear and I will draw tubes with
different colors. Two different tubes are available they are fired tubes and the flue gases they
flow inside these tubes now the movement of flue gases flue gases. Now this boiler is placed in a
refractory there is a refractory work around this boiler like this so this is all brick work these are
refractory brick right.

Now fuel is burnt here and the flue gases move in this direction in both the tubes of you look
from the top the flue gases they move in this direction right at the end they take U turn from the
top you take U turn if you look from the elevation they take U turn at the emerge from the
bottom you are getting my point here there is a flue passage for the flue gases and from the
elevation if you look at there is a chimney here there is a chimney to remove the flue gases.

So there natural circulation no fan is used in the boilers so flue gases generated here they simply
be from the not simply leave from the chimney after circulation in the boiler finally they leave
from the chimney and there is a natural circulation the movement of the flue gases is controlled
by the damper So a damper is provided here so damper control the flow of flew glasses so that
will discuss later.

Now here let us discuss the movement of flue gases so first the fuel is burnt here flue gases are
generated they go to this end and at the fag end or at the last end and other end of this tube they
take U turn and emerge from the bottom at the front. So moving from this side to another
extreme then coming from the bottom to the front. Now when they come to the front these gases
are bifurcated one go to this passage another go to this passage because physically this length of
the tube these passages are physically separate from each other.

Gas from these passage from cannot go here directly here so it has to come into the front and the
from the front it is they are bifurcated and they move from bottom and then they move sidewise

82
on the side flue and finally they rejoin each other here and leave from the chimney That is how
the movement of flue gases takes place and why these arrangements are done these arrangements
are done in order to maximize the heat transmission from flue gases to the water or okay.

In order to generate steam and 85 initially 85% of the heat is transmitted in the first passage
mean passage remaining 15%of the heat is transmitted through side passage in the bottom
passage right. So from the front mean passage it goes to the bottom passage from bottom passage
it emerges from the front by circuit and then reunite and leave from the chimney.

Now in this boiler steam which is collected here is saturated steam right and there are several
mounting there number of mountings which are places here say for example I want to know the
water level of the boiler. So water level indicator is provided here in order to see the level of
water in order to release the steam a steam stop value is provided here.

So there are number of accessories and the mounting on the boiler which facilitates the
functioning of this boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:55)

Now I will show you a photograph taken from Wikipedia the actual photograph of a used boiler.
So here you can see this is the area of grate where fuel is burned right and there are flue tubes
which is the boiler shell and you can see on the shell they are riveted joints. Because riveted

83
joints are used here instead of welding because the riveted joints are reliable joints even in the
aircraft for joining the components riveted riveting is done.

So fuel is burned here at the below there is a ash pit in order to remove ash the flue gases passes
through this two tubes through this boiler and then because big machinery has not shown here it
is only iron point of the boiler is shown then then flue gases from the other side will travel from
the bottom of the boiler and then they will come to the front they will bifurcate and they will go
side wise and from the other side of the boiler they leave from the chimney.

This is the total movement of flue gases inside a Lancashire boilers now there are certain features
of Lancashire boilers which need to be mentioned here.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:22)

First is the feed pipe water feed pipe is perforated in the boiler so that there is a uniform
distribution of the water heating surface area per unit volume is large in any boiler if this is large
this is always beneficial because this increases the efficiency of the boiler now for this boiler the
efficiency is 65 to 70% it is not very high now a days boiler have more than a 90% but that is
boiler it was it was fabricated in the first time it was fabricated in eighteen forty four efficiency
that time it was 65 to 70%.

84
The steam generation rate is important in the boiler a steam generation rate in the boiler is
approximately 8000 KG per hour. So 8000 KG per hour of the steam is generated in this boiler at
20 bar pressure it is a stationary boiler and as I told you because brick work as to be done either
as stationary boiler and classification wise it is a stationary boiler it is a horizontal boiler right
because the shell of the boiler is on horizontal direction.

And the circulation of flue gas or in the circulation of the air in the boiler is natural circulation.
So there is no frame used in this boiler now for this boiler the maintenance is easy in the front
you can see there is a man hole right for the maintenance purpose and this valve arrangement is
very important in working in any of the this type of boiler because sedimentation takes place at
the bottom of the boiler.

So periodically this sludge have to be removed opening a wall in order to improve the effectives
of this otherwise heat transmission from this portion of the boiler will be reduced. So
periodically this blow of cork is open and the steam mixture of the steam water and sludge is
removed and the mixture of sludge and water is removed from the bottom of the boiler. This
boiler is suitable where large amount of steam is required even for the hot water purpose even for
forgetting the hot water this boiler can be used.

In this boiler there are certain accessories like economizer we will discuss in subsequent lectures
super heater heater and the economizer. So super heater and economizer can also be installed in
the boiler a smaller version of this type of arrangement is another boiler which is known as
Cornish boiler.

Now Cornish boiler arrangement is more or less same but in this boiler there is only one fire
tube. So if we start with the Cornish boiler Cornish boiler is older than the Lancashire boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:45)

85
So Cornish boiler was first time fabricated in the year eighteen hundred and twelve so it is more
than 200 years old.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:05)

The smaller version of Lancashire boiler is a Cornish boiler it was first time fabricated by
RICHARD TREVITHICK in this boiler it is shell it is also a fire tube boiler it is a fire tube a
stationery boiler with natural circulation and it has only one fire tube and one fire tube is not
concentrically fixed but it is off set from the center. It is offset from the center being because this
shell is never fulfilled with the water.

86
So some space has to be left for steam right so accordingly this tube is fixed so that it is almost in
the middle of the water filled area. Now in this boiler the size is comparatively smaller the length
of this boiler is 4 to 7 meters and dia of this shell is 1.25 to 1.75 meters.

Now if you look at the elevation of this boiler it is all going to be like this there is a fire tube and
again it has a I mean fuel burning the grate for the fuel burning and the ash pit most of the things
are same but the movement of the flue gases in this boiler is different now I have drawn the
elevational draw the plan also plan on elevation are more of same because there is only one tube
and then here also it also has a big brick work there also this the refractory bricks.

Now here in this case the flue gases when the flue gases go to the other side in the Lancashire
boiler they are coming from the bottom side. Now in this boiler Cornish boiler they come from
the side. So the flue gases which are moving in this direction they are bifurcated some of them
go to the left and some of the almost half of the flue gases go to the right and they emerge from
here.

And bifurcation and coming from left from right they move from the bottom to the other side so
then they move from bottom to the other side of the boiler right. So the arrangement is slightly
changed in this Cornish boiler if you compare with the Lancashire boiler here the flue gases flow
to the other end they are divide into two path from travel to sidewise side flue and from the slide
flue they go with the they come to the front and from the front they reenter to the bottom flue
right.

And they do have mountings are necessary in the boiler for example water level indicator
pressure gauge are all mountings without mountings the boiler cannot work like steam stop valve
to supply steam I am naming the few mountings water level indicator which shows water level in
the boiler steam stop sorry it is not here yes steam stop valve which is provided at the top of
boiler in because we have to take our ultimately we have to take out the steam from the boiler.

87
So steam stop valve has to be provided safety walls have to be provided there number of safety
valves in the mountings. So some safety valves are have to be provided in to operate these
boilers.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:39)

(Refer Slide Time: 19:46)

So this is how the Cornish boiler works after the Cornish boiler another type of popular boiler is
Cochran boiler it is a vertical boiler and this Cochran boiler does not any missionary work. So it
is a vertical boiler vertical fire tube boiler or I will make a bugger sketch having a dome as you
can see from here also in this photograph there is a dome of Cochran boiler and the diameter of

88
the Cochran boiler is 1 to 2 meter this diameter of Cochran boiler this height may vary from 3 to
6 meters.

So it depends on the extreme requirement you want to design a desire boiler is there available in
different sizes. So the diameter ranges from 1 to 2 meters and height 3 to 6 meters it is a fire tube
boiler pressure can go up to 20 bar. So pressure is 20 bar now fire place is here because at the
blower there is ash pit and there is a dome. In this dome the burning of fuel takes place it is a
there is no joint in this dome burning of fuel takes place and here we can burn the fuel and there
number of fire tube and flue gases after burning here they enter the fire tube.

And these fire tubes later on they join the smoke box and it is connected to chimney I have
shown only 2, 3, 4 fire tubes there can be five six seven depending upon the design of the boiler
rest if the place the rest of the space is filled with water right. And the hot gases which are
emerging here they pass through these tubes and from the other side they leave for the chimney
like other boilers here also a damper is provided in order to control the movement of the flue
gases and heat transmission to the water.

The steam generated in this boiler is collected in this dome right suppose I want to have
superheated steam what I will do I will tap some amount of heat end this again is circulated
through the flue gases. I will take some amount of saturated steam right I will tap the steam from
here and I will circulated it this steam pipe through the flue gases.

So when it comes again it contact with the flue gases a steam will become superheated so this
technique is adopted in almost all the boilers so here also we can superheated steam there are
certain mountings like water level indicator it is visible in the photograph also water level
indicator there is a smoke box it has a door. In this door in the smoke box is used for inspection
purpose actually this is something like vertical.

So there is a door here so door can used for inspection purpose and an important mounting I
forgot to tell you in most almost all the boilers is fusible plug. Fusible plug is provided on the
tubes of the boiler especially the fire tube boiler somewhere here.

89
So if there is interruption in the supply of water or the water level goes down his fusible plug
will melt or water is overheated then fusible plug is held will melt and subsequently this boiler
will get extinguish this working of the fusible plug I will explain you when I will explain you the
mountings and necessary of the boiler okay. So this is the functioning of Cornish boiler sorry this
is function of Cochran boiler and the last one is last on of the fire tube boiler I would like to
discuss is steam locomotive or locomotive boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:48)

(Refer Slide Time: 24:49)

90
Locomotive boiler is and it is externally fire boiler so if you look at the schematic of this boiler it
has in fact I would like to show you a photograph also of this old boiler it has a large fire space.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:00)

Locomotive boiler so it has also fire area and there is a shell horizontal shell and this shell
consist of a number of fire tubes as shown in here in this photograph the fuel is burned here they
flue gases which passes through the shell and on the other side there is a stake locomotive boiler
do not have chimney where chimney is not practical they have stacks on the other side stake on
the other side and flue gases are removed through the stake.

In stake is a very short chimney of a very short length since because we do not required a
chimney in a in a very locomotive boiler because it is locomotive boilers. So boiler itself is
moving with the very high velocity the boiler is moving with the 60 kilometer per hour 70
kilometers per hour. So there is always a movement of air over this stake and if you use the
Bernoulli’s theorem you can find a temperature drop and there is a substantial pressure drop
between this grate this to this stack

To the movement of the fluid pressure drop takes place so chimney is not required in such
boilers and most of the things are same mountings are same and the fire tubes it has a number of
fire tubes in comparison to the other boiler through which the flue gases flow right and this
boilers also shell is not completely filled with the water it is partially filled with the boiler and

91
top portion of the shell is filled with the steam that is all for today and in the next class we will
start with water tube boilers

92
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 02
Lecture No # 08
Water Tube Boilers

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we will discuss
water tube boilers there are number of water tube boilers we cannot discuss all of them here.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:35)

But we will take certain water tube boilers like Stirling boiler, Babcox and Wilcox boiler and
Package boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:41)

93
Now stirling boiler consist of number of drums right there is steam drums. So a typical boiler has
three steam drums right and one is water drum or mud drum now this water drum it can have
four or five wall steam drums or two or three water drum depending upon the size of the boiler
or amount of this team is required because a typical stirling boiler can work up to pressure = 60
bar and steam generation rate can be 50,000 KG per hour.

It is enormous steam generation is a huge boiler efficiency of this boiler varies between 60 to 80
% and it can go up to 80 % efficiency right. So let us take a typical of three steam drum boiler
and one mud drum boiler and these drums are connected with bent water tube. Now this bent
water tubes they connect drums all these steel drums to the mud drum.

There is steel drum one two three and this is water drum or mud drum it is ensured that that
water level in these drums. Drum one this is drum one this is drum two let us say this is drum
three water level is maintained same in all the drums now how it is possible? it is possible when
we put circulating tubes between these two or these two drums are interconnected they are
known as circulating tubes okay.

And another type of tubes are equalizing tubes they are for equalizing the pressure so these are
equalizing tubes which are connecting all these three drums and these two drums are connected
by circulating tubes the feed water is provided from here there is a feed check value and feed

94
water is provided from here right and from here the feed water enters this water drum and the
length of the drum perpendicular to this I will just to give you idea this can be approximately 5
or 5.8 to 6 meters 5.8 meters and diameter of drum is approximately two meters.

So size of the boiler is quite large these tubes are bent tubes the benefit of the bent tube is
thermal stresses are not developed they will simply bend. When the expansion takes place these
tubes will simply bend so thermal stresses will not be developing in these tubes. Now it is put in
a housing and some provision for I will how you a diagram photograph of this.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:47)

This is the arrangement is something like this is on revise side I have taken from these in this
case the feed water supplied from here knowing whatever is given in the photograph feed or feed
check wall is here and feed water is supplied from here right. And he fuel is burnt here in this
part this is of the top is also closed fuel is burnt here in this part okay. And there is a ash pit and
rest of the things are more or less same.

Fuel is burnt here and it is passed over this tubes feed water comes from here it goes down and it
comes to the water chamber or mud chamber and after this water vapor when the water is
converted into the vapor it starts rising and getting collected here. Now these drums they have
mountings like pressure gauge water level indicator safety valve steam stop valve to supply this
steam.

95
Now if you want superheat this steam then simply take a steam from here in a pipe and again
circulate through this space right the steam will get superheated. Similar type of arrangement is
done in most of the boilers so the flue gases they get deflected right they are baffle plates. So
baffle places are also shown here so flue gases coming from here they do not simply cross this.
There are baffle plates baffle plates I will show you by different color they are baffle plate so
flue gases they and this will come here.

So there is a baffle here and in this case the flue gases emerging from here they will enter from
the top they will come down and then they leave from here. So there is a path for flue gases is
maximized due to with the help of this baffle plates. Steam is collected here now the benefit of
stiling boiler the major benefit is high heat steam production rate will write benefit here. The
biggest advantage of this boiler is mass on steam production rate is very high as I stated earlier it
can go up to 50,000 thousand KG per hour that is the one thing.

Now second thing is the pressure can also go up to 60 bar and pressure loss in entire system
because it is it works from natural convection right and in fact the movement of water takes
place by the principle of thermo syphon right. So the pressure drop in the boiler within the boiler
is minimum that is another advantage of this boiler and this boiler permits a great flexibility of
the design I mean you can ask per your requirement you can change the design also you can go
for say six drum boiler and you can add here three more drums right.

Tubes they are bent tubes because they are bent tubes that is why no thermal stresses are
developed in tube that is the benefit of this tube but the problem with this boiler is it is very
difficult to clean this boiler because there is a network of the tubes right. So cleaning is a major
problem manhole is provided on this side. So for the cleaning purpose man hole is this is a great
side this side for cleaning purpose the passages are provided to clean the boiler but cleaning is a
little difficult job it is large in size.

So it occupies definitely is one more steam so boiler has to be large in size this is larger in size it
requires more space. Thirdly superheating is also we cannot go for very high level of

96
superheating with this type of boiler but this where the requirement of a steam is large this boiler
is very useful. Now after stirling boiler we will take the Babcox and Wilcox boiler this is also
very popular boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:22)

(Refer Slide Time: 09:40)

This boiler is also water tube boiler and this is boiler is also quite large in size this boiler has a
horizontal shell at the top as shown here also right it has three tubes inclined at a particular angle
they are water tubes and at the both end the water header is made for the circulation of water the
inclination of these tubes is fifteen degree from the horizontal.

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It is also house in a brickwork right water entering this in these tubes the feed water it moves in a
upward direction this boiler as a great most of the arrangement are same. It has a right for a fuel
is burned inside and then there are baffles here also in this boiler also there is a provision of
baffles. So the purpose of the providing baffles is when the flue gases the move in the overall
tubes they move in a zigzag way and they cover the maximum path the heat transmission is
maximum so that the efficiency of the boiler is improved.

Steam generated in the boiler goes to the shell and shell is as in the other case also shell is
partially filled with the water and partially filled with the steam. So this lower part is filled with
the water and upper part is filled with the steam. Now suppose I want to have a superheated
steam now in order to have a superheated steam in order to have a superheated steam the steam is
trapped with the help of or we can make it right here also and just steam is just taken from the
upper part of the shell.

This is re circulated in the boiler body and it is taken out so steam the saturated steam which is
collected at the top of the shell it enters this tube circulated through this tube and leave from the
top and this is the supply line for superheated steam and heat for superheated steam is provided
by flue gases flowing inside this because the entire shell this entire space is filled with the flue
gases and this part you are saying is bend tubes they are for super heating of steam right.

And the water to this tubes comes from this side so this is how the entire systems works. Now
this boiler can produce 20 to 40 tones per hour of a steam at a range of 11 to 17 bar pressure right
in this boiler because it also works on the natural convection the pressure loss is minimum
defective tubes because a lot of space inside the shell inside the boiler housing.

So defective tubes can be easily replaced so defective tubes can be easily replaced it is supported
the entire system is supported on the iron structure. So the problem because what happens when
the system is supported or it is restricted by the brickwork right in that case some the structure
related problems do come into the picture and that does not happen when the entire system is
supported or ironing structure.

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So these are the details of Wilcox boiler after that we take up a package boiler now package
boiler or I mean small capacity boilers they are compact portable and they are available in wide
range right wide range of steam generation and wide range of pressure now in most of the boiler
in these boilers you must have seen that there is a single pass of water tube.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:32)

In package boiler there is a multi-pass now what we can do in a shell just water is entering from
this side then it can take U turn and return to same side then again there is a U pin and then again
it can take U turn and leave from this side. Now this will make the size of the this will reduce the
size of the boiler so package boilers has everything inside one structure one entity it is smaller in
size it is portable it is flexible.

It is flexible in the sense it has wide range of operations though you may have to purchase
different boiler for different ranges but package boilers are available in wide range. Now in
package boilers if you look at the arrangement of the drum and the tube.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:24)

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There is a D type arrangement there is A type arrangement and there is a O type arrangement. In
principle there is a steam drum and there is water drum right and this steam drum is connected
with the water drum and there are D types of tubes like this curve tubes in which the water flows
and air is sorry flue gases are blown over these tubes right and the water and the steam is the
water is converted through the steam and the steam is collected in this shell.

Another type of arrangement is A type arrangement in A type arrangement there are two water
drums and one is steam drum they are connected like this right. Another type of arrangement is
O type arrangement O type arrangement there is steam drum and water drum and steam drum
tubes are simply connected with water drum steam. So there are different configurations of steam
drum and water drum connectivity in these boiler s in addition to this you can use variety of fuel
for this boiler.

For this boilers package type of boilers you can use light diesel oil you will find package boilers
working on furnace oil right and different type of fuels can be used for these type of boilers these
boilers characteristic of these boilers is they have small combustion space and heat release rate in
package type of boiler is quite large efficiency also of these boilers because they are compact
boiler.

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Efficiency of these boiler is also quite high so I think we have covered a wide number of boilers
we have covered fire tube boilers we covered water tube boilers before we start mounting the
accessories in the next class I will give you introduction of mounting accessories. So mountings
are those devices which is necessary for the operation of the boiler for example safety valve if
boiler cannot work without safety valve
(Refer Slide Time: 18:03)

Feed check valve now feed check valve is provided with the inlet of the boiler right it is sort of
the non-return wall and in feed check valve the reverse flow of water cannot take place once the
water enters the boiler there is no reverse flow. Water level indicator I have discussed earlier also
there is a water level indicator there is a pressure gauge they are mountings only and safety
valve.

Steam Stop valve where there are certain accessories are provide in the boiler to improve the
efficiency of the boiler like economizer air pre heater feed water heaters. So these are the
accessories they are other certain accessories also which are necessary or which are required or
which can improve the efficiency of the boiler but the mountings without mountings boilers
cannot be allowed to operate now in our country there is a IBR act as per IBR any steam
generating machine which is having volume more than five gallons.

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5 gallons mean 5 into 4.5409 liters one gallon is four this is British gallon there are two types of
gallon one is US gallon another is UK gallon or British imperial gallon. US gallon is 3.785
meters and British gallon is 4.5409 liters.

So if you take five this gallons it comes around twenty two point seven so any steam generating
equipment’s which has volume more than 22.7 liters. Now this limit has been increase to or it is
rounded off to 25 liters it is subjected to the inspection statutory body sorry state government
bodies regular inspection have to be made before operating this boilers otherwise boiler will not
be allowed to operated.

If the volume is less than this and the boiler is operating very high pressure it is not covered
under IBR these types of boiler are known as non IBR boilers right. For so for petty application
for small applications non IVR boilers are preferred there the volume of the steam inside the
boiler is less than 25 liters for a steam supplies.

Suppose there is a pipe line for supplying a steam so if the diameter of the pipe line is more than
10 inches it is again subjected to inspected in the IBR So is a very I mean is a thick document or
a large document and one has to be thorough before operating a new boiler because boilers are
covered under IBR and IBR was found in nineteen twenty five because during that time there are
number of accidents in boilers because not doing the proper keeping of the boilers.

So due to these accidents there were number of causalities so an act was brought this is Indian
boiler regulating act regulatory act and under this act if the boilers are meeting certain
requirement they are put under the inspection of statutory bodies. Now in the next class I will
start with I will continue with mountings and accessories in the boilers that is all for today.

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 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 02
Lecture No # 09
Boilers Mountings and Accessories

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems we have already
discussed different kind of boilers today we will discuss about boiler mountings and accessories.
Now boiler mounting boiler mountings are integral part of boiler of any boiler without
mountings a boiler cannot work or boiler cannot function however without boiler accessories
boiler can work but may be with relatively lower efficiency.
(Refer Side Time: 00:53)

So first of all we will discuss about the boiler mountings now the first and fore most thing in the
boiler is a pressure gauge because we must know what order of pressure is existing inside the
boiler. So that boiler in a boiler the pressure gauge is fixed on the shell it is a dial type pressure
gauge now a days digital pressure gauge is also available and pressure transmitter are also
available and pressure transmitter are also available.

They are pressure transmitters are simply transducers and signals are sent to the display unit right
but a dial type pressure gauge is must even in this case this type a dial type of pressure gauge is

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must and this pressure gauge displays the pressure in different units you go to industries you will
find pressure in KG kilogram force per centimeter square this is typical of MKS system of
expressing the pressure.

You can find the pressure in kilo pascal, mega pascal and PSI pounds per square inch now
pounds per square inch is a each pound system of pressure measurement this is MKS system and
this is SI system which we follow. But if you go the industries you will find that this because
these equipment’s are purchased may be 30 or 40 years back this type of pressure gauge is
display with this one and may be pound per square inch also right.

So you have to be very converse with the units conversion from this SI system to MK system and
IP system to SI system. Now after the pressure gauge is water level indicator because when the
boiler is in operation the operator must know what is the level of water in the boiler and the
arrangement of water level indicator is very simple. In order to find level of water in the boiler
shell suppose this is boiler shell and I want to know the level of water in the boiler shell is
closed.

So this is the level of water in the boiler shell a pipe is connected from the top and the bottom
and at the end of the pipe there is a glass and show you the schematically element in actual
arrangement you will find the wall here you will find it is not a that simple right. But here I am
giving a schematic representation so that you can understand how a pressure level indicator
works in a system.

So this is attached to the system here there is a valve to close supply here also there is a valve
and this is a glass tube right. So whatever level is there because water like to maintain the level
so this level can be displayed here also outside the so the operator can see what is the level of
water inside the shell this may not be working as long as the boiler is working you can close this
valves and whenever you want to see the level you want to open the level this can also be done.

But the problem is suppose this tube breaks all the steam or all the fluid inside the container will
come out because this is a high pressure fluid. So entire fluid will come out of the system so in

104
order to provide that balls are provided steel balls are provided ordinary steel ball are provided
and the moment the fluid comes the pressure these balls they close this openings so the fluid
does not go out right.

So the basic level of water level indicator is to show the level of water in the boiler a boiler has
safety arrangement also. Because the fluid is because the water at high pressure contains a lot of
energy in comparison to the other fluids right so safety measurements safety precautions have to
be taken and for the purpose of safety at least two safety valves have to be provided there are
four types of safety valves
(Refer Slide Time: 05:38)

Now safety valves there are four types of safety valves one is dead weight safety valve and the
second is lever safety valve third is spring loaded safety valve and the fourth is high steam and
low water. High steam is high pressure of the steam high pressure is steam or low level of water
now these safety valves are fixed on the boiler shell dead weight safety valves

Now dead weight safety valve consist of course as it implies on the name itself consist of dead
weights suppose there is passage of steam and this connected to the water shell. Now through
this passage steam is coming and there is a closing arrangement for this and there is a housing.
So the steam in the boiler shell when pressure exceeds the working pressure or the pressure we
have decides the boiler to work.

105
In that case this steam exact force on this closing body and it opens the valve this entire body it
lifts as you must have seen in the pressure cooker. When the pressure exceeds to the certain limit
the whistle of the pressure cooker it lifts then the steam went off in same fashion if works there is
there is a provision and for putting blades because you may like to weight the steam and pressure
for different applications.

So you can keep on adding the weights adding pressure for this in safety valve it keep on
changing it is a very it is very simple in construction and it is I mean very very convenient to
operate now another one is lever safety valve
(Refer Slide Time: 08:35)

Lever safety valve is almost like a dead wt valve in this valve suppose there is a passage again
and this side is fill with the steam it has a lever that is why it is called as lever safety valve and
this lever are on this lever arm on the extreme side there is a dead weight a lever safety valve
Now this dead weight it is hinged here and this again is connected to a system which closes this
opening

Now again if pressure is exerted on this the steam will push this closing body and this is also a
body of the valve. And because it is hinged here this weight will be lifted and steam will be
vented off. Now I want to operate this lever safety valve at different pressure. Suppose I want to

106
operate on reduced pressure instead of venting of the steam let us say 10 bar vent steam at 9 bar
or 7 bar.

Simply what I will do I will shift this way to this place so manipulation is in dead with the safety
valve we will have to insert the weight here simply we have to pull it and shifted to another place
they are roofs on the arm and by shifting this weight you can monitor you can manipulate the
working pressure of this lever safety valve right.

Now the third one is spring loaded safety valve because this safety wall always a balancing force
is required in dead safety valve it was the weight of that weight which was put on the valve
(Refer Slide Time: 10:39)

Here instead of putting weight if spring force is used for controlling the opening of the valve
become in different shapes am taking a particular shape but they may come in different shapes
this is a U type system on the both sides the valve is closed and steam is coming from this side.
Steam I will show with blue pen so steam is coming from this side right and here there is a
spring.

A spring type of arrangement sorry here there is a spring so the pressure is exerted in this this
two openings right this two closings right then they open this they are lifted from the seat and
spring is stretched. Steam is vented off steam is vented off and when the pressure is reduced the

107
original pressure restored a spring it pulls back these stoppers to the original position right. This
is how it operates and tension in the spring you can control from here there is nut and bold type
of arrangements.

Sorry there is a nut which are simply tighten the nut the tension of spring can be manipulated
right. So it can have this shape it can have this shape also another type of arrangement of spring
loaded safety valve it is something like.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:38)

This is boiler shell this is opening this is stopper right above it there is a spring this is valve
housing from here the exit of the steam is taking place they are flanges. So when the steam is
exert the force on this stopper again it is lifted and steam is vented off through this opening. So
there can be many arrangements so the working principle is the pressure of his steam is balanced
with the help of tension in tension in the spring

Now the fourth one is high steam and low water valve now high steam low water valve it serves
two purposes first is when the pressure the steam is high steam will be vented off when the water
level is low right. In that case also some indicator have to be there so that operator sitting in the
operation room may know that there is low level of water right.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:54)

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So in this type of valve there is a boiler shell valve of the boiler shell and there is opening this is
semi-circular disk. It is connected it is exerting force on lever there is lever there is a counter
weight W here there is float and it is hinged here this lever is not hinged here it is changed here
right. Above this again there is housing and provision for steam to vent.

And again there is a stylus here connected to the dead weight type of safety valve wall now what
happens. Suppose the water level in the shell goes down when the water level goes down this
float will also come down because it will floating on the water surface. So this float will also
come down when the float comes down this R of the lever will twist and this will cause opening
of this disk and steam will escape from here and it will give a different kind of sound.

And the sound will be distinct from the normal steam venting so the operator can be easily
identify that the water level has got down. Another device is water level indicator but water level
indicator always want to monitor you have to watch that or operator as to watch when the water
level is going down or not but here in this case when the float is settle on the on the surface of
the boiler and the water level goes down below a certain level in that case this this opening will
vent of the steam and it will come out with the different sound right.

And the operator will come to know that water level has gone down on the other side suppose the
pressure exceeds because this shell is partially filled with the water and the partially filled with

109
the steam. Suppose lower part is filled with the water definitely lower part has to be filled with
the water and upper part is filled with the steam pressure of the steam exceeds the design
pressure.

Now in that case this force should be exerted on this disk because this will exert force on the disk
this disk will open and this arrangement is sort of dead weight safety valve type of arrangement.
And again the steam will vent off but this sound will be different from previous sound so the
operator will come to know this is the normal venting when the pressure of the steam is high and
this is the venting previous one was the venting was the sound of the venting steam when the
water level was low in the boiler right.

This are four safety devices and it is recommended at least two safety valves in the system
because safety has a very important role to play because of safety valve fails accident may
happen so that is why for the safety purpose two of the safety valves are recommended to put on
the boiler mounting as a boiler mounting. Another safety device is in the boiler is fusible plug.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:40)

Now fusible plug very small in size and they are used in fire tube boiler and they are put on the
surface of the fire tube right and these plugs have fusible materials they are filled with the fusible
material means the material which melts in the high temperature right. So when the temperature

110
exceeds from the certain limit the material filled in this fusible plug melts and water enters the
grate and fire is extinguish and accident is prevented.

But in this case the boiler will shut down I mean it cannot be a it cannot operate in the running
boiler once it is operated this fusible plug is operated the fusible material has a copper cap also
right so when it the material is melted the water will enter the fire tube it will go to the grate or it
will take the heat from the fire tube right or the flue gases flowing in the fire tube.

Ultimately the heating in the boiler will slow down or it will be reduced right and in that case the
accident can be prevented. But when this becomes operative we will have to replace this fusible
with another fusible plug and then the boiler can be restarted. Now after fusible plug there is a
steam in stop valve
(Refer Slide Time: 19:09)

Steam stop valve is a normal valve to take steam out of the boiler as we have valve in the
container to take water out of the container in similar fashion there is a steam stop valve which is
connected on the boiler again there is a I mean this which closes this opening and this is operated
with a arm operated wheel right this is this keeps disk in the place this is the housing and from
here we can get the steam.

111
So the sorry this is this should be outside this this has to be outside of this housing so this has to
be outside this housing and this mechanically fixed from this. Now simply when the steam if you
want to steam at any moment from boiler simply turn this wheel this this rod or stylus twill rotate
and this which is closing the mouth of this opening will open up and steam will flow from this
passage and will come out of the steam stop valve it is simply a steam supplying valve.

It is a steam supplying valve and closing the opening arrangements is same as in the case of
normal water supply valve okay. And this valve is also placed at the highest point in the boiler
because steam is accumulated in the highest point in the upper half of the boiler right. So it has to
be placed at the highest point of the boiler another valve is feed check valve. Now in feed check
valve this construction is almost same I can explain with this figure only.

Now feed check valve is a valve like this it is a non-return valve and it is fixed at the supply line
of water supply line. So when the water is pumped in the boiler it passes through feed check
valve when water pushes this disk the disk opens and the water is passed through this passage.
Suppose water is flowing here it is coming from the pump right and it is put in series the supply
water line so this side is closed.

So water will push this disk is simply resting on this body it is not connected to this stylus so the
water will push this disk in upward direction the moment is disk opening though this opening the
water will come out of this valve and why it is non-return valve because we have to use the non-
written valve in the case of feed water supply because when the boiler pressure is high there will
be tendency for the flow.

So when the flow is reversed this this will again fix on the seat and it will prevent the reverse
flow of water from the boiler shell to the pump towards the pump size. So this type of valve is a
feed check valve in addition to this a boiler has man hole in the function of the simply hole in the
boiler shell or in the body of the boiler just for the inspection and the maintenance purpose.

A boiler has blow of cork is paste in the bottom side of the boiler this is blow of cork and the
function of the blow of cork is to remove the sediment and impurities from the boiler because

112
during the hours of operating of the boiler sedimentation takes place in the boiler. So
intermittently this blow of cork is open and it is a simple valve and type of gate valve something
like this.

So when this opening is turned is in line with the supply of this the line of the supply this valve is
open and the sediments and impurities are removed from the boiler after that we will take up the
accessories in the boiler now accessories in the boiler now a days they are necessary because we
want to have the higher efficiency of the boiler if you want to attain the higher efficiency of the
boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:09)

Accessories are necessary and accessories are number one super heater number two economizer
number three air pre heater and number four is steam trap. Now super heater means steam super
heater because we need super heater steam in order to have higher efficiency because when we
super heat the working fluid then average temperature hear addition increases and this imparts
the higher efficiency to the cycle.

So for super heater normally we shell you must have seen in the previous lectures also a steam
because shell there is mixture of liquid and vapor. So steam is taken from the shell and again it is
put to the grate or in front of the flue gases so that it picks the heat from the flue gases and super
heated steam is available for the use. So the super heater works it is simply arrangement of the

113
pipes the steam is saturated steam is taken from the shell and it is re-circulated it is re-circulated
in the grade also when it is re-circulated with the grade it is known as radiant heating.

So super heating can be done in two ways either in convective heating or radiant heating radiant
heating is done because in the grate the temperature is very high so heat transmission to the
working fluid is through the radiation, majority of the heat transfer right. So that is why it is
known as radiant heat transfer and then it is radiant heat transfer the tube can have heat either it
is simply heat exchanges the working fluid can exchange heat with the flue gases also.

Because flue gases are higher temperature so that is known as convective super heating so
radiant super heating is convective super heating. The purpose of super heating to improve the
efficiency of the cycle so now a days in water boilers super heaters also integral part. Another is
economizer because in boiler a lot of heat goes out with the flue gases. So our objectives is as a
engineer to tap as much as heat is possible from the flue gases.

So super heaters is also doing the same job now same job is done by the economizer. In
economizer the feed water which is going to the boiler it is heated so if feed water is heated.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:58)

If you look at the rankine cycle this is feed water this is high pressure feed water if we heat feed
water then in that case net temperature of heat addition will also increase or less will be required

114
in the boiler either way we can say less heat will be required in the boiler right. At this heat is
coming from the flue gases so it is coming from free of cost. That is how we are increasing the
efficiency of the boiler so this is the function of economizer.

The another one is air preheater now the air is going to the heat is surrounding there is going to
that grate or burning the fuel. This air is first circulated before the flue gases so it takes heat from
the flue gases it takes heat from the flue gases and it takes heat from the flue gases and it when it
takes heat from the flue gases the temperature of this air rises that is why it is known as air
preheater.

So air preheater is also heat exchanger, economizer is also heat exchanger, super heater is also
heat exchanger and purpose of these accessory is to increase the efficiency of the cycle or
efficiency of the boiler for first of all the efficiency of the boiler right if the efficiency of the
boiler is increase the efficiency of the cycle will also automatically increased.

So air preheater also takes heat from the flue gases economizer also take heat from the flue gases
super heater is again it takes heat from the grate the flue gases flowing the boiler. In addition to
that there is device which is known as steam trap now what happens there is a flow of the steam
in a pipe piper are insulated but no insulation is perfect insulation right. So in that course when
the steam is going in that pipe some condensation will takes place right at this condensation this
condensate will get accumulated will keep on accumulating in the pipe.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:23)

115
If we do not remove this condensate from the pipe it will start choking the pipe the condensate
will be accumulated in the bottom of the pipe and if we do not remove the condensate from the
bottom of the pipe it will keep on choking the pipe. So steam trap is provided the function of the
steam trap is to remove the water in the mixture of steam water mixture okay.

It removes the water and steam is let go there are different type of arrangements right hmm like
flow type, steam trap reverse bucket type steam trap is also available bucket traps, steam traps is
also available but the function of all the this steam trap is to remove the steam from the flowing
steam. That is all for today now in the next class we will start with the high pressure boilers

116
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 02
Lecture No # 10
High Pressure Boilers (Part-1)

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power system today we will start with
the high pressure boilers.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:33)

As clear from the name itself these boilers they work on high pressure and today we will discuss
two high pressure boilers one is La mont boiler another is Benson boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

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Now high pressure boilers first of all we should understand the need of the high pressure boiler.
If you look at the rankine cycle this is temperature and this is entropy 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 the efficiency
of the ranking cycle depends average temperature of heat addition If we increase the average
temperature of heat addition the efficiency of cycle will increase.

So 4, 5, 1 can be shifted to another high pressure this points will be shifted like this so we will
get another temperature remaining same we will get another point one here. If we keep on
increasing the pressure the situation will come we will process the critical point and when we
cross the critical point in that case the process will become something like this.

When the pressure in the boiler or the boiler in the operating beyond the critical then it becomes
the super critical cycle and because the net temperature of heat addition is high here that
efficiency is high right. For a steam the critical pressure is approximately 221 bar. However high
pressure boilers are like though this high pressure boilers do not operate to the high pressure
right.

So but still they are on high pressure first of all we will decide will draw a line for high pressure
boiler and low pressure boiler. So low pressure boiler where pressure is less than 20 bar as we
discussed in previous lectures like Lancashire boilers previous lecture like this Lancashire boiler
or Cochran boiler.

118
So all this boilers were having pressure less than twenty bar so they were low pressure boilers
now medium pressure boilers where pressure is greater than 20 bar and less than seventy five
bar. So when the pressure in the boilers in 20 bar to seventy five bar they are known as medium
pressure boilers. Now the third one is high pressure boiler these boilers are going to discuss
today when the pressure is greater than seventy five bar.

Such type of boilers are known high pressure boilers in high pressure boilers the water
circulation is forced water circulation it means there is always a pump which circulates water in
the high pressure boilers. The benefit of the high pressure boilers is suppose they are operate on a
high temperature and high pressure the temperature is almost I mean uniform inside the boiler
body right so that is the benefit we can because placement of grate is also.

I mean it as any constraints for the placement of grates but in high pressure boiler we have force
circulation of water through the tubes we have freedom of placing the grate also in the boiler.
And when we are operating in a cycle when we are operating very high pressure right in that case
because the efficiency is high a steam consumption reduces for the same output for the same
output if the efficiency of the cycle is high rankine cycle is high less amount of steam will be
required.

So when we are using high pressure boiler they are operating on high pressure then less amount
of steam required for the operation of the cycle. Another advantage this is a indirect advantage of
high pressure boilers because in this boilers inside the tube the velocity of the water is very high.
So to some extent it prevents this scaling of the tube surface so that is indirect benefit of a using
a high pressure boiler.

So we will start one by one on high pressure boilers we will start with the La mont boiler and
there other advantages are also compact size same amount of heating they are compact in size
portability is easy they can easily transported to one place to other place because they are very
smaller in size.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:03)

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So we will start with the La Mont boiler is high pressure boiler it is clear from the name itself it
was invented by LA MONT in nineteen twenty five right. The capacity the boiler capacity is
important right so capacity of the boiler of this boiler is fifty tones per hour it means this boiler
can give steam at the particular pressure the pressure also I will give you the pressure is 170 bar.

If you remember those boilers Lancashire boiler, Cochran boiler and Cornish boiler the pressure
was less than 20 bar. So pressure itself has gone tenfold here right in those boiler the pressure
was 15 bar 16 bar 18 bar here the pressure is 170 bar. So the design the boiler has to be robust.
Because in high pressure jones especially the boiler must be able to sustain the pressure that is
why most of the high pressure boiler are water tube boiler.

Because high pressure is there in the tube it is not in the flue gases that is why high pressure
many of the them most of the high pressure boilers are water tube boilers. Because when we are
using water tubes if you remember the formula there is a stresses is PD by 2 T P is the pressure
D is the diameter and T is the thickness. Suppose I want to maintain the same pressure in its shell
and the tube.

Tube as much small smaller diameter so for the same stress level this is constant D by T ratio is
important. If I want to have large I want to store steam in a large diameter drum thickness of the
drum wall has to increase right. The moment I am reducing this D diameter then thickness we

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can go for smaller or less than thickness. So that is why in a tubes are in the diameter of let us
say one inch one and half inch one and quarter inch or half inch.

Diameter of the shell means one meter or two meter so you can compare the dimensions 1 inches
= 2.54 centimeter so tube diameter may be let us say 3 centimeter or 4 centimeter or 5 centimeter
at the most right or may be 2 centimeter but shell diameter is normally 2 to 3 diameters in that
proportion thickness is we are using the same material.

So that is why high pressure boilers are normally water tube boilers so water is circulated in the
tubes and tubes are surrounded by this is the basic working of this boilers we will take down one
by one and the tube is surrounded by the flue gases now the same steam we can pass through the
super heater flue there is a separate arrangement for the super heater.

Super heater also filled with the flue gases the same pipe or through some drum or through a
header it may go to some super heater zone we may get superheated steam feed water can pass
through the passage of flue gases then feed water heater it will take place through a economizer
so all this accessories which I discuss in the previous lecture they become almost integral part of
the boiler then no longer remains accessories becomes integral part of the boiler.

Because when we are operating at high temperature because here the temperature is also high
temperature is 500 degree centigrade. So you can imagine we are getting steam at 170 bar
pressure and 500 degrees centigrade temperature. So when we are getting steam at this high
temperature the flue gas temperature shall also higher than this and the flue gases they are
coming out of the boiler it is simply wastage of heat.

So our job is as engineer out job is to trap as much as possible out of this outgoing heat so in a
La Mont boiler we will go for the construction of the La Mont boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:02)

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First of all it is a vertical boiler so the drum in the boiler is like this it is neck and passage for flue
gases to go out from this passage flue gases leave the boiler right. Now at the bottom of the
boiler the fuel is burnt and grate is provided lot of heat go out with the flue gases because I
mentioned earlier the steam is generated 500 degree centigrade so definitely the heat carried
away by the flue gases is relatively higher and with the help of air pre heater we can tap this heat.

So air heater is fixed somewhere here and air is circulated with the help of the blower when air
emerges from this side this high temperature air is sent to the grate at below there is ash pit and
this is grate. So high temperature air it enters the grate to burn the fuel right. So this heat can be
used can be utilized this heat taken at the air pre heater can be utilized in burning the fuel. Now
this boiler has a small drum also it is partially filled with water and partially filled with the
steam.

Now this water partially filled water this water is circulated in the boiler for purpose of
generating the steam. Now one more thing we can do to put a economizer in the boiler so the
heat somewhere here so heat which is taken away by the flue gases can be tapped for heating the
feed water. So an economizer is fixed so feed water supply system so feed water supply system
feed pump and feed water is supplied to the so this is economizer in the boiler I will not write but
I will show you this is I will indicate this is economizer.

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So in the same passage were the flue gases are taken place for economizer is put which takes
heat because the feed water takes heat from the flue gases and then the air which is used for
burning the fuel in the grate takes heat from the flue gases. Now this water enters the this is the
high pressure drum the pressure is high in this drum it is half filled in the water feed water it
means upper half steam is stored and below that there is feed water.

Now this feed water goes to the boiler shell so for circulating feed water a pump is required a
pump is required now this pump pushes the water in the shell and here there is a header because
in the grate there is a radiant heating of there are number of tubes so there is a radiant heating of
water and water is converted in the steam right.

After that after the radiant heating it goes again in goes to the same tube is again circulated
through is placed in the path of flue gases. So there are two types of heating through this feed
water one is radiant heating from the grate and then from the flue gases after this water is
converted into the steam and steam is sent to the drum for storage and from here we can get
saturated steam right.

Am explaining again the shell in the shell the flue gases are leaving from the top is air pre heater
is fixed in order to pre heat the air which is used for burning fuel in the grate and below the
grate there is ash pit and economizer is also used for pre heating the feed water. Water is
collected here right then it from this shell the water is taken and it is circulated inside the shell
first radiant heating of this tubes takes place then convective heating of tubes takes place.

Water is converted into steam water is converted into the steam and stored in the shell now one
thing is remaining super heating of the steam. So simply steam is taken out from the shell this
steam is taken from the shell this is saturated steam it is once again passed to this flue gases and
we get superheated steam that is it that is the working of La Mont boiler.

La Mont boiler small diameter tubes are used when we are using small diameter tubes the heat
transfer is effective is quite effective. Because in that case surface to volume ratio is high if you
using this small diameter tubes. And second thing is it has got very high evaporation rate because

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there is a force circulation of water in fact we have to maintain force circulation of water in the
boiler because it has very high evaporation rate.

Rest of the things like mountings are always there integral part of the boiler pressure indicator
water level indicator this and that I have not shown that I have simply schematic show you the
movement of the fluid for the working of a La Mont boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:41)

Now the next one is Benson boiler the Benson boiler was invented by MARK BENSON in year
nineteen twenty two previous one was nineteen twenty five this one is nineteen twenty two.
Capacity of this boiler capacity of this boiler is 150 tones per hour three times of the capacity of
La Mont boiler capacity of 50 tones per hour remember. So he capacity of the boiler is one 50
tones per hour pressure is also 200 bar right.

So it is very close the critical point the pressure because in previous one La Mont boiler the
pressure was only 170 bar. So in Benson boiler the pressure is 200 bar temperature is 650 degree
centigrade we can go up to 650 degree centigrade. So this is I mean specification on higher side
pressure is high in comparison to La Mont boiler pressure is higher the temperature is also
higher.

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Another thing is beauty of this boiler is within ten minutes it will go to the peak value I mean it
is quick in response this boiler is very quick in response. Another characteristic of this boiler is it
does not have any drum so it is a drum less boiler. In previous there was a drum in La Mont
boiler there was a drum where steam was stored drum for the storage of the steam is steam was
stored saturated steam was stored.

But in this boiler there is no drum so that is why it is also known as drum less boiler now if there
is no drum portability automatically increases and the weight of the boiler is also reduced.
Weight of the boiler is almost reduced by 20% if you are not using drum because the steam has
to be stored at very high pressure. So when the steam has to be stored very high pressure
definitely the design of the drum is robust design.

So its constituent of amount 90% approximately 20% weight of the boiler so that drum is not
here so approximately 20% weight of the boiler is reduced. Now this shell is a vertical shell
right. In this boiler also because you can see the temperature is further higher so lot of heat must
be going with the flue gases. So air pre heater is provided in order to pre heat the flue gases and
definitely this heat will come to the grate again fuel is burnt here.

So this pre heated air will come to the grate will facilitate the burning of the fuel to the grate now
feed water. Feed water has to be heated in the economizer right and it is drum less boiler. So in
single go all the operations will be done pre heating of feed water or heating in economizer heat
conversion of water into the saturated steam and super heating of the steam right. So there is a
single tube for feed water and the feed water passes through economizer takes because flue gases
are moving in this direction.

So it takes heat from the flue gases after economizer after pre heating then radiant heating as to
be done here right. So water feed water which is heated in the economizer after taking heat in the
economizer it is transported to a place above the grate and their there is arrangement of the tubes
parallel arrangement. So that effective radiant heating of water takes place with the help of which
the fuel which is burning in the grate

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After radiant heating after radiant heating the convective heating of the water is done so again
explaining the circuit because it is the single go right feed water feed water is this is economizer.
Economizer to radiant heating radiant heating to convective heating right after convective
heating we can take the steam out if you want saturated steam if you do not want saturated steam
then again it goes to the super heater and super heating takes of the just a minute it will not go
from top to bottom.

It will go from bottom to top super heating will take place and super heating steam will emerge
from here right. So I hope that the circuit is the clear to you I can explain it again there is a air
pre heater which pre heats the air which goes to grate there is a pump. Which pumps the feed
water through economizer this is economizer and after economizer it goes for the radiant heating
the feed water goes for the radiant heating in near the grate or the grate in the combustion
chamber right.

Here in the convection of the water into steam takes place partial conversion then after this the
water is passed through a convective heater where conversion of water into the steam takes place
further conversion of water into the steam takes place from here we can get the saturated steam.
If you want superheated steam the again this saturated steam circulated before the flue gases and
we get the superheated steam.

So the working is very simple the problem here is the problem of maintenance because it is it is
the construction is not simple as it is as simple as looking in schematic. So cleaning in this boiler
specially for the maintenance purpose of for the cleaning of the tube. It is not impossible but it is
a difficult it is not that easy that easy but the benefit of the boiler is it is light in weight because
there is no drum there is only grate in network of tubes and its shell.

Today we have covered both the boilers La Mont and Benson boilers the next class we will again
covered two more high pressure boilers that is all for today thank you

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 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 03
Lecture No # 11
High Pressure Boilers (Part-2)

Hello I welcome you all in this course of steam and gas power systems today we will continue
our discussions on high pressure boilers.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:36)

Today we will discuss two high pressure boilers one is Loeffler boiler and Velox boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

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Will start with the Loeffler boiler now in this boiler we use turbines as well in this boiler not
only there is a circulation of the steam turbines also that means that makes us interesting.
Another feature of this boiler is that steam is generated with superheated steam. A steam it itself
generated by superheated steam so there is a soot deposition in the evaporator.

Now soot deposition in the problem in the boiler especially in the economizer if you look first of
all in brief I will explain how sooting is deal in case of economizer what happens in economizer
there are number of tubes and economizer and they are connected with the help of the header and
water is circulated inside this tubes the flue gases coming from the boiler they are passed over
this tubes right and transmission of this heat takes place flue gases on the boiler.

Because this flue gases consist of the burnt carbon particles right and this particles is stick on the
surface of the tube and when this sooting takes place in the surface of the tube this hampers the
heat transfer. Effectives of the economizer is reduced and inside the economizer there is a flow
of water right. So scrubbers are provided on the surface of the boiler this tubes scrubbers are
provided different types of scrubbers are provided.

The job this scrubbers is to scratch the surface of the tube and there is a mechanical arrangement
pulley and chain type of arrangement for the movement of this scrubbers along the length of the
tube so slowly it keep on moving in order to remove the soot from the tube surface. However in

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this case in in in in Loeffler boiler the steam generated with the help of the superheated steam so
there is no flue gas at all.

So steam generation does not involve generation of suit of the surface so that is another benefit
of this boiler. So first of all we will draw the schematic of the boiler to understand the
functioning of this boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:26)

I Am drawing with the simplified schematic diagram right there is a grate here the fuel is burnt
okay a separate arrangement is made for steam generation it is separate from the boiler okay and
here the generation of the steam takes place with the help of superheated steam. So first of all we
will start with the hot well this is hot well consisting of water and as we did earlier also here the
heat is extracted here will be extracted through an economizer by heating feed water.

So in the feed water is circulated through economizer for the heating purpose so heating as been
done by flue gases which are name in the boiler that the heat is trapped and this feed water is sent
to the evaporation drum right. So simply by adjust taking here the feed pump as to be placed feed
pump. So just from hot pump the water is taken and goes to the feed pump.

Feed pump circulates water in the economizer and where the exchange of heat takes place
between the flue gases and the water which is circulated in this tubes and that heated water goes

129
the evaporation drum and inside the evaporation drum there are number of nozzles right. There
number of nozzles which spray this water and this water is converted into this steam and
superheated steam is supplied from this side.

And later on I will explain you how the superheated steam is generated superheated steam is
supplied from this side and this water taking heat from the superheated steam is converted into
the steam and this steam goes to the shell there is a steam pump this is pump for circulation of
the steam right. And from here it goes to the shell and for the heating purpose and heating in the
shell takes this is shell because here the burning of fuel is taking place the entire space filled with
flue gases.

This is on all is filled with the flue gases so water which is circulated in this tubes is heated and
is subsequently converted into the steam so we can directly get saturated steam from here but as
a aspect is we have to superheat the steam right. Because superheat steam is very much required
here especially this superheated steam will be used for converting water into the steam so this
place also filled with in the flue gases this is also filled with this is all filled with the flue gases
right.

And they are separated by these valves this is very simplified diagram right now this steam
which is present in this tube is gain sent for superheating here the steam is again superheated and
after superheating it is taken out and this steam is not directly sent to this place then it will
become a close loop then we do not required feed water feed pump because in this system we are
feeding the water.

So what we are doing here two third of the steam is only going to this place evaporation drum
two third of the steam this is two third of the steam and where the one third of the steam is going,
one third of the steam which is high temperature if you look at the a specifications of the boiler
which I forgot tell you earlier the capacity is hundred tones per hour pressure is 140 bar and
temperature is 500 degree centigrade.

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So superheated steam is very on high temperature so one third of the steam is used for generating
power in high pressure turbine after expansion in the turbine right it again goes for heating this is
again heating cycle. So the steam goes for reheating and then it goes to low pressure turbine
drum this is low pressure turbine drum right the exhaust of low pressure turbine shall have I
mean sufficient energy for another process.

So it can be used for some process so it can go for some doing some process for the process it
can be used for process heat and remaining two third of water for superheated vapour it will go
to the evaporation drum where evaporation of saturated liquid is taking place form of the steam
and the rest of the cycle already explained.

So it appears to be slightly complicated because here we are not generating the steam but directly
heating from the flue gases through the flue gases simply the superheated steam is obtained and
this superheated steam is used for heating the water in the evaporator. Now the best part is there
is no suiting here normally this boiler is used for marine application right there is not sooting
here that is the best part of it so we can go for saline water also here in this boiler right.

So and rest of the characteristics are I mean rest of the things are same addition to that we are
getting output also to this turbines this two turbines we are getting the output from this boiler it is
a compact boiler and actual boiler this is also only schematic representation of this boiler actual
boiler if we look at it is quite different from this I mean but the basic working of the movement
of fluid is like this only now after this we will take up the last one is Velox boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:43)

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Now Velox boiler now let us write first characteristic of this boiler the capacity of this boiler is
the boiler is 100 tones per hour and efficiency you will be you may be surprised in this only 55 to
60 % and it is a fire tube boiler it is not a water it is fire tube that is unique test of this boiler. It is
high pressure fire tube boiler normally they are high pressure fire tube boilers this one is high
pressure fire tube boilers and this boiler contains gas turbine compressor feed pump rest of the
things are same feed pump and generator and all.

But the main thing is it consist of gas turbine and compressor as well right and the flow of gases
is supersonic air this boiler the flow of the flue gases is first of all I will show the schematic of
the boiler right.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:16)

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Again there is a sort of vessel in this vessel the fuel is supplied there is a fuel tank and from the
fuel tank there is a feed pump and through the feed pump the fuel is supplied through this boiler
this boiler is also supplied air at 3 bar pressure of the air is 3 bar. Now this air pumps this fuel
and the velocity of the flue gases where even remain same because 3 bar schematic pressure is
quite high pressure.

So at this pressure the velocity of the flue gases in this boiler is the supersonic the velocity of the
flue gases is supersonic and their vertical tubes and there are fire tubes it means the concentric
tubes inside tube there is a flue gas and in annulas space there is water. So they are fire tubes and
this fire tubes have annular space which is filled with the water and water is circulated with the
help of the pump there is a pump which circulates water in the annular space.

There is a steam separator which is connected so pump is drawing water from steam separator
and generated steam is going back to the steam separator so it is a closed loop So it is drawing
steam from the separator after generation of the steam a steam is collected in the steam separator.
Every high boiler pressure must have a super heater so super heating arrangement is made and
flue gases from this chamber they go to the super heater there is a super heater.

So the steam saturated steam is collected here so this saturated steam goes the super heater is it
clear steam is generated here in this housing there is a separation steam separator where water

133
and the steam are separated the steam generated because it has to be superheated, super heating
arrangement is made and this area is filled with the flue gases right then superheated steam then
can be used for process work.

I mean it can go to the turbine generate power but still we have flue gases and their flue gases are
at very high temperature. Now here in this case the turbine and compressor combination is taken
first the gases are run through a turbine gas turbine there is a gas turbine. So gases are pass
through a gas turbine and gas turbine runs a compressor now the gas turbine runs a now this gas
turbine is coupled with a compressor so is coupled with a compressor right.

Compressor takes air from the surroundings and the air is compressed and is sent for burning the
fuel right so the high pressurization of ambient air is done with the compressor. Compressor runs
with the help of gas turbine and gas turbines runs with the flue gases coming out of the super
heater. Now exhaust of the gas turbine because gas turbine exhaust temperature gas temperature
is also quite high after extracting high grade energy from the heat is still the temperature of the
gas is coming out of the gas turbine is high.

So this high temperature gas turbine gases are sent to the economizer for heating the feed water
so there is a economizer in this economizer the feed water is heated and then feed water is
supplied to the separation tank. So the exhaust from the gas turbine it is sent to the economizer
this economizer where exchange of heat takes place that then heat is sent to the movement of
flue gases right.

So this is economizer feed water comes from here so feed water coming from the feed water tank
it is sent to the economizer where exchange of heat takes place between the flue gases and the
feed water and this high temperature feed water is again sent to the separator and from here again
the same cycle takes place. So this is the working of Velox boiler and specialty of this boiler is
there pressurization of air which is used for burning the fuel is done with the help of exhaust
gases coming from the super heater.

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It is a compact boiler it is a compact boiler it is a very quick start type of boiler it is a quick start
type of boiler very high combustion rate and excess air which is required for the burning of fuel
is less in this boiler because there is a lot turbulence in the boiler in addition to this boilers there
are fluidized boiler also which are now a days very popular.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:31)

Fluidized bed boiler these boiler they come in different combination and fluidized bed boiler
there is a bed of may be refractory sand of very fine particles and this bed is heated with the help
of flammable gases which is LPG right. And when the temperature of this bed is two fifty degree
centigrade right and air passed from the bottom that is why it is called fluidized bed these fine
particles they suspend into the air.

So from the bottom side their holes in the bottom side or provision of supply of the air from the
bottom side and this bed is filled with the refractory sand or some other material and air is passed
from the bottom side these fine particles they do suspend in the air by the pressure of air and
these particles are then heated with the by burning fuel in this bed and the temperature of the bed
is increased to 650 degree centigrade.

I am simply explaining the working of principle of fluidized bed boiler their many their available
many combinations after that attaining the temperature of 650 degree centigrade coal is put on
the fluidized bed right and the auxiliary fuel I will call it auxiliary fuel which was used for

135
raising temperature of the sand 650 degree centigrade the supply is cut off and now coal burns on
a fluidized bed.

Complete combustion of coal takes place in this case fluidized bed can be of dolomite also in
some applications dolomite also used. Dolomite is calcium magnesium carbonate, so dolomite
stone is also used instead opf refractory sand in fluidized bed in such type of boiler.
And there are two types in classification is there the depth of bed is one feet less than one feet it
is known as shallow bed right so in that case it is less than thirty centimeter right and deep bed
boiler when it is greater than 100 centimeter.

So this is how the classification of fluidized bed boiler is done and the air velocity remains
approximately 2.5 meters per second okay. And another thing is we can do the desulfurization
can also be done here so that sulfur does not go with the flue gases. So for the desulfurization the
dolomite or lime stone also can be used we can put some lime stone here.

So desulfurization can also take place so the fluidized bed boiler also becoming popular their
efficiency is quite high and complete burning of fuel takes place in such type of boiler. So I think
that is all for today and in the next class we will start with the draft.

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 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 03
Lecture No # 12
Draught

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems and today we will
discuss draught.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:32)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:39)

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Draught is small pressure difference causing flow of air and gases through the boiler it is
essential to supply sufficient quantity of air through the grate because fuel is burnt in the grate
and designer have to ensure that there is sufficient amount of air which is available in the grater
otherwise the fuel will not burn and efficiency of the boiler will may go down.

In order to provide sufficient burning of the or complete combustion of the fuel in the grate the
air circulation has to be maintained there are two ways of circulating air one is we provide a
pump or fan at this side or on this side or we may provision for natural circulation of air. Natural
circulation is always preferred because it does not consume any energy right it may have some
fixed high initial cost but recurring cost is zero in case of we use natural methods of circulation
of air in the grate.

You must have observed in your house that during winter season when temperature inside is let
us say 25 degree centigrade if it is air conditioned house right. In any case outside temperature is
lower than the inside temperature TO is lower than TI. Now in winter you must have observed the
air outside air enters the house from the openings at the bottom of the structure like from the
bottom of the door or bottom of the window and this air comes into the room because of the
reason of pressure drop between outside and inside air.

Outside air is at lower temperature lower temperature is if you look at the density of the air
because the pressure is in a fluid is function of the density. So pressure is ρ GH H is the height of
the room right G is constant H is constant in ideal gas PV = MRT. P is pressure V is volume R is
gas constant T is temperature absolute temperature and density = M by V = P by RT.

If pressure is remaining constant this is constant this is constant for air if we reduce the
temperature the density will increase. So density is the function of temperature outside
temperature is lower than the inside temperature. So that is why the density of outside air is
larger than or will more than the density of air which is inside the room. And if we go by this
equation the pressure at point one which is greater than pressure at point two right air will enter.

138
But when we are moving in upward direction the reduction is pressure outside will be more than
the reduction pressure inside because density of the air is large and for this reason when air
reaches hot gases reaches here they reach here then pressure at this point is larger than the
pressure with the surroundings. Now let us take case of chimney if chimney is the vertical
structure may be circular or hexagonal or square it is not necessary to be circular.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:16)

So if you take the chimney here the fuel is burnt air is coming from outside air is coming in when
it is reaching at the top it is reaching at the top with certain velocity and with certain higher
pressure and it is leaving at the top. Now here in this case height of the chimney becomes
important because if you increase the height of the chimney this pressure difference will also
change.

So if you make the chimney higher and higher I mean if you keep on increasing the length of the
chimney or height of the chimney the pressure difference will increase but there is a limitation
because in the boilers the pressure drop can vary this is known as draught and this pressure
difference may vary from 200 to 3500 pascal right but if you want to have the chimney for 3500
pascal the length will go in hundreds of the meter that we will discuss later on.

First of all we will discuss the chimney for the natural circulation of air right that is known as
draught and the height of the chimney is crucial here so we will first of all we will calculate the

139
height of the chimney before we go for such calculation let us understand the theory of
combustion. Normally in fuel it is carbon or hydrogen up to 80% it is carbon 75, 85 % or it can
go up to 85 %.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:01)

So carbon is burnt with oxygen and forms CO2 so one volume of carbon, one volume of oxygen
will give you one volume of carbon dioxide right. It means say this is not very significant it
means the volume of air because nitrogen does not participate in the combustion process. So
volume of the air is equal to the volume of flue gases right and volume of air is equal to the
volume of the flue gases in the case when temperature is same.

If the temperature will vary then volume will vary so normally flue temperature gases
temperature is high but if you take both of them at the same temperature the volume is going to
remain same. Second part is hydrogen is burning then then it is oxygen and then H 2O then two
then two. So two volumes of hydrogen one volume of oxygen is two volume of H 2 two volume
of water hydrogen oxide.

But here in this case hydrogen is only 4 or 5 % it is fuel it is not significant portion is significant
fraction is carbon. So we will not take into account where doing the calculation right and we will
take we will assume that same temperature the volume of air is equal to volume of flue gases for
calculating hydrogen because density is function of temperature.

140
(Refer Slide Time: 08:05)

So we will have in order to find the height of the chimney we will have a reference value of
density right and this reference value is temperature zero degree centigrade that is 273 kelvin and
pressure is 100 and 1.3 kilo pascal right. So if we take temperature 273 kelvin the volume of flue
gases should be is call the density of flue gases should be equal to or volume of the flue gases
should be equal to the volume of air.

So the density reference density O = PRT so here we can take density of air RHO A = P over
RTA or we can say that this is P this P is same. We will take here also P over R TO multiplied by
To by TA we are taking this as a reference density. So density of air RHO A = RHO multiplied
by To by Ta similarly for at temperature TG this is temperature of the hot gases right.

Temperature of the hot gases the density is RHO To by TG volume of air volume of air is equal
to gases at the same temperature. If air is brought to the TG PG then density of the air going to
be like this.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:58)

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Now velocity sorry volume of air now we have density now volume of air is equal to mass of the
air divide by density of air now mass of air means mass of air for the combustion of 1 KG of fuel
one KG of coal or KG of fuel. So M is the mass of air which is required for combustion of one
KG of fuel so the volume of air is going to be this much or it is going to be M by ρ T O /TA or
MTA right.

Volume of the gas it is going to be M T g ρO / T because temperature air is increasing to T g that

will become the temperature gas because we have already established that the volume of the air
is equal to that the volume of the gas at the same temperature. Now pressure of the air pressure
of the air is H ρG where H is the height of the chimney we have assume certain height of the
chimney H right and pressure of the air is H ρAG = H ρO To / TA ×G right.

Now density of flue gases now density of air density of flue gases density of the flue gases is
mass of the flue gases divided by the volume of flue gases. Mass of the flue gases is not M, M is
the mass of the air Mass of the flue gases is M + 1 this is mass of the flue gases because M AG
of the gas is used for burning one KG of fuel. So mass of the flue gases is M + 1 volume is this.

So density is M + 1 / M T G ρ TO is it clear now we have density of flue gases, flue gases is

moving in the chimney we have density of air we will use the formula ρ GH and if we use the
formula ρ GH then.

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(Refer Slide Time: 13:06)

So the ∆P will be ρAGH - ρlue gases GH, GH will come out and we will get GH will come out and
then we will get what we are going to get ρ o TO / TA that is ρA- M + 1 / M ρo To / T is it clear.
Now this GH again multiplied by ρo TO then we will get 1/ Ta - M + 1 / M1 / T.

Now here the main thing is calculation of density of flue gases so in order to find the density of
the flue gases first of all we have assumed or it is established that the volume of air is equal to
volume of air is equal to volume of flue gases volume of the flue gases at the same temperature
then we calculate volume of air at temperature TG that is temperature of the flue gases right and
that becomes the volume of the flue gases also.

Mass of the flue gases is M + 1 it is not M so that is how we are getting this expression now ρ o To
is ρ = P /R To. So ρ TO is P / R P is the constant P = 101.3, R = P ρ .287 and it is kilo pascal this
is P = 101.3 kilo pascal and R = 0.287 this is for air is kilo joules per Kg kelvin sorry Kg kelvin
this Kg is small K Kg kelvin.

So we have taken this ratio if we take this ratio hundred 1.3 / .287 it comes around sorry hundred
and 1.3 / .287 it comes around 352.96 or approximately 353. So we can re write here that this
pressure difference is into 353 and this is pressure difference right now H is the height of the

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chimney now pressure difference in sometimes it is taken in millimeter of water and millimeters
of water it is earlier practice.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:00)

But normally 1 millimeter of water one mm of water is approximately equal to 9.8 pascal or it is
approximately 10 pascal. Because in SI system we do not use this system millimeter or
centimeter earlier in each point system it was inches of water half, half inch of water or quarter
inch of water but now a days pressure difference is expressed in terms of pascal only.

So we will take in terms of pascal so this is the pressure for the pressure difference or the draught
developed in chimney of height H. It is a function of now here it we can make some
interpretation out of it because main thing is interpretation it is a function of T G and TA and M +
1 by M it is ratio. So if we are using chimney for one boiler are two boiler or three boilers if
there are identical boilers.

We are increasing the number of boilers this ratio is remaining same if there are identical or if
they are same boiler if we have burning more fuel. If we are burning more fuel then this ratio
will remain same because it is M is the mass of air required for burning 1 KG of fuel right.

So but the cross section area will increase cross section of the chimney will increase because it
will have to accommodate more flue gases but the height of the chimney will remain the same

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for this pressure difference. Now we can take one example if we take example I think the
understanding of phenomena will be clear.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:41)

Calculate minimum height of the chimney required to produce a draught of 200 pascal. If 20 KG
of air required to burn 1 KG of fuel on the grate the mean temperature of the flue gases is in the
chimney is 350 degree centigrade the ambient temperature is 25 degree centigrade.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:05)

It means that delta P is 200 pascal in terms of millimeter it come around approximately 20
millimeters right. So delta P is 200 pascal temperature of hot gases it is 350 degree centigrade.
So it has to be converted into kelvin this one should not forget so 350 + 273 = 623 kelvin.

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Temperature of ambient air Ta is again 25 degree centigrade it is 25 + 273 = 298 kelvin now we
have value of TG we have the value of TA. M is 20 KG we can put this values here and height of
the chimney minimum height of the chimney as to be calculated. Delta P is 200 I think we have
all the information except H.

From here we can calculate the value of H and H will be approximately 34.6 meter
approximately or we can take 350 meters. I mean 34.6 is minimum so height of the chimney is
more than this. So it can be 36 meters so that proper draught is produced for the circulation of air
through the grate through the top of the chimney.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:50)

There are two things one is chimney sorry the chimney another is stack and another is second is
chimney. Now chimney normally has brick work I mean it can have any shape here circular or it
can be a rectangular or hexagonal but it has brick work. If stack is by click and for chimney we
can go for greater height than for a stack even in locomotive engine you must have seen stack in
a locomotive engine M at the top it is project where from the flue gases are coming out in steam
engine that is the stack.

In the boiler also static boilers also so stack is used but the stack is used but the height of the
stack is not it is not comparable with the height of the chimney. Height of the chimney is

146
normally more than the height of the stack. So for a light load application normally a stack is
used and we can use chimney for higher load applicatrions
(Refer Slide Time: 21:58)

But chimney for natural draught you must have seen that is that the top it is tapering it is not
straight normally it is tapering. Tapering is provided just to increase the velocity of the flue gases
that is one thing second thing is recently we calculated that for 200 pascal the height of the
chimney was approximately 35 meters right.

If you calculate the height of the chimney for 1000 pascals it will be will be very large and even
35 meters means approximately 10 or 11 storage building it is quite large. So for high pressure
high draught chimney is not a feasible solutions or natural circulation also chimney is there but
natural circulation of chimney is there. Chimney has to be there to remove the flue gases but
natural circulation of flue gases is not a feasible solution.

So induced draught is produced so for induced draught fans are provided so fans are provide
suppose there is grate fans can be provided at the inlet where air is supplied or pressure inside the
chimney is positive pressure. So the system is pressurized another is at the end of the chimney
the fan is provide this fan sucks the air through the chimney so the vacuum is created and when
the vacuum is the grate is created air automatically rush in from surroundings or from the
outside.

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So either it can be induced draught circulation of air in the system or a force draught or mix of
two we have arrangement we have we are forcing air through the grate and the same time we
have pulling out air through the chimney and from the grate as well so combination of this two is
also possible ok. So the draught we can have induced draught or natural draught for natural
draught we have already calculated the height of the chimney because a particular height of the
chimney is required to produce certain amount of pressure difference because it is game of
pressure difference.

So pressure difference can be provided by providing a chimney right and by natural pressure
difference due to virtue of temperature difference inside the chimney outside the chimney
circulation will takes place that is known as natural draught and if we are providing the fans then
it is artificial draught. In artificial draught external energy is required natural draught no external
energy is required some maintenance has to be there fans here will be subjected to very high
temperature.

So bearing and all have to be one jacketed for the cooling purposes so this type of arrangement
have to be made for the circulation of air in the grate that is all for today from the next class we
will start with the performance of boiler.

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 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 03
Lecture No # 13
Performance of Boiler

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we will discuss
about the performance of boilers. Now the performance of boiler there many terms through
which we can judge the performance of boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:35)

The number one is evaporation rate mass of the steam produce by the boiler divided by per KG
of fuel or mass of the steam produced by the boiler per meter square of heating surface area or
mass of the steam produced by the boiler divided by volume of the grate that is also in meter
cube. So either of these three we can express the evaporation rate but the evaporation rate
problem with the evaporation rate is that.

The evaporation rate does not represent true performance of the boiler the reason being we have
taken mass of the steam. If we take 1 KG of the steam at 100 degree centigrade and 1 KG of
steam at 250 degree centigrade at 1 bar and at 10 bar if we take steam at 250 degree centigrade in

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all these three conditions the energy with the steam will be different and the highest energy will
available with this steam but this expression does not take into account this phenomena.

That is why the evaporation rate is not considered as of true representatives of the boiler
performance. Now this is term is placed by equivalent evaporation now equivalent evaporation is
expressed in terms of energy. It means energy going with the steam and energy spent in order to
have that steam.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:34)

It means the mass of the steam produced is M then H G - HF that is the energy going with this
steam. If you look at the rankine cycle then pressure and entropy then state one state two state
three four and state 5. Heat edition in the rankine cycle takes place in state between the state four
to state one the feed water goes to the boiler at state four and state one.

So here also accordingly with reference to this diagram this is going to be heat taken away by the
steam divided by mass of the fuel burn and calorific value of fuel so this is known as so this is
known not equivalent to evaporation rate. Now this is divided by this is divided by 2257 is
enthalpy of evaporation of water at 100 degree centigrade at atmospheric pressure at sea level
one point sorry a 101.325 kilopascal right.

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At this pressure right if the water is available at 100 degree centigrade the entire water is
converted into the steam at 100 degree centigrade the latent heat is going to be 2257 equivalence
to this the evaporation rate is taken this is the two representative of the performance of the boiler
right. Another term is boiler efficiency every equipment’s has to have an efficiency.

So the boilers also having efficiency so equivalent evaporation rate gives idea about how much
energy going with the steam right. So we starting with evaporation rate evaporation rate is the
steam reduced and the mass of the steam produced and the ratio of mass of the steam produced
and energy is spent in producing that steam. So evaporation rate does not seem to be the true
representative of boiler performance.

Then we have come to the another term equivalent evaporation rate that is energy going with the
steam divided by latent heat of evaporation at 100 degree centigrade atmospheric pressure. Now
we will come to efficiency of the boiler, efficiency of the boiler is energy going with this steam
mass of this steam H1 - H4 divided by calorific value of fuel and mass of the fuel burn energy is
spent and energy is used in generating the steam that is the boiler efficiency.

If all super heater and economizer they are housed in one shell then no problem if there has a
separate entity then boiler efficiency the total then it is called overall efficiency is the efficiency
of the boiler multiplied by efficiency of the economizer multiplied by efficiency of super heater
right. And all are taken in terms of the ratio of energy suppose an example economizer energy
available with the flue gases, energy taken away by water.

So energy taken away by water divided by energy available with the flue gases will give the
efficiency of the economizer accordingly the efficiency of the super heater can also be
calculated. Now normally loses in the boilers as we have discussed in earlier lecture also may
vary from 10% to 20% and 25% now the issue is where this heat is going.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:17)

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That the energy is converted into the steam then where this heat is going now this heat is going
with number one flue gases because the temperature of flue gases is quite high when they are
coming out of the boiler it is of the order of 300 degree centigrade it is approximately 300
centigrade ok. So this heat is going with the flue gases though we try to trap this heat through
economizer and pre heater but still substantial amount of heat go with the flue gases.

Number two loss due to radiation the boiler surface temperature is higher than the surroundings
so there is a heat loss to the surroundings per radiation or convection. So that also amounts to the
heat loss of the boiler number three is incomplete combustion now incomplete combustion
means the carbon normally if we take solid fuel right that the carbon is greater than 80% ok.

So the carbon is converted to carbon di oxide and carbon is also converted into carbon monoxide
and this conversion of carbon in monoxide r this is known as incomplete combustion right. And
the heat generated for the oxidation on carbon in to carbon monoxide is less than the heat
generated for the oxidation of carbon di oxide. So there is a net heat rendition loss also.

So due to this incomplete combustion there is a heat loss now there is unburned fuel some of the
fuel remains unburned in goes to ash pit right. It does not participate in the combustion so that
also amounts to the loss because when we are taking total energy. Total energy is the mass of the

152
fuel used multiplied by the calorific value of fuel. If the fuel is going to the ash pit that fuel is not
participating or not contributing in increasing the energy of feed water.

So all this factors a cumulative effect of all this factors turns out to be forms of losses in the
boiler and well-designed boiler will have efficiency between 85 to 90%.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:19)

Now in order to understand this we will solve one short numerical it says that the statement of
the problem is calculate the equivalent evaporation and efficiency of the boiler. A steam
generation rate is 6.3 tones per hour a steam pressure is 10 bar quality of the steam at the exit of
the boiler is .95. Feed water temperature the water which is going to the boiler is 35 degree
centigrade.

Coal consumption it is coal is used as fuel and the coal consumption is .7 tone per hour calorific
value coal is also given 30 mega joules per kg. Find the saving in coal consumption per hour if
the temperature of feed water is raised to 200 degree centigrade and the boiler efficiency is
increased by 5 % other data remains same. So there is a modified condition when the feed water
temperature raised to 100 degree centigrade then the boiler efficiency is also improved
simultaneously.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:15)

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It means in a rankine cycle in this rankine cycle initially feed water was given at state four 35
degree centigrade then feed water was heated up to 100 degree centigrade in second condition so
state is somewhere here and final state is remaining same right. So we will start with enthalpy of
the steam enthalpy of the steam or enthalpy of the steam that enthalpy now here in this case the
quality of the steam is .95 dry it will not be superheated.

So steam is expanded from one and two right so enthalpy of the steam is enthalpy of the fluid +
X enthalpy Hfg latent heat of evaporation. Steam is produced at 10 bar so we will take properties
at 10 bar properties are given here hf is 762.52 and latent heat is 2014.58. So hs enthalpy of the
steam 762.52+ 0.95 × 2014.58 right.

And through this we get finally the value as 2676.37 kilo joules per kg. This is enthalpy of steam
at state 1 now enthalpy of water is state 4 is water is available at 35 degree centigrade right and
35 degree saturated enthalpy at saturated steam is 146.63 kilo joules per kg.

It is sub cool liquid right it is sub cool liquid and enthalpy is taken as 146.63 so the heat added Q
is hs – hw4 = 2676.37 – 146.63 and that is going to be equal to 2676.374 kilo joules per kg right.
So heat added Q = 2529.74 kilo joules per kg.

Now steam generated per kg of coal steam generation rate is 6.3 tones per hour.

154
(Refer Slide Time: 15:02)

So steam generation rate is 6.3 tones per hour or 1600 kg per hour and coal consumption is .7
tones per hour 700 kg per hour. So per kg is burnt per kg of coal then we will be getting 9 kg of a
steam per kg of coal. So equivalent evaporation is in this case is mass of the steam produced
multiplied by energy spent in converting water into the steam it is 9 ×2529.74 divided by 2257.

And that will give the equivalent evaporation as 10.088 right now efficiency of the boiler. Now if
we want to calculate efficiency of the boiler in this case 2529.74 that is heat taken away by 1 kg
of water multiplied by 9 divided by calorific value of the fuel 1 kg of fuel that is 32 mega joules
per kg . So 32 kilo joules thirty two thousand kilo joules and if we solve this.

So it is going to be 0.711or it is going to be 71.1 % so that is the efficiency of the boiler. Now
new condition is efficiency is 71.1 + 5 first of all so it is 76.1 % that is new efficiency and
another condition is water is heated up to 100 degree centigrade right.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:18)

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And water is heated up to 100 degree centigrade means heat added is h 1 – h6 suppose it is heated
up to 100 degree centigrade is six h1 – h6 right. So in modified condition it is going to be h1 was
in previous case h1 was 2676.37 kilo joules per kg h1 we have already calculated it. Now h6 is
again we will have to refer this steam table at now it is 100 centigrade right.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:07)

So 100 degree centigrade property is or it is heated up to 100 degree centigrade properties are not
there but I have property with me 100 degree centigrade. Now feed water is heated up to 100
degree centigrade so h6 is 419.17 kilo joules per kg. Now here in this case heat supplied in the
boiler in modified case is Q = h1- h6 multiplies by mass of the steam divided by efficiency of the
boiler which is modified.

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Now h1 is 2676.37 h6 is 419.97 mass of the steam produced is 6300 modified efficiency of the
boiler is 0.761 and this will give the heat supplied as.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:18)

Now we will find mass of the fuel burned per hour right mass of the fuel burned per hour is heat
supplied heat supplied is the simplification of this that is going to be 18686412.6 divided by
calorific value of fuel that is 32,000 kilo joules per kg and that’s it calorific value of fuel. So this
will give the mass of the fuel is 583.95 five kg per hour.

So what you have done here we have taken the modified boiler efficiency modified heat addition
then h1 - h6 multiplied by the steam mass of the steam produced per hour. This will give us how
much energy will be required per hour divided by calorific value of fuel because it is mega joule
mega joule is converted into the kilo joules and finally we got the mass of the fuel required per
hour.

Now in the previous condition the mass of the fuel was how much 700 kg per hour so you can
see how much fuel can be saved in with the modified conditions of the boiler. Now after this we
can take another numerical and here in this numerical the steam pressure is 1.2 per mega Pascal.
quality of steam leaving the boiler quality of the steam leaving the boiler is .97 so it is wet steam.

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Temperature of the steam is leaving the super heater so super heater is also used in addition to
the boiler that is 250 degree centigrade quantity of coal fire is 750 kg per hour feed water
supplied is 115 kg per minute.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:24)

So whatever feed water is supplied we assume that this is the amount of heat sorry the steam
generation calorific value of coal is here is 32 mega joules per kg. Feed water temperature
entering leaving the economizer so economizer is also used in this boiler. So feed water heater
and economizer is also used so that is 25 degree centigrade to eighty degree centigrade.

Find thermal efficiency of the boiler so this boiler has super heater right super heater this state
seven and then vapor is expanded so instead of having a only boiler there is a super heater also
and in super heater the vapor are heated and then they are expanded in the turbine right. So in
order to find a solution for this problem first of all we will see how much the steam is produced
per kg of coal.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:32)

158
So steam produced here is a steam produced is 115 kg and that is kg per minute and coal is 1 kg
per hour divided by 750 / 50 so that will give mass of the steam produced per kg of coal that is
9.2 kg per kg of coal. This is mass of the steam produced by burning per kg of coal heat added in
economizer is h80 – h25 that is going to be = 335.01– 104.83 and that = 230.18 kilo joules per kg.

Heat added in the boiler is enthalpy at state 1 and enthalpy of feed water so enthalpy of state 1 is
we can take from here at 1200 kilo pascal then enthalpy of liquid is 798.33 and latent heat is
1985.37. So we will take here 798 .33 + 0.97 into 1985.37 it turns out to be 2724.1 kilo joules
per kg.

Enthalpy of the feed water is 335.01 h80 that is 335.01 and hb - hw will give us how much heat is
added in the boiler and that is going to be = 2935.6 kJ per kg. Now heat is also added in super
heater so heat added in super heater is enthalpy of superheated vapor so 1200 kilo Pascal and 250
degree centigrade.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:55)

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So enthalpy is 2935.6 kilo joules per kg so heat added in super heater is h s - or h7 – h1 that is
2935.6 - this 2724.14 that enthalpy at state 1. And that will give heat added in super heater is
211.46 Kilo joules per kg. So this is heat added in super heater there is correction here minus this
is going to be not 2935 it is 2724.1- 335.01.

2389.09 right so this is heat added in boiler this is heat added in super heater heat added in
economizer already calculated and heat added in economizer was 230.18. Now we will add these
three component this one this one and this one and this will give the total heat added in the
process and the total heat added in the process is Q 283.77 kilo joules per kg.

Now once we have the value now we have to find out sorry thermal efficiency of the boiler now
once we have this value and we know the calorific value of fuel also 32 mega joules per kg. Now
this is multiplied by how much steam is generated.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:17)

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So Q in order to find the efficiency Q 2830.77 ×9.2 amount of steam produced by burning 1 kg
of coal divide by 32×1000 and this will give the efficiency as 0.814 or 81.4 %. And the second
term is heat absorbed by the feed water in various components as a % of total absorbed this is
total heat and for individual component.

We know how much heat is absorbed for example for economizer it is 230.18 /2830.77 ×100 that
will give 8.13 % similarly for other components boiler and super heater we can find the
efficiencies. The efficiencies are 84.4 % and 7.47 %. That is amount of heat absorbed in different
component right now this is all for today thank you very much.

161
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 03
Lecture No # 14
Combustion of Fuel

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power system today we will discuss
about the combustion of fuel. Now in boilers solid and liquid fuel is used and in all the cases
gases fuel is also used in boilers and when we burn the fuel the immediately the fuel air ratio is
comes into the picture.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

Fuel air ratio denotes how much air for burning the fuel right and there is a term equivalence
ratio. If air is just sufficient to burn the fuel or it stoichiometric ratio stoichiometric means air is
just sufficient to burn the fuel. So there is no excess of the fuel there is sorry there is no excess of
the air and there is no scarcity of the air right.

So when stoichiometric ratio is maintained then equivalence ratio is one but excess when the
excesss air is supplied then equivalence ratio is less than one may be .9 and when the excess of
the fuel is there in that case equivalence ratio is greater than one may be 1.05 or 1.1 or 1.2 when

162
excess of fuel is there is a phenomena of incomplete combustion. It means carbon is oxidized
oxides or oxidized as CO2 while burning and carbon can also be oxidized as carbon monoxide.

But heat liberated in this process much more than heat liberated in this process so there is a it is
combustion it is incomplete combustion and due to this incomplete combustion of oxidation of
carbon the less of amount of heat is liberated during combustion right. This happens when there
is scarcity of oxygen in mixture or the equivalence ratio is greater than one or the mixture is rich
it is not stoichiometric it is mixture.

Another characteristic of the fuel is flash point flash point is the temperature if we start
increasing the temperature of the fuel the vapors will be generated and these vapors are volatile
vapors. So initial spark which burns the vapor combustion is not sustained in flash point the
combustion is not sustained another is fire point. In fire point the combustion is sustained so fire
point definitely higher than the flash point.

Third one is second one sorry this is second one is pour point these are all physical characteristic
of the fuel with pour point. The pour point is the minimum temperature at which the fuel is liquid
fuel is flowable. So that temperature is known as pour point and there is another term which will
find interesting is cloud point.

So cloud point is a temperature at which the solidification of wax present in the fuel takes place
so it becomes white surface becomes a little whitish and that is known as cloud point of fuel.
Now burning of the boiler as I stated earlier we have solid fuel liquid fuel and we can also use
gases fuel as well.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:32)

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We will start with the solid fuel solid fuel in solid fuel coal is the fuel coal is used as fuel in the
boiler and analysis has to be because there is a large variety of the coal having difference
composition of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen or sulphur. So analysis has to be done of the
fuel and there are two types of analysis one is proximity analysis and another is ultimate analysis
in ultimate analysis everything analyzed.

What is the percentage of carbon? What is the percent of hydrogen? What is the percentage of
oxygen? What is the percentage of sulphur? Right how much the amount is ash everything is
determined and that is done through ultimate analysis. In proximity analysis normally moisture
what is the moisture amount of moisture in the fuel. What is the percentage of volatile material in
the fuel what is the percentage of ash in the fuel that is determined through proximity analysis.

Now I will give you certain idea about the figure for example carbon, carbon can vary from 50 to
95 % in coal. If you take anthracite coal it can go up to 95 % oxygen can vary from 2 to 40 %.
Coal can have 40% of for example peat coal I will give you the table also it can go up to 40 %
hydrogen can also be 2 to 50 % nitrogen 0.5 to 3 %.

Sulphur can also be up to 7 % and ash can go up to 2 to 30 % so there is a wide range. So simply
saying we are using coal as fuel is not sufficient we have to specify which quality of coal is
being used.

164
(Refer Slide Time: 07:06)

Normally available coal in nature is peat coal another is lignite third one is bituminous and fourth
one is anthracite. Now let us take the case of moisture how much moisture is there peat coal as
approximately 20% moisture it is in percentage by mass. So all the figure are percentage by mass
so it is 20% peat coal can have 20% moisture lignite 15, bituminous 2, anthracite 1.

So it is almost dry normally this goes bituminous and anthracite they are only 2 % or 1 %
moisture. Volatile material it is 65 %, 50 %, 25 % and 4 % right. Now let us come to carbon and
hydrogen now percentage of carbon in peat coal only 43 % by mass lignite it is 56 % bituminous
is 74 % and anthracite is goes up to 90 %.

So it is the highest quality of coal because it is carbon which will get oxidized generates heat
majority of heat comes from the carbon right. So it is 90 % in anthracite now hydrogen is 6.4 %
peat 5.76 and 3.3 % in anthracite.

So highest hydrogen is peat coal or followed by the lignite coal oxygen in peat coal it goes upto
44 % lignite 32 %, 13 %, 2.5 % peat surprisingly 44 % carbon is 43 % and oxygen this is 44 %.
Ash content it is 4 % 4.25, 4.75 and 2.97.

165
So this is the best quality of coal ash is also 2.97% calorific value which is of the most concern.
Calorific value of this coal is 30.4 mega joules per kg this is 10.3 mega joules perk g 30.5 mega
joules per kg and 33.5 mega joules per kg . Approximate this is approximate this is ultimate it
can go up to 34 also so it is 33.5 so they are all approximate value.

So here you can make a comparison of the percentage of different components of in different
type of coal. So definitely then anthracite coal is the quality of the coal which consist of 90% of
the carbon and ash content is also 2.97 %. In addition to this solid fuel liquid fuel is also used in
liquid fuel mainly natural gas is used. Natural gas mainly consists of methane and part of ethane
also and mainly it is methane which is there in natural gas.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:06)

So in gases fuel we can use natural gas and coal gas and three is producer gas so these three
gases can be used as a gaseous fuel in boilers. Regarding the liquid fuel paraffin, olefin there are
liquid fuel but petroleum can also be used and if you look at the quality of petroleum or the
composition of.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:48)

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Let us start with CHS carbon, hydrogen and sulfphur for petrol this is liquid fuel though petrol is
not used in boilers normally diesel oil is used is in fuel oil is used in in boilers or LDO light
diesel oil in the small capacity of the boilers. But the petrol the carbon is 85.5 % this is by mass
hydrogen 14.4 % and Sulphur is 0.1 %.

Kerosene 86.3 % carbon 30.4 % hydrogen and 0.1 % Sulphur. Diesel 86.3 % carbon 12.4 %
hydrogen and 0.9 % sulphur. So Sulphur content diesel is high then light fuel oil that is 86.2,
12.4 and 1.4 % the sulphur contain is increasing and heavy fuel oil 86.1, 11.4 and 2.1 the Sulphur
content keep on closing.

Because Sulphur is I mean it leads to the erosion so it damages the damage the environment also
damages the boiler surface also. So Sulphur content is high in that case the special lining has to
be maintained in the path of the flue gases. So the boiler body of the boiler is not damaged by
this element. Now for the oxidation of the carbon I say either carbon di oxide or carbon mono
oxide form.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:55)

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So if the carbon then C + O2 = CO2 it is one mole of C or kilo mole of C react with 1 kilo mole of
O2 and will form kilo mole of CO 2 or 12 kg of carbon will react 32 kg of oxygen and will form
now much 32 + 44 kg of carbon di oxide. So in order to burn 1 kg of carbon how much oxygen
will be required 32 by 12, 8 by 3 kg of oxygen and how much air will be required.

Now this is the amount of oxygen which is required to one kg of carbon now in order to find how
much kg of air is required we should know the composition of air. Composition of air is
expressed in 2 forms 1 is volumetric form 21 % oxygen and 79 % nitrogen though there are some
other gases also like argon. But they are in traces and these are rounded off values right because
if you add them it turns out to be 100%.

So air not mixture of nitrogen and oxygen only they are other like carbon di oxide in normal air
is the carbon di oxide is may be 300 or 400 PPM. So four hundred PPM it means there are in
traces argon gas it is also available in air. But it is also in traces so those gases are neglected
because they are in bulk nitrogen is 79% by volume oxygen is 21 % of volume.

If you take by mass it turns out to be 23 % and 77 % right so once we know how much kg of
oxygen is required the oxygen is only 23 % in the air. So if we divided by 0.23 we will get how
much amount of air is required to burn 1 kg to convert 1 kg of carbon into carbon di oxide.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:24)

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Similarly, if we take the case of carbon mono oxide 2C + O 2 = 2CO so how much 24 kg of 2
moles means 24 kg 24 kg of carbon shall require 32 kg of air right. So 1 kg will require 32 by 24
right again divided by 0.23 if both are available so suppose in the gases both carbon dioxide
suppose if you take the flue gases and do the flue gases analysis and you find carbon dioxide also
in carbo monoxide also.

In that case what we will do we will take the we will calculate the amount of air which is
required by each of the component right and we will add that amount of air and that will be the
final amount of which is required in this case.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:30)

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Now hydrogen is H2 + O2 = H2O so 2H2 it means 4 kg of 2 moles 4 kg of hydrogen shall require
32 kg of oxygen. So 1 kg of hydrogen shall require 8 kg of oxygen but in the fuel itself you must
have seen in the previous table the oxygen is also available. So that oxygen we do not require so
the final amount is going to be H - O by 8 that is the free hydrogen available for free hydrogen
available for burning by the air.

Because this oxygen will take some of the hydrogen right so this amount of hydrogen is
subtracted from the total hydrogen available in the fuel and this balance is available for the
combustion by the air. So this will be taken in the account similarly for Sulphur + oxygen = SO 2
right. Sulphur is 32 so 1 kg of oxygen is required for burning for 1 kg of sulphur.

So individually all this component that is how it is done when we do the analysis regarding the
combustion of the boiler all this component how much oxygen is required and that is divided by
0.23 and then we will get the mass of the air some times what happens because the air is the air
supplied to the boiler is not as per the stoichiometric air fuel ratio. Because the hydrogen is
mixture air will be blown over the fuel and it is not a homogenous mixture.

So excess of air is supplied in the boiler and excess of air can go up to 50 % so there is always
excess of air and the amount of excess of air can go up to 50 % nitrogen does not participate.
There is another way also nitrogen does not participate in the combustion right so if you are able
to calculate or if you able to find nitrogen with the outgoing flue gases. So immediately you can
calculate how much air has been used for the combustion right.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:13)

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So there is a property of fuel that is higher calorific value when all this element are oxidized
enormous heat is liberated and oxidization of heat element the heat is liberated as
1/100{8100 C + 34400 (H – O/8) + 2220 S} Kilo calorie per kg and this is in percentage.
Suppose 86 % suppose C will be take as 86 this is how we get the higher calorific right.

In higher calorific value evaporation of water is not taken into heat used for the evaporation of
water is not taken into the account but heat for the evaporation of water is also used so that heat
is remove from the higher calorific value and in that case it becomes low calorific value. It
means suppose other way we low calorific value of the fuel the steam which is going with the
flue gases are condensed right.

And energy coming from the through condensation of the steam is added to the flue gases that it
becomes higher calorific value this is the difference between higher calorific value and lower
calorific value.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:57)

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Now in order to find the calorific value of the fuel that the instrument which is known as bomb
colorimeter Because finding out calorific value of fuel is also difficult task in bomb colorimeter I
will just give you the schematic diagram there is a cylindrical vessel it is well insulated well
insulated cylindrical vessel. Inside the vessel there is jacket sorry there is a bucket so bucket is
placed inside the vessel and bucket is filled with the water, water I will show by different color.

Bucket is filled with water inside the bucket there is bomb there is a physical entity which is
known as bomb. This bomb is submerge in water right it has fuel pen and certain amount of fuel
is placed in the fuel pen right.

Now at the working principle is this fuel will be heated with electrical heated with the element
electrical element fuel will be heated fuel will burn explosion will takes place and this heat will
be taken away or will be taken by this water which is in the bucket the temperature of the water
will raise that is how we will come to know calorific value of the fuel.

So here in this bucket some arrangements are made one thermometer is made we have to
measure the temperature so one thermometer is fixed in this bucket. In order to have uniform
temperature there is a stirer which is placed here then with the motor which stir the water and
here because now we are burning the fuel along with the element. Element will also burn
element fuel element which is used for heating the fuel will also burn right.

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So when the heat is elaborated this taken by the water the temperature of the water raises and
through heat balance we get the calorific value of water calorific value of fuel. This is for solid
fuel now we want to find the calorific value of gas fuel in order because here it is difficult to find
the calorific value of the gas fuel. So in order to find calorific value of the gas fuel a gas
calorimeter is used.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:05)

In a gas calorific meter there is a burner gas calorimeter in gas calorimeter there is a burner
where gas is suppose burn gas supply is there it is house in a inverted vessel right an inverted
vessel like this it is having water jacket this vessel is having water jacket and there is one water
jacket here also right and water is supplied from this side and water is taken away from this side
from the water jacket right and flue gases coming out of this they will go in this direction.

And water in flue gases will be condensed in a flask and here also water can be collected because
water flow rate is very low. So it is collected in a bucket and then the weight of the bucket is
taken. Now here in this case when the fuel is burnt flue gases go with this direction when the
heat is taken away by the flue gases here the flue gases will leave from here and water will be
condensed will be collected here.

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From another point water will be entering from this side and it will be circulated in the jacket and
it will take all the heat will be removed from this side. Temperature will be measured here
temperature in here inlet temperature at water inlet temperature of water outlet all this
temperature will be measured for weight will be measured and through heat balance the calorific
value of gases will be calculated.

This is how the two ways of calculating the calorific value of solid fuel and gases fuel okay this
is all for today in the next class we will solve some numerical related with the combustion of
fuel.

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 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 03
Lecture No # 15
Combustion of Fuel (Problem Solving)

Hello I welcome you all in this course of steam and gas power systems today we will solve
problem related with the fuel gas analysis.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:34)

In this problem gravimetric analysis of hydrocarbon fuel indicates 80 % of carbon and 14 % of

hydrogen. Determine the percentage analysis of combustion products by mass and by volume
what is the percentage of mass percentage of percentage by mass what is percentage by volume
is there carbon dioxide and in water vapor and maybe carbon monoxide.

And when the 50 % of access air supplied for combustion when 50 % excess air is supplied it is
assumed that there is no formation of carbon monoxide it is only carbon dioxide.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:15)

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So when carbon dioxide carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide C + O 2 = CO2. So 12 KG of 1 mole
means 12 KG of carbon 1 kilo mole 12 KG of carbon will form 44 KG of carbon dioxide right.
So from this we have per KG we have 0.86 KG of carbon will form 44 by 12 multiplied by 0.86
and that will give 3.15 KG of carbon dioxide by mass.

Regarding hydrogen H2 + O2 = H2O two times two times so four kg of hydrogen will give 36 kg
of water vapor or water or 0.14 i.e. 14% will give 36 / 4×0.14 and that is going to be = 1.26 KG
of H2O. Now there is 50 % of excess air we have supplied first of all we have to find the air how
much air is required and then we will calculate how much air excess in KG how much excess air
is there.

So total oxygen required is how much this three point sorry total oxygen required yes so this is
product of combustion now oxygen required for burning 12 KG of carbon 32 KG of oxygen is
required. So for burning of 0.86 of carbon the oxygen required will be 32 by 12 into 0.86 right.
This is for carbon for hydrogen similarly for burning of 4 KG of hydrogen 32 KG of oxygen is
required.

So for 4 KG 32 KG is required and for 0.14 KG 32 by 4 into 0.14 if we take some of this and this
it comes out to be 3. 41 KG of Oxygen this is about the do not get confuse with the product of

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combustion. This is the product of combustion and this is oxygen required for burning carbon
and hydrogen. Now this 3.41 has 50 % excess air it means the excess air is 3.41 into 1.5.

So total air is five point so total air is this is oxygen right now we have using 50% excess air. So
50 % excess oxygen this is not excess air this is excess oxygen so oxygen is 3.41 into 1.5 this is
total oxygen. So total oxygen is 5.115 KG now this is the total oxygen total oxygen divided by
0.23 will give you the total air right.

Now this is total oxygen and what about excess oxygen is 3.41 into 0.5 and this will give around
3.41, 1.705 now the burnt gases are also having nitrogen it is written here determine the
percentage analysis of combustion products by mass and by volume.

So the combustion the nitrogen also go with the flue gases in order to find the quantity of
nitrogen how much nitrogen is going with the flue gases. So this is the quantity of oxygen 5.115
quantity of air divided by 0.23 and amount of nitrogen is multiplied by 0.77. This will give the
amount of nitrogen which is coming out to be 16.932 KG.

So product of combustion we have carbon dioxide 3.15 KG water 1.26 KG nitrogen 16.93 KG.
Oxygen how much oxygen 1.705 KG this is also going so this is the nitrogen out of nitrogen
which is going with the exhaust gases this is all oxygen going with the exhaust gases because
oxygen is supplied with the gases 50 % excess. This is water going with the outgoing gases and
this is the carbon dioxide going with the outgoing gases.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:10)

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So we will make a table so it is CO 2 H2O nitrogen oxygen CO2 is 3.15 this water is 1.26 nitrogen
is 16.93 and water is 1.705. There all one KGs so this is the composition of exhaust gases so
what we have done we have taken from the composition of carbon and hydrogen we have take
we have calculated how much carbon dioxide what how much water will be produced.

How much oxygen will be used for burning the carbon and hydrogen oxidizing for hydrogen and
carbon and that oxygen is 50 % gases because air is 50 excess through oxygen is also 50 %. So
we have calculated the oxygen 50 % oxygen is going with the flue gases and with the quantity of
oxygen gases we have found the quantity of nitrogen okay. Now after this what we have to do
determine the percent analysis of combustion product by mass.

So take some of this okay some of all this is 23.047 this is the sum and then by percentage you
can always take 3.15 divided by this. So 3.15 / 23.047 ×100. Accordingly we will do for this
hydrogen sorry this water nitrogen and oxygen as well and the values are this is 5.47, 73.47, 7.39
and this will be 13.67 okay.

So this is by mass this is G right now volume now we have to convert mass into volume if you
remember if we take 1 kilo mole of any gas it will occupy 22.4 meter cube of volume or 1 mole
will occupy 22.4 liters. So volume occupied by one mole is same for all the gases right and how
will get the mole fraction just mass divided by the molecular weight will get the mole fraction.

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So molecular weight let us take Y is air for 44 this is O it is 18 nitrogen 28 oxygen 32. Now
H2

here we can take the mole fraction so when we take the mole fraction then G is divided by Y. So
let us take G by Y the mole fraction is 0.311, 0.304, 2.624, 0.231. So here we are getting mole
fraction will be percentage of volume because 1 mole is of for all is occupying the same volume.

So here again this sigma G by Y is taken that is 3.47 and again taking percentage this multiplied
by this divided by sigma multiplied by 100. So 0.311 ×100 / 3.47 will give the volumetric
concentration of carbon dioxide that is 8.96 similarly for water is 80.76 for nitrogen 75.62 for
oxygen it is coming for 6.66 right.

This is how the percentage by mass we can convert into percentage by volume because this is
very important. When we deal with the combustion of the fuel when the flue side unborn flue
side it is always in KG’s. But when we do the gas analysis find composition of the gas their
given in percentage in volume. So this conversion of the person who is dealing with the
combustion has to be very comfortable with this conversion.

Conversion in from percentage of mass to percentage of volume and for conversion from
percentage of volume to the percentage of mass. Now in this problem it is required the calculate
the proportion of heat or fuel carried away by the flue gases for the following data. Coal with
calorific value of 30 mega joules per KG.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:18)

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(Refer Slide Time: 12:36)

So the calorific value of the coal is 30 mega joules per KG it as composition carbon 78 %
hydrogen 5 % oxygen 8 % Sulphur 2 % and it has nitrogen also which is 2 % remaining is ash it
is burned in a furnace with 50 % of excess air the flue gases leaving the chimney are at 327
degree centigrade and atmospheric temperature is 15 degree centigrade.

So the temperature of the gases is increased from 15 degree centigrade to 327 degree centigrade.
Assume perfect combustion it means all carbon is converted into carbon di oxide. Specific heat
for dry products is 1045 that is carbon di oxide sulphur di oxide right heat carried away per KG

180
of moisture in the flue gases 3000 kilo joules per KG composition of air is also give as 33% and
77%.

So first of all we will start with the product of combustion now the CO 2 how much CO2 has been
formed. So CO2 is 0.78 × 44 / 12 as we did earlier C + O 2 = CO2 this is 12 and this is 44 for
burning 12 KG of carbon we require 44 KG of sorry we produce 44 KG of carbon dioxide. 32
KG of air is required and 44 KG of carbon di oxide is produced.

So for burning 0.7 to 8 KG of carbon di oxide so carbon 0.78 per KG of carbon this much carbon
di oxide is to be produced and that is equal to 2.86 KG. Similarly, for water for H 2O 0.05 that is
5 % of hydrogen is there and water will be produced multiplied by 9 that is 0.45 KG. Sulphur di
oxide S + O2 = SO2 32 and this is 64 and this is 32.

So one KG two KG of sulphur di oxide is produced with 1 KG of sulphur here the sulphur is
0.02 ×2 = 0.04 KG. So these are the product of combustion we are burning per KG of fuel per
KG of fuel is having .78 carbon which is producing this much carbon di oxide 5 % of hydrogen
which is producing this much of water vapor sulphur di oxide 2 % which is producing this much
of sorry sulphur is 0.2 % which is producing 0.04 KG of sulphur di oxide.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:23)

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So how much oxygen will be required now oxygen required will be oxygen alright here for
carbon 0.78 multiplies by 32 by 12 because oxygen is 32 + O2 = CO2 so this is 32 by 12
multiplied by 0.78 + 0.05 multiplied by 8 as in the case of hydrogen.

H2 + (1/2) = H2O so 1 KG so this will require 8 KG of oxygen another is sulphur di oxide which
will take 1 KG of sorry 0.02 KG of oxygen. So the total oxygen required is 2.5 KG here also
excess of air is required I mean 50 % of air is supplied.

So oxygen is will be there in combustion of products nitrogen will also be there in the
combustion product and that nitrogen will also contain nitrogen in the fuel also this 2 % of the
fuel or 0.02 kg of nitrogen which is already available in the fuel. So that has to added in the
nitrogen so 50 % excess air so this is air required 50 % excess air.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:56)

So 50% excess air is so this is air required so 50 % excess air it means 1.5 just a minute 2.5 KG
of oxygen is available in fuel also. So actual oxygen is not outside oxygen is required 2.5 KG but
oxygen from air supplied is required as 2.5 – 0.08 =2.42 KG. This oxygen will come from air
now 50 % of this is actually supplied for two point and this will be equal to 3.63 KG.

Nitrogen if you want to find nitrogen how much nitrogen is supplied it is 3.63 divided by 0.23
multiplied by 0.77. This will give how much nitrogen supplied that is coming out 12.15 to KG

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nitrogen is coming from here also. So that will also be added here plus 0.02 kg will also be added
here and that will be the final amount of nitrogen in the flue gases.

Now we have all the products of combustion right now heat carried away by the dry products
what are the dry products carbon di oxide sulphur di oxide right. Nitrogen say nitrogen is a part
of air so specific heat for nitrogen and oxygen will take as 1.005 this is specific heat for dry
products means carbon di oxide and sulphur di oxide mean. So we will take only carbon di oxide
and sulphur di oxide and CP 1.0 how much .045 into 327 - 15 that is 925. kilo joules per KG.

Heat carried away by the vapor how much vapor is formed how much hydrogen is form
hydrogen is 0.45. So vapor heat carried away by the vapor 0.45 into three thousand = 1350 kilo
joules per KG sorry kilo joules per KG it is kilo joules this is also kilo joules right. Now heat
carried away by nitrogen and oxygen heat carried away from nitrogen and oxygen is 12.172 right
plus what is the value of oxygen is excess of oxygen is 1.212, 2.42 / 2.

It is 1.2 one this is excess of oxygen this will and this mass mc p here will be 1.005 and ∆ T. All
this values will be added and then we will get the final heat which is going with the flue gases.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:31)

In the nutshell we will find the heat carries away by the flue gases the flue gases consist of
carbon di oxide sulphur di oxide nitrogen oxygen and water vapor. So heat carried away by the

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carbon di oxide and sulphur di oxide can be calculated by using this equation Q = MCP ∆ P.
Where M is the sum of the mass of the carbon di oxide and mass of the sulphur di oxide for both
of them the specific heat is 1.045 kilo joules per KG can be.

TG is 327 degree centigrade that is the temperature of the flue gases and T A is the temperature of
ambient or ambient temperature and this case the heat transfer of dry product as 900 and 45.5
kilo joules. Second is heat carried away by water vapor that is mass of the water vapor multiplied
by enthalpy of moisture?

Enthalpy of moisture is given in the statement of the problem and mass of the hydrogen that is
water vapor is 0.45 and this heat taken away by the vapor is turns out to be one thousand three
hundred and 50 kilo joules.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:00)

Now thirdly we calculated the heat carried away by oxygen and nitrogen and both of them are
having the specific heat of 1.005 kilo joules per KG. So we are taken the mass of the oxygen and
mass of the nitrogen multiplied by the specific heat again multiplied by the temperature rise and
heat taken away by the oxygen and nitrogen is 4189.8 kilo joules.

The sum of all this these three values is 6486.3 kilo joules. The proportion of calorific value of
the fuel which goes with the flue gases so this proportion of the calorific value of the fuel which

184
goes to the flue gases is the ratio of heat with the flue gases divided by calorific value of fuel
multiply by 100 will give the percentage of proportion of calorific value going with the flue
gases and that is 21.6 % right that is all for today next time we will start with boiler trial.

185
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 04
Lecture No # 16
Boiler Trial

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we will start with
the boiler trial, the boiler trial is the account of I mean the analysis of the boiler is done and it is
account of where from the heat is coming and where the heat is going it is total balance sheet of
heat transmission of the boiler.

How much heat is going with the flue gases in fact how much heat is going with the burn product
how much heat is going with the excess air how much heat is going with the water vapor how
much heat is loss to the surroundings it is by difference only how much heat is supplied to the to
the boiler burning the fuel all this are taken to account and balance sheet is created.

So before we go to the boiler trial we will start with the flue gas analysis now flue gas analysis is
very important because with the help of flue gases analysis you can directly find how much air
has been used in burning the fuel.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:30)

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In flue gas analysis mainly the amount of carbon dioxide, oxygen and carbon monoxide and
nitrogen is by balance right.

Three flask are taken three flask I am just giving the schematic three flask 1, 2 and 3 they are
filled up to certain level with the liquids. First is KOH potassium hydroxide right this is to
observe carbon di oxide now the second one is having Pyrogallic acid Pyrogallic acid just to
observe oxygen. So the pyrogallic acid is to observe oxygen so the pyrogallic acid observe the
oxygen and the third one is having cuprous chloride and the cuprous chloride consumes the
carbon mono oxide.

So this is for oxygen pyrogallic acid carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide and by balance figure
nitrogen we take fix amount flue gases let us take the same of 100 cc of flue gases and that
amount of flue gases is past first past KOH and amount of flue gases that the volume of flue
gases are observed by the KOH is noted than it goes to this pyrogallic acid tube and then third
one is cuprous chloride tube and remaining is nitrogen that is how we get the percentage of CO 2,
O2, CO and nitrogen.

Now with the help of this analysis we can easily find how much air is used for burning the fuel
right.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:48)

187
So for this will start with prepare a table suppose in the flue gas analysis CO, CO 2 and N2 and O2
right. The volumetric fraction is X1, X2, X3 and X4 this is volumetric fraction 5% is CO 30 % is
CO2 5 % 37, 80 % something like that. So they are figure now we have taken a variable
percentage volume right. Molecular mass for CO it is 28 for CO 2 it is 44 for nitrogen is 28 again
and for oxygen is 32 right.

Now we calculate another X or this is let us not get confuse with the X and Y so we will take Y 1,
Y2, Y3 and Y4 right. So this is M and X = MV, M and this is V this will give you 28Y 1, 44 Y2, 28
Y3, 32Y4. Again we are working on the same principle 1 kilo will occupy a fix volume 22.4 right.

Now this is composition ratio in percentage of mass so in order to find sorry this is the
composition of gas it consist 28 Y1 kg of CO 44 Y2 kg of CO2 28 Y2 kg of nitrogen 32 kg of
oxygen. Now again in order to find percentage here percentage by mass we will take we will take
sigma Y right. And 28 Y1 / ∑Y 44 Y2 / ∑Y 28 Y3 / ∑Y and 34 Y4 / ∑Y right.

So this is % by mass so in exhaust gases per kg this divide by 100 is kg of carbon mono oxide
this divided by this divide by this gives in a value of carbon di oxide accordingly nitrogen also be
this can also be taken. Now here let us take one kg of flue gas will consist of how much kg of
carbon monoxide let us this one right.

And how much kg of carbon mono oxide this much right so carbon per kg of flue gases now we
have to find carbon per kg of flue gases the philosophy is now we will calculate how much
carbon is there per kg of flue gases and per kg of fuel carbon contain here suppose carbon
contain is .86 kg right the per kg of flue gases how much carbon is there and with that we will
find how much flue gases is there what is the mass of flue gases.

So carbon per kg of flue gases carbon per kg of flue gases is going to be 28 Y1/ ∑Y multiplied by
12 / 28 naturally 28 / 28 will be cancelled out. Similarly for carbon di-oxide it is going to be 44
Y2 / ∑Y multiplied by 12 / 44 this is the amount of carbon available in 1 kg of flue gases right.

188
And we add this two then we will get 12 / ∑Y X 1 + sorry Y1 + Y2 because this 28 cancelled out
this 44, 44 will be cancelled out. So we will be getting 12 (Y 1 + Y2)/ ∑y this is per kg suppose
there is N kg of flue gases mass of the flue gases is N kg.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:02)

So the carbon is going to be 12(Y1 + Y2) /∑Y mass of the flue gases. Now this is Y 1 and Y2 is we
have taken from volume remember we should not forget this is from the volume only percentage
volume of carbon monoxide and percentage volume of carbon dioxide in flue gases right that is
one thing. Now regarding nitrogen is 28 Y3 /∑Y nitrogen does not take part in combustion so it
was whatever the combustion is there in the air it has come into the flue gases.

So kg of air per kg of fuel is 28 Y 3 /∑Y multiplied by mass of the flue gases is it clear this is the
% of nitrogen can flue gases per kg of flue gases or per kg of flue gases this is the nitrogen and it
is multiplied by mg here right and this further because we have to find here so this is multiple
divided by .77 then we will get air only otherwise it was nitrogen only.

So this the amount of nitrogen this is nitrogen per mass fraction of nitrogen per kg of flue gases
multiplied by the mass of flue gases divided by .77 we get kg of air per kg of fuel right. Now
from here the value of MV can be manipulated from this equation to this equation that will give
28 Y3 divide by sigma Y multiplied 1 by 0.77.

189
mg will be C ∑Y /12 (Y1 + Y2), C multiplied by sigma Y divide by twelve Y 1 + Y2 right. So
sigma Y sigma Y will be cancelled out and 28 /( .77× 12) yes this is 28 divided by .77 divided by
12 = it is 100 by 33 right. So we will take 100 by 33 Y3 divided by Y1 + Y2 multiplied by C.

It means now from here this kg of air per kg of air per kg of fuel we are burning one kg of coal or
fuel this much of kg of air will be required to per 1 kg of fuel. That is 100 / 33 volume of
nitrogen in exhaust gases we have taken some center so % volume of nitrogen and exhaust gases
% volume of carbon monoxide in exhaust gases % volume of carbon oxide like exhaust gases
and amount of carbon 1 Kg of fuel.

Or we can write it like this air is equal to amount of air which is N 2 % of volume we will write
N2 divided by 33 CO2 + CO and carbon % wise because this hundred will multiplies by to C will
be per hundred this is carbon contain per kg. So it suppose it is 86 % of carbon so C is going to
be 86 so this is the formula to find how much air is used for burning the fuel.

So directly from the formula we can find how the how much is used for burning the fuel air may
be access in amount this is also possible that we supply 20, 30 or 50 % and excess air and in the
product of combustion carbon dioxide is there carbon monoxide is there that is also possible
right. So we will take one numerical to understand this this numerical states during the boiler
trial following data were obtained.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:09)

190
So coal analysis was done carbon was 85.5 % hydrogen 4.5 % ash 10 % gross calorific value of
dry coal is 35 mega joules per kg. Moisture it has moistures 1.8 % coal consumption is 1450 kg
per hour. Boiler room temperature is 25 degree centigrade feed water temperature is 55 degree
centigrade steam pressure 1.2 mega pascal is steam temperature pressure 25 degree centigrade
steam raised 12500 kg per hour.

So how much steam is raised per kg of coal we can easily find out coal combustion is it is given
1450. So how much steam is raised per kg of coal we can find out analysis dry flue gases by
volume of gases this is by done by offset operators as I explained earlier. So in exhaust gases
carbon dioxide is 9.5 % oxygen is 11 % nitrogen is 79.5 % and there is no carbon monoxide.

The temperature of gases in the up take was 300 degree centigrade mean specific dry gases mean
specific heat also this is mean specific heat of dry gases is 1.005 kilo joules pet kg kelvin right.
So now we have to prepare complete balance sheet of heat transmission. So first of all we will
find how much coal is spent or per kg of coal how much steam is raised.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:45)

191
So steam raised per kg of coal steam per kg of coal is equal to 12500 / 1450 and that is going to
be = 8.621 kg per kg coal. So perk when you are burning one kg of coal this much amount of
steam is liberated. Now much heat is carried away by steam this we can again look at the ranking
cycle at temperature entropy diagram the stem here is superheated.

So 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 so steam is superheated so we have to find the value of h 1 feed water temperature

will be at h4 and difference two will be will give us the amount of heat transmission to the feed
water is boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:52)

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So for superheated steam we have superheated steam table at it is saturated it is saturated ok no
problem we have the enthalpy at state one h 1 from steam table we can take 2783.7 kilo joules per
kg h4 can be calculated from the steam table 230.26 kilo joules per kg and this heat supplied h 1 -
h4 is going to be 8.621 ×(2783.7 -230.26) and that is going to be 22013.2 kilo joules per kg sorry
this is kilo joules per kg coal.

Because per kg of coal this much of steam is liberated so whatever heating value one kg of coal
is having this much of heat is going out of steam you can note it down also somewhere. So steam
is taking away 22013.2 kilo joules that is per kg of coal. Now air supplied how much air is
supplied to for burning the fuel. Earlier we have already done a derivation using that that
derivation that formula we can easily find how much air is supplied.

So air supplied is volume of nitrogen in volumetric analysis divide by 33 volume of CO 2 +

volume of CO % of carbon right. Now volume of nitrogen how much volume of nitrogen is there
it is 79.5 divided by 33 volume of CO2 9.5 + 0 multiplied by carbon 85.5 and this will give us the
amount of air supplied and that is coming 21.68 kg per kg of coal fuel.

So 21.68 mass of the air is 21.68 kg so this is the mass of air which is circulated but actual mass
of air for burning the coal is how much. This is the mass of air supplied to the boiler but how
much air has been used.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:49)

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In order to find that minimum air is equal to for burning carbon we need 8 / 3 right for burning
hydrogen H - O by 8 multiplied by 8 for sulfur 1 kg of air as though it is only S though it S only
S if sulfur is there sulfur is not there. So simply minimum calculating minimum air now this is
minimum oxygen not air so in order to find minimum air has to be divided by 0.23 then we will
get minimum air this is minimum oxygen.

So 1 by 0.23 now here 0.855 into 8 by 3 + 0.045 into 8 oxygen is not there ok and S is also 0 an
minimum air is 11.48 kg. So mass of the air supplied is 21.68 so mass of the minimum mass of
the air is 11.48 kg and there is excess air.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:28)

194
And excess air is equal to this 21.68 - 11.48 = 10.2 kg per kg of coal. We are just calculating
everything per kg of coal because in balance sheet we have to give in terms of percentage. So if
we find all the values per kg of coal that will serve the purpose.

Now mass of water vapor percentage of hydrogen is 4.5 % moisture content is 1.8 % so this
moisture is taking heat from the coal and the liquid is moisture converted into high temperature
vapor and it going with the flue gases. So moisture is 0.018 + hydrogen 0.045 into nine this is the
total amount of water present in the flue gases because moisture is also there 1.8 %.

So now this plus this will give 0.423 kg of water in per kg of sorry 0.423 kg of water going with
the flue gases when we are burning 1 kg of fuel. So mass of the dry air will be difference of this
sorry mass of the dry air will be difference of yes this 21.68 – 0.423 + coal which is burnt it is
also come into the flue gases right.

So this is the mass of the dry air and mass of gas flue gases dry gases is 20.68 – 0.423 + 0.9 say
air which is burn suppose this is mass of weight 21.68 we can write this way also mass of the air
= 21.68 mass of the fuel is 0.9 is 85.5 %, 4.5 % it is 90 % 0.9.

So we can add this two right and then remove 4.3 so we will get the mass of the dry flue gases.
So the mass of the dry flue gases dry flue gases 22.157 kg so now we have calculated mass of the
dry flue gases mass of the access here mass of the air and minimum mass of air which is required
and access here also mass of the access air is 10.2 kg right.

So certain amount air is supplied for the burning of fuel so part of the air has been used for
burning the fuel access air is this much 10.2 kg. Air has come to flue gases product of
combustion have come to the flue gases water vapor has come to the flue gases now if you want
to have mass of the dry flue gases in that case we will remove this water content and in the air
we will add mass of the fuel which is coming with the flue gases.

Because ash will not come with the flue gases the ash will be certainly the grate itself in the pit
below the grate. Now after this this is the mass of the flue gases now mass of if we remove the

195
mass of air excess air mass of this is mass of dry flue gases if out of this if I remove the mass of
the excess air will be get mass of the combustion products. Flue gases are consisting of the
combustion products excess air and everything.

So mass of the dry flue gases if I remove excess air will be getting mass of the combustion
products.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:02)

So mass of the combustion products is 22.157 – 10.2 it is coming 11.95 kg. Now heat because
this specific heat is given 1.005 here it is equal to the specific heat of the air sometimes it is
different. So I have taken a generalize case here you can take both and I mean both the
combustion product and air together.

But suppose the specific heat of dry gases is one point instead of 1.005 it is 1.030 in that case the
scenario it is going to be different. So now this is m 11.95 C P 1.005, ∆T is 300 - 25 so this is the
amount of heat which is going with dry product of combustion right.

And that is here it is coming out to be 3302.7 we will write some where here heat with the dry
product is equal to 3302.7 kJ/kg. Now heat and access air now access air is 10.2. So 10.2
×1.005(300 – 25) here because CP is same for both the cases but again for the access here it is
coming access.

196
Access air it is coming 2819.0 kJ/ kg now vapors we have vapors also. The mass of the vapor is
0.423 right and the enthalpy of vapor is also changing it is I mean enthalpy at 300 this is 300
outgoing 300 degree centigrade. So enthalpy of water atmospheric pressure water is atmospheric
temperature is 25 enthalpy of 300 - enthalpy of 25.

So it is coming around 3074.5 -104.83 and it is 1256.2 kJ/kg. So now we have everything now
we have information about how much heat is going with the first of all let us see how much heat
is supplied in the boiler.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:58)

Heat by coal = 35,000 kJ / kg that is 100% heat right now steam where it is going it is going to
steam 22013.2 kilo joules it is kilojoules right per kg right and it is coming 62.9 %. So 62.9 %
efficiency of the boiler also 62.9 % now heat in dry product is 3302.7 it is 9.4 %.

Heat in vapor just now we calculated 1256.2 and that is 3.6 %. Heat in excess air that is also heat
in excess air is 2819 that is 8.1% and that is 84 % and that is coming around 84.0 % right. Now
this is 100% so 16 % of heat is unaccounted so 16 % of heat is going to the surroundings in the
form of radiations right in the form of conduction and in other forms.

197
So that is how the boiler trial is taken and the balance sheet of boiler is prepared from the next
class we will start with the nozzles.

198
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department Of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No # 04
Lecture No # 17
Nozzles and Diffusers – Momentum and Continuity Equations

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we will start with
the nozzles and diffusers.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:33)

First of all we will take up type of nozzles and diffusers then equation of continuity sonic
velocity and Mach number in case of nozzles and diffusers. Then momentum equation now let us
start with the nozzles nozzle is a passage of varying cross section.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:51)

199
Nozzle is a passage of varying cross section it may be converging or diverging or the varying
cross section may be converging and diverging as well. So it is a passage of varying cross section
were pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy all of us know the equation P / ρ + C 2 /2 +
gZ = constant. So in nozzle at the expanse of pressure energy kinetic energy is attained.

And this high velocity jet which is emerging from the nozzle is used for variety of the purposes.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:43)

So regarding the uses of the nozzle first of all it is used in steam turbines turbine, hydro turbine
or water turbine and gas turbines now the purpose of nozzle is to convert pressure energy into the
kinetic energy and mass flow rate remains constant throughout the passage of the nozzle the

200
mass flow rate of the fluid remains constant and this high velocity get emerging from the nozzle
hits the turbine blades and causes turbine rotor rotate in a particular direction.

And that is how the high grade energy or work produced in a turbine now another use of nozzle
is jet engine. In jet engine the purpose of creating thrust the nozzles are used rockets then public
use fountains then flow measurement. Nozzles are used for flow measurement in a passage in
addition to this water injection in a boiler or further remover of air in condenser steam rejecter in
condenser.

There are few examples there are many other used of nozzles which I cannot list here there are
three types of nozzles we will go by the classifications of the nozzles or cross section of the
nozzles.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:54)

There are three types of nozzles one is convergent nozzle where the cross section of nozzle
decrease this is the passage of the nozzle this is wall of the nozzle so flow is taking place in this
direction cross section area of the passage keeps on decreasing this is known as convergent type
nozzle. Another type of nozzle is diverging nozzle where cross section area of nozzle increases at
the same time the velocity of fluid also increases in a particular conditions.

201
So these type of nozzles are known as diverging nozzles if you connect them then it becomes
convergent and divergent nozzles and this is throat area. In throat area there is no change in cross
section so nozzle as three part inlet and outlet converging part, diverging part and a throat which
in the throat there is no change in the cross section area of the nozzle.

Now another part is diffuser now in diffuser kinetic energy is converted into the pressure energy
the function of diffuser is reverse of the function of nozzle it can be axial diffuser like this or it
can be radial flow diffuser also.

So in radial flow diffuser the best example is centrifugal pump were kinetic energy of fluid is
converted into the pressure energy so that is one of the main application of the diffuser there are
many other applications but centrifugal pump the kinetic energy is imparted to the fluid and
subsequently this kinetic energy is converted into the pressure energy with the help of it user.
Now we will start with the continuity equation let us take continuity equation of a flow through a
nozzle.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:48)

So this is m = ρAV is velocity or here we are denoting V by C so C is the velocity and doing
partial differential it is going to be ∂m /m = ∂ρ /ρ+ ∂A /A +∂C /C right. Now mass flow rate
remaining constant throughout the passage so this is 0 now we are leaving only ∂ρ/ρ + ∂A / A +
∂C/ C = 0.

202
While flowing through a nozzle suppose a air or steam is flowing through the nozzle area will
vary velocity will vary and density also vary or we can say by virtue of variation and density and
the velocity are of the cross section is area of the nozzle will vary. However in the case of liquids
in liquids change in density of the pressure is in significant so this can be neglected.

So we can write ∂A/A ∂C / C = 0 or ∂C/ C = - ∂A/ A right it means at the expanse of pressure
when the velocity of fluid is increasing the cross section of the area of the passage will keep on
decreasing or it is going to be in this shape even at very high velocity now let us do first law
analysis of the flow of fluid through the nozzle.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:37)

Let us take a passage or a of varying cross section the walls are rigid there is no walls on the
movement of the muzzle fluid is flowing in this direction this is plain one this is inlet this is plain
two at outlet and let us say this is control volume on which our study is focused very close to the
wall right. And if we write first law equation for flow that is ∂P /ρ + dC/C + gdZ = 0 right or
now this is dh.

So dh + CdC + gdZ = 0 or in terms of volume 2 h 1 - h2 + (C12-C22)/2 + here gdz because it is

horizontal direction. So there is no change potential energy so this can be taken as 0 = 0 or we
can write (C22- C1 2)/ 2 = h1 - h2. If you want to write in differential form then it is dh = - CdC.

203
Now if the C1 is 0, C1 is not 0 if you compare the value of C 2 - C1, C2 is much larger than C1 or
outlet velocity of the nozzle is much larger than the inlet velocity. And it is often neglected
because if you consider the inlet velocity it is not going to make much difference. So often it is
neglected so we can always find C2 2= 2(h1 - h2) or exit velocity form the nozzle is √2( h1 - h2).

But we should remember that enthalpies are given in kilo joules so this kilo joules as to be
converted into the joules while calculating the exit velocity. So C 2 is going to be √[2 ×1000( h 1 -
h2)] and it is going to be √[2000 (h1 - h2)] we have multiplies h1 - h2 by 1000 just to convert kilo
joules per kg to joules per kg and here we get 44.72√(h1 - h2).

This is regarding the flow of the fluid suppose there is a gas nozzle the working fluid in a nozzle
is gas or air.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:58)

In that case C2 also be taken as √[2CP (T1 - T2)] this is the change in enthalpy of the base or if you
want to further simplify then 2 CP T1 (1 - T2 /T1) here you can use the ideal gas T2 / T1 = (P2 / P1)
(γ-1)/γ
. So C2 is going to be = √[2CP T1 (1 - P2 /P1) (γ-1)/γ]. Because pressure drop in nozzle is often
expressed in terms of ratio of down steam pressure and up steam pressure right.

204
So this can be expression for the velocity of air or gas coming out of the nozzle now after this we
will come to the momentum of equation for the flow inside the nozzle. Let us take a generalize
case where is a convergent divergent nozzle.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:18)

And let us take a thin section out of this of distance dX now if you do the force balance on the
section in this direction the force is pressure into area. Whatever pressure is exist on existing on
this side multiplied by the area. Now existed exerted on this from this side is P + ∂ P ,A + δA
whatever it is because normally in the I mean in this direction there is a fallen pressure but to
have a generalize equation we have taken P + ∂P existed on this direction right.

Now this is A this is the nozzle valve and pressure of the fluid is outside pressure it is greater
than the pressure outside this nozzle. This is wall so for whatever analysis we have done we have
considered flow through nozzle is adiabatic flow. If you remember the equation is this equation
dh+ CdC + gdZ = 0. Here also we have considered that the flow through nozzle is adiabatic and
because walls are rigid that is not work.

So ∂Q = 0 and ∂W is also 0 considering this only we derived the equation C 2 = √2 (h1 - h2) right.
Now here when we are doing the force analysis force is also being exhausted on the wall of the
nozzle. So force is also being exhausted on the wall of the nozzle virtue of pressure of fluid
inside this nozzle and reaction will work in this direction.

205
Reaction will work on this element in this direction if you take from the vertical this is Φ and this
is nozzle diverging angle is also Φ.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:12)

Because nozzle is a diverging passage this is a diverging passage and this angle is Φ. So when
we take pressure from normal to for so pressure is normal to this surface so this angle is going to
be Φ right. Now second thing is this is a ring of this vector ring around the periphery of the
nozzle of thickness dX.

If it is the ring of dX if you take a small element on the ring which is exerting delta theta at the
center small element on the ring which is exerting δθ on the center right on the entire ring
suppose it is a part of the ring is exerting theta on the center if I want to area of this this this
element it is going to be r δθ×δX right. Now this area this then again now we have found this
area now projection in this area in this direction.

So project of this area in this direction and this is ∂Φ this going to be sec Φ now force is exerted
on this force is exerted on this and reaction of this force in this direction and component of force
this direction is going to be this is Φ. Component of this force in this direction is going to be I
will expend this diagram it is something like this force is working in this direction reaction force
this is Φ and component of force in this direction.

206
So component of this force in this direction is going to be SinΦ P SinΦ and this is P SinΦ. So
this will give you the force working in this direction in this passage due to pressure now the net
force is net force is PA this pressure into area right – (P + δP )(A + δA) this force. Not this force
R δ θδX SecΦ and Sin Φ is tanΦ , P tan Φ right.

If you integrate this sorry integrate this 0 to 2 π this will become 2πr δX tan Φ × P right. Then δX
tan Φ δX tan Φ is δr so it is going to be 2 πr δr×P and 2 π r δr is nothing but δA. And this force is
also working in this direction so we will also add P δA now the third will consider the force of
friction which is opposing the movement of the flow of in this direction. So that is going to be let
us say minus we do not know this force that if is going to be in this direction.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:22)

So that is the net force working on this element right now this net force we will simplify this
equation PA - P ∂A - A ∂P - ∂P ∂A + P ∂A - ∂F right. Now here we can cancel out some terms
some of the terms that is PA this will be cancelled out P ∂A P ∂A is cancelled out now this we
consider to be 0 because delta P is very infinitesimal this is also infinitesimal.

So there product will turn to be 0 so we are neglecting this term so net force we are getting in the
direction of the flow is - A ∂ P - ∂F this force is mass into acceleration mass of the fluid in this

207
and acceleration of this. So mass of the fluid is going to be A ∂X /v this is volume of this element
divided by this specific volume multiplied by acceleration.

Acceleration is δC /δt okay here there is a unknown term δt so ∂t C is δX / δt. So δt is always

δX /C so we will replace this δt= δX/C now here we can again cancel out this right and further
simplification will give us the equation C δC is = - VδP - V /A δ F. Just multiply by V/A we can
further simplify this equation like this right.

Now again we have this term work in the friction per kg of fluid right work in the friction per
because here we are considering friction. So work in the friction per kg of the fluid work is F in
force in velocity right.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:30)

So friction force is δF velocity C /kg / Unit pass in order to find mass of the fluid mass of the
fluid we will divide it by area velocity divided by specific volume. So this is work and this is
mass of the fluid which is flowing we can further simplify it has C δF this C and C will be
canceled out right. So we will be getting V δF / A this is friction / unit mass flow rate and this
means this is friction / unit mass flow rate and this is denoted by minus this is denoted by Wf.

208
So we can further write this equation as C dC = - V dP - dW f if the change is tending to be zero
then this equation can be written as CδC = - VδP - ∂W f right. If you remember that equation CdC
= - dH energy equation right in that case dh is going to be = VdP + dWf right or we can write
(C2 2- C12)/ 2 = integral P2 to P1 am not writing 1 to 2 am writing 2 to 1.

So it is VdP – dWf right so this is the momentum equation for the flow of fluid inside the nozzle
if the friction is in ideal when the friction is zero we can always consider this equation as the
moment in this equation for the flow inside a nozzle this is all for today thank you very much.

209
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical Industrial Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 04
Lecture No # 18
Nozzles and Diffusers – Efficiency and Critical Pressure

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we will discuss
efficiency and critical pressure for a flow inside the nozzle and diffuser.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:42)

As we know that for the flow through a nozzle the change in enthalpy dh = - CdC change in
kinetic energy and from momentum equation we have write that CdC = -VdP – W f. V is the
specific volume Wf is the friction loss so if you compare this two equation that we get -dh = -
VdP – Wf or uses dWf right.

Or dh = VdP + dWf for h we already know that h = u + pv or dh = du + pdv this is V + VdP.

Now if we compare this two equations we will find that this VdP is in common and this 2 that
this is going to be equal this dW f ,dWf and this is nothing but heat transfer del Q = du + pdv.
Now if you want to depict this on enthalpy entropy diagram this is enthalpy specific enthalpy and
specific entropy.

210
There is two pressure lines this is P1 and this is P2 expansion is taking place from state 1 to state
2 there is a heat transfer suppose friction is there is a heat transfer. So instead of following this
isentropic line vertical line the process will follow this 2 dash. Now at this two dash in this
difference this difference in enthalpy is nothing but dWf and there is a rise in entropy also right.

And the rise in entropy will be ꭍ dW f / T so this is the rise in entropy due to friction and this is
the loss in enthalpy drop. When there is a loss in enthalpy drop definitely the velocity of vapor or
air coming out of the nozzle will be less in comparison to that the case when expansion is taking
place from 1 to 2 here efficiency of the nozzle comes into the picture. Efficiency of the nozzle is
100 % when the expansion is isentropic expansion.

This total enthalpy drop is converted into the kinetic energy but here in this case what is
happening only part of this is converted into the kinetic energy and this part is going in terms of
increasing entropy of the fluid.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:31)

So the efficiency of the nozzle is going to be (h1-h2’) / (h1-h2) right or we can write
(C2’2- C12 )/( C22- C12). Always while doing the analysis of the nozzle we have neglected this so
we can take always take as C2’2/C22 and this is this C2’/C2 is nothing but it is velocity co efficient.

211
We can say velocity co efficient K now in case of gas nozzles efficiency can also be expressed as
CP (T1 - T2’) / CP (T1 - T2). And there is CP and CP will be cancelled out so efficiency will the
(T1 - T2’ )/ (T1 - T2 )right. There is another term in the nozzles is coefficient of discharge Cd.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:17)

So co efficient of discharge Cd is actual ratio of actual flow divide by the ideal flow for all
passages co efficient of discharge any passages actual flow divided by ideal flow. Now let us
take case of diffuser is pressure arranging is increased at the cost of kinetic energy. So one two
this is two dash so efficiency of the diffuser will be (h1-h2) /(h2’ - h1) right.

Now we will derive and expansion for the mass of discharge for the nozzle how much discharge
is taking place through the nozzle we do not have expression yet for this.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:26)

212
 2

So as we know for the flow of the nozzles (C 22- C12)/ 2 = -∫ VdP. This we have derive from CdC
1

p1
2
= -VdP right C1 we can always neglect so C2 /2 = ∫ VdP. We always know that for polytrophic
p2

this is polytrophic process not his one expansion through nozzle.

State 1 to state 2 this a polytrophic process so we can always say PVn = C right or V = C1/ n and
P -1/n. Now putting this value V here we will be getting P2 to P1 C1/n P1/n dP.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:59)

213
 1 1 p1
Now we can easily integrate this equation and we will be getting C 2 / 2 = C p 2
[ n
1−
n]p2
1
/(1− )
n
2
right. Now C2 /2 or we will say that C22 = 2n/(n – 1) C1/n=P1/n v.
here we can write p11/n V1 P11-1/n – p21/n V2 P21-1/n right. If we further simply this then
2n
C22 = [ p v − p2 v 2 ] right.
n−1 1 1
2n
We have velocity terms for the velocity C2 =√[ ( p v − p v )¿ now we have find the mass
n−1 1 1 2 2
flow rate.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:56)

So mass flow rate is C 2 at the exit A2 divided by V2 right now in order to achieve this what we

2n p2 v2
can do we can take C2 =√[ p1 v 1 (1− )¿ fine now V2 /V1 = (P1 /P2) 1/n or we can write
n−1 p1 v1
V2 / V1 = (P2 /P1) –1/n.

2n
Now putting thus value here P2 /P1 here we will get C2 =√[ p v ¿. Now C2 multiplied by A2
n−1 1 1
ok so C2 multiplied by A2 /V2 will give us the mass flow rate so this is going to be = A 2 now V2 is
nothing but V2 = V1 (P2 /P1 )-1/n. P2 we can take from here P2 by P1 raise to power - 1 by n
multiplied by V1.

214
And if this goes inside then 2 n/(n - ) P 1 V1 because this V1 will get squared so this is P1/ V1 and
this will take inside the bracket. So this is will become P 2 /P1 2/n - P2 / P1 2 /(n + 1) - 1 /n. I Am repeating
we have taken from here we have taken out P 1 V1 we get the velocity C2. Now C2 velocity at the
exit the cross section area at the exit divide by specific volume at the exit.

So velocity of the exit will get from here we have further simplified this equation we will we
taken P1 out and this expression is modified by this expression then C 2×A2 /V2 and V2 we have
taken
(P2 /P1)-1/n ×V1 this expression is taken inside so we are getting P1/ V1 and this expression.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:25)

2 (n+1)/ n
2n p1 p2 n p2
If you further simply this you will get m = A 2
√ [
( )
n−1 v1 p1
−( )
p1
]now this is the mass

flow rate we can take here also m by A 2 mass flow rate per unit area is this right. Now here I
want to have maximum this is about the discharge of the nozzle.

Now I want to have maximum discharge in order to have maximum discharge I should
differentiate this equation this is normal practice so n then this term these terms are constants
inlet pressure inlet specific volume nozzle is constant right and this constant right. We want to
find for what pressure ratio the discharge is maximum when discharge this pressure is 1
discharge is 0.

215
Obviously when the leading side and the trailing side if the pressure is same P 2 and P1 is same
there is no flow but when we start decreasing the P2 the flow the fluid id start flowing into the
nozzle it does not mean that we if this we make this expression zero the flow become infinite.
Normally what happens after attaining the certain value the flow becomes constant irrespective
of the value of this pressure ratio that is known as choking of the nozzle.

So first of all we will differentiate this in fact we will take a function Y = P 2/ P1 raise to power 2
rest are constant. So - P2 by P1 raise to power n + 1 by n. So we will differentiate Y this we can

2 n+ 1
2 −1 n+1 −1
taken as for the sake of convenience r, Y = r 2/n- r (n + 1) /n , Y’= r n − r n
and this is = 0.
n n

So 2/n r 2/n - 1 = n+ 1/n rn+1/n.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:32)

Now if you further simply this r 1 /n -1 = (n + 1)/2. R1- 1/n = 2/(n+1) or we can write this ratio r is
(2 /n + 1) n/(n -1). So we have to maintain this pressure ratio P2/P1 in order to have maximum flow
through nozzle. If the pressure is less than this it will not increase so if we want to show on a
graph it is flow is going to give something like this is P 2 /P1 this is 1 this is decreasing in this
direction right and this is mass flow rate.

216
So first of all it will increase and then it will become stagnant and this is known as critical
pressure ratio. Now for steam saturated steam saturated steam is in that case the value of n =
1.135. If the value of N = 1.135 is putting here in that case the r is going to be r = P 2 by P1 is
going to be 0.5774 this is for saturated steam is getting expanded in a nozzle.

Suppose getting expanded in a nozzle suppose steam is superheated than n = 1.3. In that case R is
going to be = 0.5457 simply just putting the value of n = 1.3 here we getting this expression.
Suppose it is a gas nozzle so n = gamma suppose it is air 1.4. In that case it is going to be 0.528
so for any value of n or we can find the pressure ratio for which the flow is maximum during
flow through a nozzle.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:22)

Now let us go back to the same equation right so we take P2 V2 common C2 here √[2n/(n – 1)
P2V2(P1V1/P2V2–1)] right. Now V1/V2=(P2 / P1 )1/n so we can write C2=√[2 n /(n – 1)(P2/p1)1/(n-1) -1]
Now again C2 = under root now we can put P2 /P1 here for the choking condition
n /( n – 1)
P2/P1 = (2/n + 1) we have already driven this. So 2 ×by n /( n – 1) P 2 V2, P2/P1 = [2/(n +
1) ]n/(n – 1) and this is 1 – sorry (1- n )/ n - 1 right.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:15)

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We can easily simplify this equation to find the value of C 2 at the throat C2 = √2n/(n – 1) P2V2
here this 1 - n, n - 1. So and this n and n will be cancelled out this is n - 1 this is 1 - n so this
expression is going to be (n + 1)/2 - 1. Now C 2 =√ [2 n /( n – 1) P2 V2 (n–1)/2 ] now this n - 1 we
will get cancel with this n - 1 this 2 will get will get cancel with this 2.
And the final expression is going to be C 2 = √(n P2 V2 ) right so in a nozzle if a flow is adiabatic
friction less ideal flow. This is one this is throat of the nozzle two right the velocity is going to be
√(n P2 V2 ) and this is nothing but sonic velocity of the fluid √(n P 2V2 ) is going to be sonic
velocity of the fluid at this particular condition that is all for today thank you very much

218
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 04
Lecture No # 19
Nozzles and Diffusers and Supersaturated Flow

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power system today we will develop a
general relationship between different operating parameter in a nozzle and supersaturated flow
shall also to be discussed in this like lecture.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:47)

Now to begin with we will start with the maximum discharge of the steam then we develop
general relationship between area velocity and then we discuss supersaturated flow.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:47)

219
Now for the flow through a nozzle we already know the pressure ratio P2/ P1 = ¿. For this
pressure ratio the discharge is maximum we know the discharge equation m /A2 =√ ¿.Now this is
the equation for the mass flow rate through the nozzle this is for pressure ratio when the
discharge of the nozzle is maximum.

Now putting this P2 /P1 here we will getting m by A2 =√ 2 n /(n – 1) P1 / V1. Now P2 / P1 is [2 /(n+
n /( n + 1) ×2 /n
1)] . And this is – (P2 /P1)(2 / n + 1) . Now this this n will be cancelled out this n will be

2 n p1
cancelled out and will be getting m by A2 as ¿-¿.
n−1 v 1
Now we will further simplify because once we know the value of n we can find the mass flow
rate for the cross section area A 2. Cross section area A so for dry and saturated steam when dry
saturated steam enters the nozzle and its gets expanded.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:54)

220
The value of n is 1.135 now if you put the value of n = 1.135 here we get mass flow rate as

p1
0.6356× A2 √ Mass flow rate when n = 1.3 when steam is superheated when entering the
v1
nozzle then m = mass flow rate = 0.6673 A2 √P1 /V1.
We are getting this expansion by putting this value n in this ratio so this is the maximum mass
flow rate while flowing through a nozzle initial condition are P 1 and V1 we keep on putting the
value of different P1 and V1 will be getting a different maximum mass flow rate through the
nozzle. Now we develop a general relationship among the velocity and pressure and density now
we will be developing a general relationship between the parameters.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:30)

221
This is a relationship between area and pressure mass flow rate through the passage is AC/ V
mass flow rate is area into velocity divided by specific volume right. Okay now A + δA C + δ C
divided by V δV = AC / V. Now we can write VA δA + V sorry V A C + VA δC + VC δ A + V
δA δC = ACV + AC δV right.

Just simply multiply with this and this with this one now here we can we cancel this cancelling
this by this AC δV ok and this can be taken as 0 because δ A is infinitesimal again δ C also
infinitesimal this is will be turning to 0. So the final expansion is VA δ C + VCδA = AC δV
divided by VAC divided by VAC divided by VAC it will give us the expansion.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:42)

222
δC /C + δA / A – δV/ V = 0 because in this expression this VA will be cancelled here VAC will
be cancelled here AC will be cancelled here ok. And if δC δA δV are tending to 0 then we can
always write δC / C + δ A / A – δV / V = 0. Now all of us know that PV n = sorry constant not
zero constant.

Pvn = constant or we can write in differential form dp by p + ndV by V = 0 or dV by V = - dP

sorry1/n dP /P that is one thing second is we already know that CdC = -VdP from momentum
equation. So dC/C is going to be dC/ C - VdP / C 2 when we take this dC = -VdP/C and dC/ C = -
VdP/ C2.

Now + dA/ A - dV /V = - are putting this then it is going to be + 1/n dP / P = 0. We will take
dA /A on left hand side = VdP/ C 2 – 1/n dP/ P right. Now here dA/ A can be taken as 1 /n dp/ P
inside the bracket because this we are taking out. So inside the bracket will remain nPV/ C 2 - 1
now
dA / A = 1/n dP/ P.

Now nPV if you remember the sonic velocity of steam is going to be nPV for gas it is going to
be γRT. So this is nothing but sonic velocity and this is going to be A 2/ C2 -1. There is a term
which is known as there is a dimensional term which is known as number mach number and
mach number is actual velocity divided by sonic velocity.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:01)

223
So this expression further written as dA/A = 1 by n dP/P 1/(M 2 – 1). Now this is this is a
governing equation now this equation has two differential terms which is which are dA and dP.
Let us start with the flow through the nozzle flow through nozzle fine there is a flow through
nozzle this dP will be negative because in the direction of the flow there is a fall in pressure due
to this fall in pressure the kinetic energy is attain by the fluid.

So in the direction of the flow there is a drop in the pressure so here dP is going to be negative
now dP is negative or we can say this dP is negative 1 / M2 - 1 the velocity of steam is less than
the sonic velocity or A is sorry this C is less than A or M is less than 1 when M is less than 1 this
expression is positive right and dP is negative so dA/ A is negative this expression I will write
again when M is less than 1 this expression is positive because this is greater than 1/ M is greater
than 1.

1/ M2 greater than 1 and this expression we have already assumed negative so dA / A is going to
be negative it means up to the sonic velocity or less than for velocity less than sonic velocity if
you want to draw the shape of the nozzle. The shape of the nozzle is going to be like this now
second case M = 1. When M = 1 dA/ A this expression is zero 1/ M2 is 1 and this expression is 0.

When this expression is 0, dA/ A is also 0 it means there is no change in velocity sorry there is
no change in cross section area for a sonic. Third one is well M is less than 1, M is 0 we have

224
already discussed M is less than 1 sorry M = M is less than 1 we have discussed now the flow is
supersonic. M is greater than 1 when M is greater than 1 this expression is negative when the M
is greater than 1 then M is greater than 1 this one by M 2 is less than one and this going to be
negative.

When this is negative this is negative dA/A is going to be positive it means when the flow is
supersonic flow the passage has to be diverging. dA/A is positive is positive so the three cases
we have discussed when velocity supersonic velocity is sonic and velocity is supersonic. When
the steam velocity is sub sonic the passage is converging when steam velocity is sonic there is no
change in cross section area when the velocity is supersonic the passage will become diverging
and this is a very interesting situation.

It means in this area the velocity will increase in cross section area will also increase but
normally what happens when we deal with the fluids. When we reduce the cross section area the
velocity increases but in supersonic zone if we want to increase the velocity zone we have
increase the cross section area and in most of the nozzles most of the nozzles you will observe
that these two lines are not equal.

The converging length is shorter much shorter than the diverging part of the nozzle it is
something like this reason being in the diverging part if we take this angle there is a limiting
value for this angle and that limiting value is 20 degree right. If this angle is more than this
separation of flow separation flow because the fluid is diverging this is a diverging passage.

So separation of flow will take place from the wall and this is reduce the efficiency of the nozzle
because this will incur losses in the flow of the fluid and this will reduce efficiency of the nozzle.
So normally this angle because 20 is the limiting value 12 to 15 degree the value of diverging
value is taken and since we know this time it was throat diameter we know the exit diameter that
is how the length of the diverging section is decided.

This angle is known to us this diameter is known to us this diameter we have already calculated
while designing the nozzle and this will decide the length of the nozzle length of the diverging

225
part of the nozzle. Now let us take the case of diffusers now in diffusers the kinetic energy is
converted into pressure energy right. So velocity is reduced in diffusers the velocity is reduced
and the pressure is increased.

So in diffusers this dP is positive right this dP is positive let us take case of diffusers this diffuser
there is a pressure raise so dP is positive M is greater than one entry is supersonic in diffuser it is
reverse on the nozzle entry is supersonic M is greater than 1 right. This is going to be negative
right when this is greater than 1 at normal positive this is positive this negative just a minute.

When M is greater than 1 then this is negative right dP /P is positive so dA/ A is going to be
same process we will adopt here dA / A is going to be negative right. When M is 1 then there is
no change in the throat area. When M is less than 1 subsonic right when M is less than 1 that
case this is positive this is positive and this is going to be positive right. So this is how we decide
the shape of nozzles and diffusers.

There is a phenomena during the flow inside the nozzle which is known as super saturated flow
of the fluid.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:37)

In supersaturated flow of fluid what happens suppose if I depict expansion in a nozzle on a

enthalpy entropy diagram let us say inlet is supersonic sorry superheated the steam is

226
superheated right and this is state 3 this is exited state in fact the condensation should start after
this point this is saturation point. So during expansion the moment steam two is attained the
condensation should start but this does not happen.

There is a lack and there is a lack condensation starts after further expansion up to state 3, 4 let
us say 4. Then why this happens? This happens because the condensation of process which
cannot occur spontaneously right and the time spent by the fluid inside the nozzle because the
velocities are of order of let us say 700 m/s. So such a high velocity the fluid is flowing at the
high velocity the time spent by the fluid inside the nozzle is almost tending to 0 right.

Very less time is spend inside the nozzle and during that time if this state arise the condensation
of the fluid cannot take spontaneously because for condensation some nucleation site is required
right. After certain value I mean initially condensation does not occur but after this state 1
because the state is continuously changing when the state comes when condensation takes place
without any nucleation site that happens when the density of fluid is almost eight times the
density of the saturated vapor.

So while expanding from this point to this point condensation will initiate at this point
condensation this lag is known as super saturated flow of the fluid. The fluid is supposed to do
with some condensation was supposed to take place inside the fluid but it is not taking place
condensation is initiated it at this point right.

Second this is the vapor as in the molecules are have random energy, random kinetic energy and
to contain because when the fluid attain this state the inter molecular attraction is sufficient to
confine the molecule inside the droplet. And the droplet formation starts due to this
supersaturated flow there are very interesting phenomena there is increase in the mass velocity.

Normally there is a 2 to 5 % friction losses in during the flow is had a nozzle but due to this
phenomena super saturated flow there is increase in the mass flow rate inside the nozzle. So
normally it is compensated the flow the losses due to friction are compensated by increase in

227
mass flow rate in the nozzle. If there is no friction loss in that case increase 2 to 3 % increase in
the mass flow rate so the nozzle will be observed.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:13)

Now in addition to this they are certain effects of super saturated flow of fluid in the nozzle that
is number one is reduced heat drop the heat drop is reduced and this reduces the velocity as at
exit is reduced. So heat drop is reduced with corresponding velocity is reduced and number three
final quality of the vapor is increased and entropy is also increased right entropy is also
increased.

That is the effect of super saturated flow through the nozzles and this has bearing on the
discharge of the nozzles. Now this line when where the condensation is initiated this fictitious
line is known as Wilson line right. And if we draw the constant pressure line on the graph this is
these are the constant pressure line right this is constant pressure line and this is the constant
pressure line for this is three.

So this is the constant pressure line = P3 now if we extend the curve of this to in this direction
this one. So this will follow if the process will follow this curve right and here the steam or the
vapor will be dry and saturated instead of state 2 the vapor will be dry and saturated in state 2 at
pressure P3. This is all for today thank you very much.

228
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 04
Lecture No # 20
Problem Solving (Nozzles and diffusers)

Hello I welcome all this in this course on steam and gas power system today we will solve one
numerical on flow through the nozzles.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:35)

The statement of the numerical is in nozzles of a 100 kW capacity turbine it means there are
number of nozzles not a single nozzle there are number of nozzles for 100 kilowatt capacity
turbine have a throat diameter of 0.5 centimeter each. The steam flow rate in turbine is 6 kg per
kWh where steam enters the nozzle at 14 bar pressure and 300 degree centigrade 300 degree
centigrade temperature.

The back pressure is 5 kilopascal back pressure means pressure after expansion in the nozzle so
that is 5 kilopascal. If the flow through nozzle is isentropic find the number of nozzles and steam
consumption neglect the velocity of approach. I mean the velocity of steam which is entering the
nozzle. If the 10 % of isentropic heat drop between throat and exit is wasted find exit diameter of
nozzle and the final condition of the steam.

229
Also find overall efficiency of the nozzle so they are number of nozzle in this system and initial
condition is 300 degree centigrade temperature and 14 bar.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:50)

So if we look at 14 bar that is 1400 and 1400 kilopascal the saturation temperature is 195.04
centigrade it means then steam is superheated while entering the nozzle.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:03)

So on an enthalpy entropy diagram steam is superheated while entering the nozzle right and
since the temperature is a 300 degree centigrade directly from table fourteen bar pressure that is

230
1400 kilopascal pressure and 300 degree centigrade the enthalpy is 3040.9 kilo joules per kg. So
h1 is 3040.9 kJ/ kg entropy will be requiring entropy is 6.9552 kJ/ kg-K right.

Now pressure ratio P2/ P1 = ¿ this will not give the exit pressure. This will give the pressure at
the throat right so P2 by for this superheated vapor n = 1/3. So just by putting the value n = 1.3 so
just by putting the value 1.3, ¿.we are getting and this is P2 / P1 and then P2 is in this case we are
getting 7.64 bar or 764 kPa that is the pressure at the throat right.

And temperature now this 764 kPa let us look at entropy 764 I have taken the properties of
because 764 kilopascal will not find from the steam table. So what I have done I have taken
properties at 600 kPa properties at 800 kPa and linear interpolation I have calculated the
properties at 764 kPa.
So if you have steam table with you this exercise shall also be done by you in order to find the
properties at 764 kPa. At 764 kPa if the vapor is saturated entropy is 6.679 here it is 6.955 it
means the vapor is superheated because when there is a isentropic expansion from state 1 to state
2 right in this case the entropy is going to remain constant.

So S2 as to be 6.9552 kJ/ kg-K now if you look at the superheated property of steam at 764 kilo
pascal. So in that case 6.955 so this entropy will lie between this 200 degree centigrade and 250
degree centigrade right. For 200 degree centigrade or will write S200 = how much 6.844726 kJ/
kg-K.

And entropy at 200 and 50 is 7.065818 kJ/ kg-K. And our entropy is lying between these two so
we will do the linear interpolation of temperature in order to find the temperature of the paper it
is going to be 200 + this S2 - S200 divide by S250 - S200 multiplied by 250 - 200.

Now these values S2 will take from here S200 or entropy at 200 here and entropy at 250 from here
and while this linear equation we are getting temperature as to 224.98 degree centigrade. So T 2 is
224.98 oC.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:36)

231
In similar fashion we can find other properties also other properties means suppose I want to
have a enthalpy h2. So enthalpy at 2 is again enthalpy are 200 + enthalpy at 200 enthalpy at 250 -
enthalpy at 200 divided by 250 - 200 this is temperature multiplied by 224.98 - 200.

So this is linear again linear interpolation of the enthalpy at 250 can be taken from here at 2 it is
2951.7 kilo joules per kg. And enthalpy at 200 = enthalpy at 200 = 262 enthalpy at 200 yes it is
2841.7 kJ/kg.

This we have taken from the interpolated table so now putting this values as 200 here and h250
and 200 here we will get the value of h2s 2896.6 kJ/kg. In similar fashion we can find the specific
volume at 2 also and that is 0.2943 m3/ kg.

v250 −v200
Again specific volume again is specific volume at v200 = ×(224.98−200). So this is
250−200
linear interpolation and this will give the value as S 0.2943 m3/kg right. So in such case when the
steam remains the superheated zone all the values are calculated by taking cross interpolation of
the values.

Now entropy is remaining constant it is further expanded to 5 kilopascal this is state 3 P 3, P3 is 5

kPa. If you look at the statement at of the problem the back pressure is 5 kPa right at 5 kPa the
entropy is 6.9552. So S3 = S1 and saturated vapor when it is at 5 kPa the entropy is 8.3938.

232
It is the vapor is no longer superheated it is wet vapor having certain quality so S 3 = S1 and S1 is
6.9552 this is S1 = Sf3 + X Sfg3. So Sf3 is 0.4762 + X × 7.9176 now from here so this is 6.9552
from here we will get the value of x and the value of X is X3 is in this case 0.8183.

Now once we have value of X 3 we can find the value of h 3 also h3 is hf3 + X3 hfg3 right. Now hf3 is
the pressure of the liquid at 5 kPa and it is going to be 137.75 multiplied by 0.8183 that is the
quality of vapor multiplied by this is + multiplied by latent heat of vaporization that is 2422.95
and this will give the value of h3 as 2120.4 kilo joules per kg.

And will be volume of the vapor at 3 will be X 3 and Vs3 and this will give because X3 is already
we know 0.8183.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:34)

And V3 three we can take from here it is 28.185 m 3/ kg. So multiply this two will be getting
volume of vapor and that is 23.064 m3/ kg. Now we have all the properties right these properties
we have derived from steam table right and the steam table also at a particular pressure that we
calculated the pressure 764 by this equation for optimum pressure ratio.

233
And from 764 for all the properties at this pressure we have taken properties at 600 kPa we have
taken properties of superheated steam at 800 kPa. These properties at these two pressures of a
steam we have calculated the properties of superheated steam at 764 kPa.

Again once we have found the temperature of the steam that is 224.98 oC we have done
interpolation and we have found the value of different properties of the steam at all 1, 2 3 all at
all the states 1 and 2 and 3. So this is through steam table if we use Mollier diagram the job
becomes very simple when we use the Mollier diagram.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:09)

In a Mollier diagram or Mollier chart it is a chart between enthalpy and entropy it is also known
as enthalpy entropy diagram. In Mollier diagram there is a line when vapor is saturated this is
known as saturation line X =1 right. In Mollier diagram there are lines which are inclined these
lines are known as constant pressure lines.

There are certain lines which are constant volume lines volume = constant right and these lines
quality wise also these lines quality wise also this is the line for X = 1 and you will find another
line X = 0.9. Then you find another line X = 0.8 and so on. Now in this diagram suppose you
want to take the value suppose you have initially you have pressure and temperature right.

234
So there are having constant temperature lines also and the Mollier diagram having constant
temperature lines also like this temperature = constant. So now I have constant temperature line I
have constant pressure line immediately I can look out suppose I know the temperature and I
know the pressure I can immediately locate the point right. So state one can be easily located on
the Mollier chart.

When state one is located you can directly take enthalpy you do not have to do the interpretation
in the steam table immediately you can take the value of h1 right. Process is isentropic when the
process is isentropic it means entropy is remaining constant it is going to be vertical line three
right now P2 is known to me now P2 is 764. So immediately I will see the 764 pressure line at
when this pressure line constant pressure line.

When this is cutting this vertical line this is state 2 so state 1, state 2 so state 2 S 2 can be taken
from here right. And state 2 we can find everything specific volume and temperature further
expansion is taking place we are getting attaining state 3. When we are attaining state 3
immediately we can take quality of vapor from here where this vertical line is cutting the
constant entropy line sorry constant quality line and at the same diagram we can find the value of
h3 and specific volume at everything.

So such type of issues I will problems related with nozzles the use of Mollier diagram is quite
convenient but the problem in the volume in Mollier diagram is we do not get accurate value.
The accuracy is a little problem when we solve the numerical that is why in order to have high
accuracy we go for interpretation in steam table but for all practical purpose purposes this
Mollier diagram is sufficient to find the properties at different states 1, 2 and 3.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:02)

235
Now velocity state 2 C2 =√[2000 ×(h1 - h2 )] now I will rub this off h 1 - h2 and under root. And
this = under root 2000 multiplied by h 1 is 3040.9 and h2 is 2896 and this will give the value of
C2S 537.2 meter per second.

So we can write somewhere here C 2 = 537.2 meters per second this is the velocity of a steam at
state 2 right.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:27)

Now throat diagram we have already assumed it is 0.5 so d is 0.5 centimeter is it so or it is

different .5 centimeter area we can easily find π/4 d 2 = π/4 ×0.52= 0.19635 cm2. So A2 is 0.19635
cm2 now at state 2 velocity is known area is known and specific volume is known.

236
(Refer Slide Time: 21:26)

We can easily find the mass flow rate per nozzle M = A 2 C2 / V2 = 0.19635 ×537.2 /0.2943 and
this will give the mass flow rate as 0.035841 kg /s.

So mass flow rate is 0.035841 kg per second and mass flow rate is going to remain constant from
inlet to exit.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:25)

This is mass flow rate per nozzle and a steam consumption is in this case is how much 6 kg /kWh
6 kg /kWh this is steam consumption rate it means 6 ×100 because plant capacity is 100 right and

237
per hour it is 3600 that will give kg per second this much of steam is required. So if we cancel it
out it is 1 / 6 kg per second this is the total mass flow rate of steam.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:14)

Per nozzle mass flow rate is this much so number of nozzles is going to be total mass flow rate
divide by mass flow rate per nozzle total mass flow rate is 1/ 6 kg per second here is 0.035841
and that is going to be = 4.645 number of nozzle is 4.65 but we cannot have 4.65 nozzle. It has to
be increase either 4 or 5 then we will have to take five nozzles.

And five nozzles if we are taking then for five nozzles we will have to connect the mass flow
rate. So actual mass flow rate will come around we can do about two things either we increase
the mass flow rate same type of nozzle or we change the diameter of the nozzle right + changing
diameter nozzle is difficult so we can do we can increase the mass flow rate of the steam and that
can be = 5 × 0.03581 and that = actual mass consumption of steam.

Another way is to the nozzle we change the diameter of the nozzle keeping the same mass flow
rate. Now next part of this numerical is if 10% of the isentropic heat drop between throat and exit
is wasted. Find the exit diameter of the nozzle now from 2 to 3 three 10 % of the heat wasted
right.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:53)

238
So for the 10 % wasted of the heat it means the total heat drop in the process is ∆h is h 1 - h2 right
+ 90 % of h2-h3 right. This will give now we can write h 1-h2 that means 3040.9 and h2 is 2896.6
and 90 % of remaining enthalpy drop that is again h2 2896.6 - 2120.4.

And this will give the enthalpy drop as 842.88 kJ/kg and this is h 1-h3’. So h3’ is going to be =
3040.9 - 842.88 and that is going to be = 2198.02 so h 3’ = 2198.02 kJ/kg right. So find the
diameter of the nozzle and the final condition ok.

Now we have h3’ that is the enthalpy of the fluid leaving the nozzle once we have value of h 3’ we
can find the quality of the vapor because this pressure is 5 kPa.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:30)

239
So 5 kPa the enthalpy is 2198 .02 =h f. hf is 137.75 kilo joules per kg and latent heat is 2560.72,
422.95 X 2422.95 from here we will get the value of X3 and that is going to be = 0.85.

Once we have power at state 3 we can find the velocity C 3= √2000 (h1-h3’) right. and this C3 we
have getting C3 we are getting 1298.4 m/s all we are getting just we are putting the value of h 1
that is 3040.9 and h3 dash it is 2198.02 that is how we are getting the velocity.

Now we have to find the area of exit velocity now velocity is with us is specific volume with us
and mass flow rate is constant right.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:17)

240
So area A3 = m V3’ /C3’ . Now V3 dash is X multiplied by V3 is how much 28.185 right multiplied
by the quality will give V3 dash. So now here mass flow rate is 0.035841×23.96 / 1298.4 and this
will give the area as 6.61×10 - 4 m2.

And this area is πd2/4 and from here we can find the value of d and the exit area or d 3 is 2.9 cm.
Simply we will just multiply this by 4 divide by pi we will take the under root will find the area
and meters multiply by 100 we will get the area sorry will get the diameter in meter and the
multiplied by 100 will get the diameter and centimeter right.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:56)

Now the last thing remaining is efficiency of the nozzle as I stated earlier the efficiency of the
nozzle is this is 3 dash efficiency of the nozzle is (h 1-h3’)/ (h1-h3). So we will take the value of h 1
and h3’ h3 043.9 – h3’ is 2198.02 divide by 3040.9 and h 3 is 2120.4. And this case the efficiency
as0.9157 or 91.6 % and that is all for today thank you very much

241
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No # 05
Lecture No # 21
Steam Turbine

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems. Today we shall start
with the steam turbines. Steam turbines are a sort of prime movers which are used to convert heat
energy into the work.
(Refer Slide time: 00:38)

If you look at the Rankine cycle on temperature interpreted diagram, 1 to straight 2 and straight 2
to 3 to 4 and 4 to 1. Now in this diagram this isentropic expansion of steam takes place inside the
steam turbine, in fact it was the consistent effort during 18 to 19 century. It started in 17 century
to convert heat into the useful work and steam engine was the first device which was used to
convert heat into the useful work.

If we depict the cycle in a steam engine on a PV diagram it is going to be like this, steam
admitting the steam engine because steam engine works on slider crank mechanism like petrol
engine or diesel engine. So it has a cylinder and cylinder is fitted with piston and a unique thing
here is piston rod which auto this petrol engine, diesel engine do not have the piston rod.

242
So it is fixed with piston and the piston rod is connected to the connecting rod and connecting
rod connects the piston rod to the crane shaft which rotates with a certain RPM So reciprocation
motion of piston is converted to rotary motion with this mechanism as in the case of petrol and
diesel engine as well. Here this piston rod is taken because the length of this stroke is quite large
in a steam engine.

If you compare length of the stroke in petrol or diesel engine it is quite large, so if you do not use
this piston rod then it will obstruct the movement of this connecting rod that is why piston short
piston rod is provided in a steam engine and there are other advantages of having a piston rod. So
if we transform this process of power development on PV diagram, is going to be like this- one,
two, and three in an ideal case.

It means that the steam is admitting this cylinder a cut off of steam supply takes place at a certain
pressure then steam expands in the steam engine up to the state 2 and again it comes back to state
three through condensation or it is expanded to the surroundings. If you look at this point
because this curve almost follows the process PV = C. So this curve tends to be flatter at the end
and if you look at this end this stroke the power or the useful work gained during this stroke is
not very significant.

So normally instead of expanding its steam at constant pressure at a certain pressure higher than
constant pressure, the steam is extended to the surrounding so that the size of the stroke or size of
the cylinder is restricted at the sacrifice of a very insignificant power development during this
stroke. Now if you want to have because in this case we are not taking the clearance volume into
the picture because for actual engine to work there has to be clearance between the piston and the
cylinder head.

So some clearance is provided in that case the diagram is going to be modified like this. So it is
going to be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Now in this steam engine in fact the pressure energy of the steam
is converted into the useful work. Now we will discuss about the Turbines in turbines, the
dynamic action of steam causing the work.

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Here in this case the pressure of a steam which is exerted on the piston which is used for
overcoming the inertia and the friction is used for developing the work through this slider crank
mechanism in case of steam turbine. Now we have discussed the steam engine, let us come to the
steam turbine, now in case of steam turbine there is a dynamic action of steam dynamic action
means there is change in momentum.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:43)

If we change in momentum of the steam right and the rate of changing this momentum of steam
will exert force, it is from the Newton second law of motion. Now suppose we take a plate a
curled blade and steam strikes with a certain velocity to this blade, not it strikes it glides over the
plate it does not strike but glides over the blade and leave from other side of the blade with
certain velocity V1 it is coming to the blade gliding over the surface of the blade.

This is the blade surface, this is the cross section of the blade, so there is no confusion and it
leaves with a velocity V2, from other side right because there is a change in the direction of the
velocity. Momentum will be there and is going to be change in the momentum, and this change
in momentum will exert force on the blade. But blade is not moving, we have considered that the
blade is fixed but certain amount of force will be exerted on this curled blade.

Now in second case suppose this curled plate is moving with a certain velocity U, initially the
magnitude of V1 is going to be the magnitude of V2 when U = 0. But now the blade is also

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moving with certain velocity in that case V2 is going to be less than V1. But will get certain
amount of work because force is being exerted and if we multiply force with the velocity that is
the amount of work we are going to get.

Or there is amount of output we are going to get now we keep on increasing the value of U the
force the work will keep on increasing. Suppose V1 becomes = U in that case there is not going
to be any output. So output is 0 when U = 0 output is 0 when V = V1. Now if we draw a
characteristic curve between force and the velocity, now this is U or U by V1 and this is force.

So U by V1 when it is zero when the force is maximum and when this = 1 then force is 0. So this
is going to be like this but output because we are concerned we are not concerned with the force
we are concerned with the output of the turbine. So when the U and V1 will increase initially the
output that is work will increase will attain some maximum value and then it will reduce.

So at maximum output or maximum work force may not be maximum. So this ratio = 0.5 this
will discuss later on in subsequent lectures. Now we will start with advantages of steam turbine
over advantages of steam turbine over steam engine.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:18)

Advantage of steam turbine, now in steam turbine what happens there is a rotor, I should explain
you the basic working of the steam turbine. In steam turbine there is a rotor right and over a rotor

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there are number of blades in this direction there are number of blades. So there is a rotor, on the
rotor there are number of blades fixed on the turbine surface axially as well as circumferentially.

So there will be a circumferentially arrangement of the curled blades fixed at a different certain
pitch over the circumference and along the axis of the turbine, when the steam glides over this
blades. When steam glides over these blades the force is exerted in this direction and these
blades starts moving like this in a rotation manner and that is how the RPMS are important to the
rotor and the rotor is connected to the generator and that is how the electricity is generated.

Now advantages of steam turbine are first of all there is no reciprocating mass. Steam turbines
are rotary machines, so there is no reciprocating mass or there is no linkage to convert
reciprocating motion to rotary motion as in the case of steam engine. So there is no unbalance
force in steam turbines, so balancing is not a problem. Second thing is wear and tear is less and
we can directly couple steam turbine shaft to the generator.

There is no sliding member in reciprocating system there are sliding members which causes loss
due to friction. So there in steam turbine there is no sliding member. Third thing is speed in
reciprocating engine, the limiting speed is approximately 300 rpm, is very low but if you
compare this with the steam turbine, speed in steam turbine the single stage steam turbine we can
go up to 40,000 rpm.

But forty thousand rpm is not very useful for us if it is directly available. We have to reduce it to
3000 rpm because all generators set or the electricity generators they work on 3000 rpm how it is
reduced for 40,000 to 3000 we will discuss later on, it is not appropriate to discuss it here in the
steam turbine.

Internal lubrication is not required in reciprocating engines, the lubrication is required in steam
turbine, internal lubrication is not required though some hydrodynamic bearings different type of
hydrodynamic bearings required to support the rotating shaft for not much lubrication is required
in the steam turbine. And then the most important thing is efficiency of steam turbine is
approximately 60 %.

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Efficiency of steam engine, maximum efficiency can go up to 20% otherwise it is 15 %, 15 to 20
%. So efficiency of steam turbine is quite high. Third thing is in steam engines the steam is send
to the surroundings or you have seen in the PV diagram even the exhaust valve is opened above
the atmospheric pressure if you look at the PV diagram.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:33)

Steam engine the exhaust is opened slightly above the atmospheric pressure, but in the case of
steam turbine and we will draw the temperature entropy diagram for the steam turbine. The
steam can expand pressure below the atmospheric pressure and normally the pressure in the
condenser is approximately 0.1 bar, 0.1 to 0.2 bar and output of the turbine depends upon 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 output of the turbine depends upon H1 – H2.

So definitely higher vacuum, we are maintaining here more output we are getting from the
turbine. However, in the case of steam engine we are sending steam out at outside atmosphere at
pressure slightly above the atmospheric pressure or definitely we are drawing more energy from
the same amount of level energy at state 1 in the case of steam turbine.
So and last but not the least they are suitable for the generator because output in is form of rotary
motion and so it can be directly coupled to the generators. Now the second thing these are the
advantages of steam turbine. Now we go for the classification of the steam turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:21)

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Classification of steam turbines, we lead us two types of turbines, impulse turbines and impulse
reaction turbines. Now in impulse turbines the steam high velocity steam which is coming from
the nozzle. Actually what happens the steam available in the boiler which is coming from the
boiler it passes through the nozzle. So this high pressure steam the energy or enthalpy of this
high pressure steam.

Part of this enthalpy is converted into the kinetic energy and this high velocity steam glides over
the blade surface and that is how the output is generated in a steam turbine or the power is
generated in a steam turbine. Pressure drop takes place only in the nozzle in impulse turbine,
there is no pressure drop during this passage. Pressure remains constant and the output is by
virtue of change only rate of change of momentum.

So this type of turbine is known as impulse turbine. Now second is reaction turbine or impulse
reaction turbine because pure reaction turbine is not practical. So we take impulse reaction
turbine, now in impulse reaction turbine the pressure drop takes place in this passage as well, so
in impulse reaction turbine the pressure drop takes place inside the nozzle and inside the or
through the blade passage as well.

And combined of effect of these pressure drops cause exerts pressure on the blades and that is
how the power is generated. Now the second is on the basis of direction of flow most of the

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turbine axial flow turbine. So axial flow turbine means this is rotor and direction of flow of
steam in the axis of rotor blades are fixed circumferentially and axially as well and steam glides
over the blades and it exerts pressure tangent to the rotor.

And that is how the rotor start moving So this type of top type of turbine are known as axial flow
turbines. There are radial flow turbines also, axial radial while in radial turbine the movement of
the steam is in radial direction. And the most very popular turbine is radial turbine is Jungstrom
turbine. In this turbine there is a grid moving plates in opposite direction and when the steam
flow in the radial direction the output is produced.

There is tangential flow turbines also tangential flow means the steam strikes the plate in the
tangential direction but steam turbines are rarely tangential type of turbines. Some of the
application they are used for running the auxiliary is for its small capacity power generation or
for running the auxiliary in the power plants. They can be used but normally most of the turbines
are axial flow turbines.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:18)

Now another classification is means of heat supply by mean, how the heats is supplied means of
heat supplied now in a turbine is denoted like a diverging section, a diverging passage like this
is high pressure side and this is low pressure side. So 1 is single pressure turbine, single pressure

249
turbine means steam is entering from one and leaving at 2. That is single pressure turbine mixed
or dual pressure turbine in which turbine at some intermediate space.

There is also an entry of the steam that is I mean instead of having at entry at one pressure the
entry of steam is at different pressure. So this is known as mixed or dual pressure turbine and as
we discussed earlier also there is a reheating arrangement also in the turbine, in reheating
arrangement
(Refer Slide Time: 20:24)

The steam entering the turbine is taken at certain point heated and then it is resent to the turbine
for its pressure. So this is a reheating we have applied and discussed reheating and regeneration.
In case of regeneration the feed water is heated with the help of exhaust from the turbine. So that
is a regenerative arrangement in the turbine now another classification of the turbine can be
(Refer Slide Time: 20:58)

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On the basis of heat rejected how the heat is rejected from the turbine, the first is pass out turbine
or extraction both are same. Pass out or extraction turbine during expansion with the turbine
starting from state 1 and this is state 2 at some intermediate place the steam is tapped and steam
is used for some chemical process or some process in the industry.
So this type of turbine is known as this type of heat rejection turbine having this type of heat
rejection system is known as pass out or extraction turbine. Regenerative turbine we have
discussed in earlier lectures about what is regeneration. Condensing turbines is a normal type of
turbine where condensation of fluid take place. I mean there is a condenser turbine and
condenser pump and boiler normal arrangement that is known as condensing turbine.

Because steam gets condensed in a condenser. Now non condensing turbine I mean that steam is
sent to the surroundings. So steam does not get condensed in the close cycles. So that is non
condensing turbine. Back pressure or topic turbine the steam coming out of the steam is extended
up to the lowest possible pressure and this steam coming from the turbine is used for and the exit
of the turbine not intermediate state.

But the exit of the turbine is used for the some industrial process. For example in sugar industries
the power is generated and the exhaust of the turbine the steam is available at very low pressure
and temperature. This low temperature, low pressure steam is used for processor in the sugarcane

251
industries. Now the number of cylinders is turbine in say the expansion of steam need not take
place in a single entity it can take place in different turbines.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:34)

So in a power plant normally there is a high pressure turbine it has intermediate pressure turbines
and it has low pressure turbines. The power plant can have two three low pressure turbines, two
three intermediate pressure turbines, they are known as LP, LP1, LP2, LP 3 normally it is
considered when the inlet pressure in the turbine is 5 bar or less than 5 bar or 500 kilowatt.

The pressure is less than or = 500 kilopascal, then it is known as low pressure turbine and by
visual inspection you can judge which is high pressure turbine which is low pressure turbine
because high pressure turbine, the specific volume of the steam is less. So it is going to be small
in size as the pressure of the steam reduces specific volume of the steam is increases and that is
how the size of the turbines keeps on increasing.

They can be tandem turbine. There is another classification tandem is output is coming to the
common shaft right or there is tandem type of arrangement and there is a cross compound type of
arrangement where output from each turbine is sent to an individual shaft. So that is known as
cross compound type of arrangement. The turbine can be a single flow or double flow type of
turbine single flow means
(Refer Slide Time: 25:14)

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Steam is entering from one side and leaving from another side this is single flow double flow
normally double flow arrangement is done in high low pressure turbine because the size of the
low pressure turbine is big they are bigger in size so in that case steam enters in the middle and it
moves axially in both the directions.
So these two types of arrangements illustrative arrangements are also possible in steam turbine.
Now there is another classification because that is based on rotational speed, now rotational
speed of a turbine here we supply 50 hertz or electricity supply is 50 hertz
(Refer Slide Time: 26:00)

In some of the countries like it is 60 hertz, some of the countries it is 75 hertz. I will focus on this
50 hertz now. For 50 hertz supply if you want to have 50 hertz supply then rpm of the motor is

253
going to be 120 F by P. P is number of poles because if you go to the market you will not find
motors for all RPM you will find motors for 3000 rpm.

Like for example, you this small capacity generator petrol running with the petrol this of capacity
1 kilowatts one and half kilowatts. The one you will find it is running at 3000 rpm or you will
find machines running on 1500 rpm or you will find machines running on 7050 rpm. So in
market the electrical machines are not available for all rpms.

There are certain rpms only for those, only you will get the machine. Now how this rpms are
decided, suppose I take two poles motor if you are take two poles P = 2F is 50 hertz it is fixed.
So N is going to be 120 × 50 / 2. So it is going to be how much this 60 into 50 = 3000 rpm.
Suppose we can go for four poles also, if you go for four poles this will be reduced to 1500 rpms.
If we go for eight poles this will be reduced to 750 rpms. Right now I want to have output of 60
hertz, now again we will use the same
(Refer Slide Time: 28:09)

Formula N = 120 F by P. So if F is equal to 60, 120 ×60 / 2 it is going to be 3600 rpm. In some
of the countries this electricity supply is sixty hertz. So 3600 rpm again if we go for four pole
then it is going to be 1800 rpm and similarly if you go for the eight poles it is going to be 900
rpm. I think this is all for the classification of steams right sorry classification of steam turbine
and in the next class we will start with the compounding of steam turbine thank you.

254
 Steam and gas power system
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No # 5
Lecture No # 22
Compounding of stream turbines

I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems, today we will discuss about
the compounding of steam turbines. Compounding of steam turbines basically means about the
objective of the compounding of the steam turbines is to have the same output with reduced
RPM because single stage steam turbine is very high rpm so in compounding the basic object of
the compounding is without altering the output of the turbine the RPM of the turbine is reduced
so that it can be used for power generation.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:03)

Now before we go for the compounding we will discuss about the De laval turbine first and then
we go for pressure compounded steam turbine, velocity compounded impulse turbine, impulse
reaction turbine and then we will discuss difference between impulse and reaction turbines. So
first of all we will discuss the single stage De laval turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:25)

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This is a single stage turbine so there is a shaft in this turbine okay and on this shaft the blades
are fixed so there is only one row of the blades. So like this, this appears to be rectangle but it is
a curved plate or curved blade like this. So when we take an elevation of this it will appear to be
a flat plate and the sitting to the blade there is a nozzle normally it is a converging diverging
nozzle.

Now this nozzle sends steam to the blade so this a nozzle a converging diverging nozzle right
and let us house this and this is exhaust and from this side also it is closed, this side also it is
closed okay. So now this is converging diverging nozzle as you know in the converging
diverging nozzle the velocity of steam coming out of the converging diverging nozzle is quite
large and normally it is it exceeds thousand meters per second.

Let us say normally in De laval type of turbine it is 1100 meters per second right and this steam
glides over the blade okay and blade is if the shaft is along the board then the blade is like this
and when it glides over the blade it exerts force on the blade and the blade a tangential force is
exerted on the shaft with the result and rotational motion because there is number of plates okay
because there is series of blades circumferentially and axially.

But this is a single stage turbine so there is only one row of blades okay circumferentially some
there are number of blades but axially there is only one row of blade in De laval turbine. And if

256
you look at the variation of velocity and pressure in this turbine, make this half shaft pressure
and velocity variation. This is nozzle, blades and there is a vessels between nozzles and the
blades, this is a line this is the gap for nozzle and this is for blade right.

So if you look at the variation of pressure so there is a variation in the pressure in the nozzle right
from the entry to the exit there is a pressure drop in the nozzle in dresses we do not consider any
pressure or velocity loss so it goes on like this and what about this pressure loss in the impulse
turbine blade because pressure loss in the impulse turbine blade zero, there is no pressure loss in
the impulse turbine blade.

So it is also going to be straight and this is going to be the condenser pressure, this pressure is
condenser pressure. Now regarding the velocity inside the turbine the velocity also here increases
in nozzle, velocity of stream because nozzles are basically used to convert pressure energy into
the kinetic energy.

So velocity increases in the gap between the blades because it is small gap between the nozzle
and the blades so it remains constant here and in the blades the velocity keeps on reducing and
here exhaust takes place this is almost this is V2 and in fact a lot of energy is going out with this
velocity of the steam it is approximately 10 to 12 % that is the kinetic energy which is going out
of this steam first of all.

So this is the wastage of energy so it should be trapped in order improve the efficiency of the
turbine its inlet velocity is approximately 1100 is stated earlier also meter per second the velocity
U the rotational velocity of the rotor approximately 350 per hour meters per second and N rpm
is 30,000 rpm right. So in de laval turbine, single steam turbine the RPM is 30,000 inlet velocity
is 1100 meters per second.

And approximately 10 to 12 % of the kinetic energy is going up with the exhaust so these are the
main drawbacks of this single stage de laval turbine. Now in order to improve the working of this
turbine first of all we have to reduce the RPM, we have to reduce them to an acceptable value.

257
Second thing is these losses due to this kinetic energy of steam which is leaving the turbine have
to be minimized okay.

So for this purpose compounding of turbine is done so this turbine is used for the smaller power
generation but through compounding we can reduce the RPM and we can reduce these losses
also. So for the purpose of compounding, we will draw another diagram and this compounded
impulse turbine is also known as the rateau turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:51)

In this turbine the pressure does not take place in a single nozzle so there is a set of combination
of blades and the nozzles, so one stage consists of one set of nozzles and blades right. So de laval
turbine single stage turbine, so in rateau turbine the number there are number of stages if we
depict them pictorially the turbine is going to be like this, there is a shaft on the shafts there are
blades first of all we will depict the blades, there are blades right and there are nozzles and there
is another nozzle similarly we can have n number of stages.

I mean each stage will consists of set of nozzles there can be n number of nozzles
circumferentially but axially there is only one grid of nozzles and one grid of turbine blades
right. Similarly we can have number of stages when the pressure is reduced the volume is
increased so the size of the turbine is also increased we can have n number of stages here also
right.

258
Now these nozzles these blades are fixed to the shaft and they rotate along with the shaft but
nozzles they do not rotate along with the shafts in fact there is a small gap between this and
between the nozzle body in the shaft and at the top they are fixed with the casing. So they
remained stationary only the blades which are fixed on the shafts they rotate with the shafts.

Now here if we draw projections from the nozzles, these are the projections from nozzles ,this
one, this one then from the blade then again from the nozzle then again from the blade and so on.
Now in the nozzle let us start with the pressure drop so pressure drop in the nozzle is going to be
like this it is not linear because the distance is small it appears to be linear but it is not linear then
in the recess it remains constant because in recess we assume that there is no this gap is
very small much smaller than which is appearing here.

So it remains constant and now the blade itself there is no change in the pressure because it is the
impulse turbine. After the blade there is a recess there is no change in pressure then again there is
a nozzle there is a pressure drop then again pressure remains constant. So what happens here the
entire pressure drop does not take place in a single nozzle it is being splitted in number of stages
since the pressure drop is being splitted in number of stages the steam entering the first stage of
the blade will not be the velocity of this steam will not be very high like 1100 meters per second.

So it is going to be low because pressure drop is low right and what about the velocity now we
will start with the velocity in the first set of nozzles the velocity will increase you know there is a
drop is pressure velocity will rise in recess the velocity will remain constant right and then in the
blades the velocity will fall. And then again it will remain constant in the recess space then again
in the nozzle it will raise right remain constant and it will fall.

So velocity will keep on rising and falling, pressure is simply splitted in number of stages the net
effect is the RPM of the turbine is reduced output is same but the RPM of the turbine is used and
this turbine becomes more useful for power generation and when we talk about the carryover
losses carryover loses means losses or the kinetic energy being take away by which is leaving the
turbine these loses are only 1 to 2 % very less in comparison to the de laval turbine.

259
So this is the pressure compounding of turbine pressure compounding means pressure drop does
not take place in single stage but it is splitted in number of stages. Now another is velocity
compounded in turbine the velocity compounded turbine is the Curtis turbine okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:31)

So Curtis turbine is the velocity compounded turbine in this turbine the velocity is splitted in
pressure compounding turbine the pressure is splitted so in a velocity compounded turbine there
is only one nozzle of the shaft. On the shaft there is only one nozzle there is a shaft and there is
only one nozzle and this is the diverging passage because the specific volume of steam is
increasing.

So it is a diverging passage and in this diverging passage we have blades fixed on the rotor so
there are blades to, there are fixed blades there are two types are blades here moving blades and
fixed blades. So moving blades are in contact with the rotor or fixed with the rotor and
fixed blades are fixed with the housing so there is another fixed blade.

Now I will tell you the purpose of having fixed blades in fixed blades right so and then there are
again will draw the projection from here, nozzles and then moving blade, fixed blade, moving
blade fixed blade so there is only one nozzle here and in this nozzle as in case of other nozzles

260
there is a pressure drop and there is a rise in velocity of the steam. Pressure drop takes place in
this stage only in Curtis turbine in remaining stages there is no pressure drop.

So pressure remains constant after the pressure drop the pressure remains constant or we can
swap them for the sake of convenience so this is pressure drop and pressure drop remains same
then the pressure remains same in remaining stages in Curtis turbine. And regarding the velocity
first there is a rise in velocity because the purpose of the nozzle is increase the velocity then there
is a recess.

So in the recess the velocity remains constant here there is a drop in the velocity guide in blades
there is no change in the velocity and then again there is a drop in the velocity then guide veins
there is no drop in the velocity. So in velocity compounded turbine we can have another I mean
another blade here so then again there is going to be a drop in the velocity. So in the velocity
compounded turbine the entire velocity is splitted into several stages that is why it is known as
velocity compounded turbine.

And the previous turbine which was rateau turbine, in rateau turbine the pressure was splitted
into the number of stages and okay after this we will take up velocity and pressure so we can
have combination also we can have the combination of velocity compounding and pressure
compounding. So then certain stages are velocity compounded then again certain stages are
velocity compounded and it would be there is a pressure drop.

So we can have similarly we can have another nozzle here for example another nozzle then
velocity compounding then another nozzle velocity compounding that type of arrangement is
known as pressure and velocity compounding of impulse turbine. Second type of turbine is
impulse reaction turbine in impulse reaction turbine the output is generated not only by the
impulse of the moment of the steam or rate of change of momentum of the steam.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:13)

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But also expansion of steam or pressure drop of steam in the blade passage pressure drop of
steam in blade passage is not uniform okay so expansion of or the pressure drop of steam also
takes place in the blade passage and the power is generated and for impulse reaction turbine
again and the blades are there are two types of blades profile type of blades and aero foil.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:45)

This impulse reaction turbine they have aerofoil type of blades we will discuss them in details in
subsequent lectures we will discuss this impulse reaction turbine in details but the shape of
blades in impulse reaction turbines is aero foil type. And there is a change in cross section area

262
of the passage and that is how the reaction is created in impulse reaction turbine. So this turbine
is also having stationary blades moving blades since pressure drop takes places in both the cases.

Stationary plates also and the moving plates also and there is a special type of turbine which is
known as parson. In parson turbine 50 % in enthalpy drop takes place in moving blades. So
suppose they are ten stages so in each stage it is 50% in moving in this 50% in stationary stage.
So this is how I mean reaction turbines are compounded because they do not have nozzles they
have only passages.

One grid is for stationary and another is for moving pressure drop takes place in both these
stages right so we will discuss this impulse reaction turbine in the subsequent lectures. Now
difference between impulse and reaction turbines
(Refer Slide Time: 21:13)

In impulse turbine pressure drop is in nozzle only impulse reaction turbine they do not have any
nozzles and pressure drop takes place in the entire length of the turbine or along the axis of the
turbine rotor. In impulse turbine there is a constant blade channel so there is no pressure drop in
impulse turbine in reaction turbine there is a variation in the cross section in the blade channel
that is why there is a pressure drop in reaction turbine.

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Third is they are profile type of blades in impulse turbine and in reaction turbine they are aero
foil type of blades and this causes pressure drop in the channels in impulse reaction turbine.
Fourth one is in impulse reaction turbine partial admission in the turbine for example suppose
there is a side view of the turbine so we can have nozzles at different locations so we can activate
only these nozzles.

We may not supply steam to these nozzles so partial admission for the sake of controlling the
output of the turbine is possible in impulse turbine but partial admission. But this is not possible
in impulse reaction turbine. Because in impulse reaction turbine we don’t use nozzles, nozzles
are not being used so here there is a diaphragm consist the nozzles grid of nozzles a grid of
nozzles and we can partially supply steam to these nozzles or we can select number of nozzles to
which the steam can be supplied so this is possible in impulse turbine.

Fourth is power developed in impulse reaction turbine is more so power developed in impulse
reaction turbine is higher than the impulse turbine and this impulse turbine if you look at the size
of the turbine so impulse turbines occupies less space if you compare with the impulse reaction
turbine but their efficiency is low efficiency of impulse turbine is less than the efficiency of an
impulse reaction or bit less than the reaction turbine.

And so these impulse turbines are used for low power generation but the benefit of these turbines
is their blades are easy to manufacture they are lighter in weight and they causes less stress on
those blades are fixed on the rotor they are fixed on the rotor. So if they are light in weight easy
to manufacture they are fixed on the rotor and they cause comparatively lesser stress in the rotor
so there is a benefit of impulse turbine if you compare with reaction turbine. In the next lecture
we will start with the analysis of a power generation in impulse turbine.

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 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department Of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 05
Lecture No # 23
Impulse Steam Turbine

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today. We will start
with the analysis of impulse steam turbine and during this analysis will go for the velocity
diagram will develop a velocity diagram.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:33)

For impulse turbine output and efficiency of single stage turbine and we will try to solve one
example also velocity diagram.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:47)

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There is a suppose there is blade of an impulse turbine the blade N as i started earlier lecture
the steam entering the blade should be such that the angle of entry the steam entering the
blade should be such that the steam glides over the blade. Ok and this steam which is coming
to the blade will definitely enter at a certain angle right and this angle is known as blade inlet
angle right.

For this is the case when the blade is a stationary steam is entering the blade at a certain angle
and this angle is known as from this line the tangential line blade inlet angle. And this
velocity is let us say V now moving in a certain velocity U in this direction.

So when the blade is moving in the certain velocity U in this direction then this U means it is
like this is also moving in this direction now what is going to happen in that case the net
velocity through to which the steam is entering the blade is going to the vector V+ VX is
going to be vector U and since it is moving with the certain velocity.

This angle will also change right and this angle will also change and the change angle will be
like this right. So we have to keep our nozzle in this direction at alpha not at the direction of
beta alpha blade is moving in this direction and this angle will change to beta relative to the
blade. Now we have two types of angle one angle alpha which is absolute another angle beta
which is relative to the blade velocity relative to the blade right.

So the nozzle will be in the direction nozzle will be in the direction and since the blade is
moving with the velocity certain velocity the steam will enter the blade with relative to this

266
with that angle beta right. So this velocity is known as absolute velocity the absolute velocity
and this angle alpha is known as nozzle inlet angle nozzle angle that =α1 let us say this inlet
this is alpha 1.

Now this velocity is relative to the blade VR1 and this angle beta is blade inlet angle this β1
and vector this will also change. So vector V1 = vector U + vector VR1 or blade velocity we
can result the absolute velocity VR cannot be measured it has to be determined so will write
VR1 vector = vector V1 - vector U right this is about the inlet.

Now the steam is gliding over the surface and leaving with the certain velocity VR2 at an
angle beta 2 so blade inlet so blade outlet angle is β 2. This velocity is VR2 is related to the
blade is still moving in this direction with velocity U right. So VR2 is again is going to be V2
- U.

So this is going to be the absolute velocity of steam leaving the blade and this absolute
velocity of a steam leaving the blade will be at α 2 angle this angle is going to be β this angle
and this angle both are same β 2 right. So this is β 2 this is α 2 V 2 and U now if you
transform this angle or these velocities into a single diagram that is going to be the velocity
diagram right.`

So velocity U is common in all the cases this is U this is velocity of the blade right and this
velocity V1 this 1 at an angle α 1 right and this angle alpha 1 and then this is VR1 and this is
β this is the blade inlet angle this VR1 and blade inlet angle is β1 this is inlet velocity
diagram. Now what we are doing we are just combining these two diagrams in a single
diagram for the purpose of analysis that makes analysis easier.

Now regarding VR2 this is going to be the VR2 right and then this angle β 2. It is going to be
the blade outlet angle beta 2 and if you combine this with this one were will be getting V2 so
this all these velocities directions of velocities are informed into a single diagram that makes
the analysis easier. So this is absolute velocity at inlet this is absolute velocity and this is
angle alpha now certain component of these velocity is producing output.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:38)

267
Because this is your channel with this turbine blade channel steam is entering like this blade
velocity U in this direction and this is absolute velocity at inlet and this α1 and this is β 1
right the component off coming inlet steam component of inlet steam in the direction of the
velocity will exert force on the blade right and this is known as whirl component of steam.

So V1 cos α V1 cos alpha right this will be the force or momentum in this direction right.
Now again the steam is leaving the blade at the certain velocity now this is α2 V2 VR2 β2
now component this component which is leaving because the entering momentum minus
leaving momentum. So this vector this vector cos α 2 right this will be the force this will be
causing the net force multiplied by the mass flow rate.

This will be the net force which is exerted on the blade and which is causing the blade to
move ok now this is itself in a negative direction right. So this is known as whirl component
VW and this is VW1 and VW2 and if you take the absolute values will be added because this
is also in negative direction right. So the force is going to be the MVW1 + VW2 or mass flow
rate VW.

VW is whirl component V1 cos α1 + V2 cos α two but it is interested to see here that will be i
mean will be useful later on in the analysis that V1 as alpha V1 cos α 1 + V2 cos α 2 = VR 1
cos β 1 + VR2 cos β 2 there is a benefit of velocity diagram. We can have i mean use the
skills of trigonometry and find some explanation.

268
So will component can be taken in two ways either we take cos of V1 and V2 or absolute
velocity of inlet angle. Cos of inlet angle or an outlet angle or cos. Cos of blade angles and
inlet and outlet for relative velocity inlet and relative velocity outlet so this will give us whirl
component mass flow rate and that is the force on the blade the force into velocity will give
the power.

So F into VF into U will give the power and that is going to be M dot VW U now this power
because power is normally expressed in terms of kilowatt. So divided by 1000 so we can
comfortably say that output of a turbine impulse turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:37)

Output power is mass flow rate VW 1 + VW 2 or VW. VW 2 into U / 1000 that is one thing
second thing is what is the efficiency of this blade there is a term which is known as blade or
diagram efficiency blade or diagram efficiency either it is a blade or some others called blade
efficiency or some others called diagram efficiency through this diagram the issue is we are
getting this power output from this velocity diagram or the arrangement.

So what is the efficiency of this blade because incoming energy is half Mv square are we able
to convert entire energy into the work that we are not doing suppose the energy is going away
with the outlet velocity but this much power we are getting so blade efficiency is output
divided by half MV square M is mass flow rate. So if we take this into account then blade or
diagram efficiency of impulse turbine is going to be

269
M dot VW U divided by half MV square or MV1 square one that is inlet energy coming with
the inlet velocity. So this will be cancelled out so blade efficiency is 2 Vw U by V 12another
term is in this impulse turbine stage efficiency stage or gross efficiency stage means stage is a
combination of nozzle and the blade because if we take a turbine stage turbine stage is a
combination of nozzle and a blade.

So combined efficiency is going to be enthalpy drop in the blade it is how much part of the
enthalpy in part of the e enthalpy drop in not in the blade in nozzle is converted into the
useful work.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:28)

So output so the gross efficiency is going to be the gross efficiency is going to be the output
VW U mass flow rate that is output right divided by enthalpy drop in this stage enthalpy drop
or this ∆ H is MH right now this gross efficiency can further be expressed as VW U by half
MV2 multiplied by half MV2 / ∆ H multiplied by M right now this we have already done this
is stage blade efficiency so this is blade efficiency.

So gross efficiency is blade efficiency and this you remember about the nozzle this is the
enthalpy drop this is the kinetic energy of the steam which is the nozzle. So this is the
efficiency of the nozzle. So stage efficiency is the product of blade efficiency and efficiency
of the nozzle. So definitely stage efficiency is less than the blade efficiency if there are no
fiction losses in the passage then the relative velocity at the inlet should be relative velocity at
outlet.

270
Because in impulse turbine ok there is the steam is simply gliding on the surface.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:21)

So when the steam is only gliding on the surface then this is VR1 and simply it is gliding on
the surface and leaving from this side then VR2. So this velocity should not change so due to
the fiction it is a change in this velocity in actual practice and this energy loss in fiction is
MVR12 – VR2 divided by 2 this is kinetic energy the kinetic energy based on the relative
velocity at inlet minus kinetic energy based on the relative velocity outlet.

We will give the fiction losses in the passage the third thing is this is the component we are
getting which is rotating the shaft now this component will cause thrust along the excess of
the shaft this is the excess of the shaft. So this is the force we often which is this is the flow
velocity of flow this velocity of flow component will cause thrust on the shaft in ideal case
this is VF1 and this is VF2 in ideal case VF1 should be equal to Vf two then there is no thrust
along the access along the shaft.

If there is of VF1 is not equal to VF2 then there is going to be a thrust along the access of the
shaft that is going to be mass flow rate VF1 – VF2 divided by you can say 1000 kilo newtons
right now based on these formulas let us do analysis of a impulse turbine the statement of the
problem is given here.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:24)

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So actually the steam has thousand kilopascal is 10 bar pressure enters a de level steam
turbine is a single stage in steam turbine consisting tof a one row of blades and one row of
nozzles exhaust is 100 kilo pa. 100 kilo pa is almost atmosphere pressure there are four
nozzles in the turbine and each one is inclined 20 degree angle to the plane of the wheel the
average peripheral speed of the blades is 400 meters per second obtain the best angle for the
blades.

If inlet and outlet angles are same what is the approximate power developed if the area at the
throat of each nozzle is 20 millimeter in square.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:15)

So if first of all we will draw this cycle on a temperature entropy diagram TS we can make
use of mollier diagram also mollier diagram are diagrams are mollier diagrams are easy to

272
use or we will start with this one we assume that the steam which is entering the turbine is
saturated and it is expanded in the turbine state 1 to state 2 now it is expanded in the nozzle.

So when the steam is expanded in nozzle first of all for the steam, table we will get the value
of H1.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:58)

So this prefers the steam table and at time bar will get the value of enthalpy 2777.1 H1 =
2777.1 kilo joules per KG S1 will tell take this is entropy so entropy is 56.585 kilo joules per
KJ Kelvin. Now again the same thing we will use here S2 = S1 is as entropic process.

So 6.585 is going to be there is 100. So it is going to be under 1.3028 + X into 6.056. From
here we will get the value of X right the value of X is so X the quality of steam or X is
0.8772.

Now once we have the quality at state 2 we can find enthalpy at stage 2 also H 2 = HF2 + XHFG
2 that is 417.5 + 0.8722 into 2257.4 and this will give us enthalpy at state 2 as 2386 kilo
joules per Kg.

Such step of exercises we have already done right now H 2 - H1, H1 - X2 here H1 – H2 if you
have the value of H1 - H2 we can find the velocity of exit steam right.

So velocity of exit steam is going to be 2 into 1000 H1 2777.1 - 2386 have begin 1000
because this is 1 kilo joule this is a normal mistake which is written by the students they do

273
not ×1000 so V = 884.4 meters per second or we can say this is V1 this is the velocity of
turbine blade this is inlet velocity of turbine with V1.

So V1 is 884.4 meters per second right now this thing if you look at the Mollier diagram this
is enthalpy and entropy diagram.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:03)

Let us look at the Mollier diagram which is enthalpy entropy diagram HS this is a saturation
line X = 0 right and if you take the constant pressure lines also if you take this ten bar the line
or thousand Kpa or one mega pascal line right draw a vertical line which is constant entropy
diagram and where it cuts the 100 Kpa line that is the state to this is state1 and in this diagram
there are constant quality lines also sorry this is X = 1.

So constant quality lines also so X = 0.9, 0.8, 0.7 something like that so from this diagram
you can immediately find H1 - H2 there is a benefit of Mollier diagram immediately you can
find H1- H2 and quality of steam as well anyway we have the inlet velocity of a steam in the
steam turbine peripheral velocity of a steam turbine is 400 meters per second if you look at
the statement peripheral velocity is 400 meters per second. So 400 meters per second
(Refer Slide Time: 24:31)

274
Is peripheral velocity right inlet velocity is eight 844 meters per second this angle inlet angle
is given here each one is inclined at sorry 20 degree angle right so inlet angle is given. Now
we can easily make the triangle i mean using the skills of trigonometry we can find the value
of VR1 we have several ways of doing it you take X component and Y component right and
you square them and add them or we can find the value of tan beta 1 = 884.4.

Sin 20 / 884.4 cos 20 - 400 this will give the value of β1 as 35 degree one we have the
geometrically. It can also be done analytically it can also be done so just draw from here line
at 35 degree and when it is cutting there this will give the VR1. So all problems related with
the velocity diagram can be done geometrically and trigonometrically.

So this gives the value of β 2 also as under theβ2 also beta two also is 35 degree this is also
35 degree because it is given here inlet and outlet angles are same so beta 2 we have taken 35
degree relative velocity vr 1 VR1 is 526.6 meters per second just under take a root of this and
a square of this will give the VR1 now because losses are not mention.

So we can assume that VR2 also = 526.6 metre per second because there is no change in the
relative velocity in impulse turbine now we want to find power developed in order to have
power developed we should have whirl will component.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:17)

275
So power developed is going to be power is going to be because we do not have the value of
V2 though we can calculate but there is no need we will take VR1 cos β1 + VR2 cos β 2 that
is the same thing so it is going to be VR1 cos β 1 + VR2 cos β2 but here β 1 =β2 VR1 = VR2.
So we can comfortably take 2 into 2526.6 cos 35 into cos 35 and it is going to be 862.7
meters per second.

So vw whirl component is 862.7 meters per second now we can find we have all the required
information to find the blade or the diagram efficiency.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:28)

So blade or diagram efficiency can be so power can also be calculated mass flow rate VW U
by 1000 we do not have mass flow rate we have VW we have U we have 1000 but blade
efficiency can be calculated 2 VW U by V12 we have the value of VW. We have the value of

276
U and we have the value of V12 into 832.7 into 400 divided by V1 884.4 square and this is
0.88 approximately.

88 % so blade efficiency is 88 % but we do not have mass flow rate once we do not have
mass flow rate we cannot calculate how much power has been developed now in order to find
mass flow rate let us do one thing because here the velocity is 884 right the velocity pressure
ratio at the throat because there is a nozzle the nozzle it is written here about the nozzle no let
us take pressure ratio P2 / P1.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:50)

Or P2 / P1 is critical pressure ratio for steam expansion of a steam and that is = 2 / N + 1 raise
to the power N / N - 1 = 0.577 right for a steam value is taken as 1.3 ok in that case we will
get P2 = 577.4 kilo pa because P1 is 1000. So this is 5574 exit pressure is 100 kilo pa square
it means it is a converging diverging nozzle right.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:42)

277
Now we have pressure here we have to find because here the area at the thought is given area
at throat is given 20 how much 20 millimeter square right velocity at a throat area at the
throat mass flow rate. So area at the throat velocity at the throat is equal to mass flow rate and
specific volume at the throat from here we can find the mass flow rate right area of the throat
is given now velocity at throat now again we will take enthalpy here the expansion is taking
place 1 to 2 this is 2.

So this is three so throat is somewhere here two right now we have to find enthalpy at state 2
if you want to use the steam table the steam table can be used if somebody wants to use
Mollier chart can be used now enthalpy at state 2 we will have to because pressure is 577.4.
So interpolation has to be done data have done here i have found the properties of saturated
steam at 577.4 kilo pascal pressure.

All the values because these values are not given in steam table so one has to do calculations
and find these values from the steam table now once we have the values for 577.4. Now we
can find the value of H1 – H2 and using this values H 1 – H2 we can find definitely find the
velocity of steam and the throat.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:27)

278
So the velocity of steam and the throat will be again velocity of the steam and the throat is
going to be 2 into 1000 H1 – H2 right here this will give the velocity of the throat 456.3
meters per second quality of the steam at the throat now after quality of a steam can easily be
calculated thus taking the constant entropy process as we did previously quality of the steam
of the throat will be calculated and quality of the steam.

Once the quality of the steam is calculated will find the specific volume of the steam and the
throat right now specific volume is known velocity is known area is known we can find the
mass flow rate mass flow rate is area into velocity divided by specific volume at the throat
and this will give the mass flow rate and the of the steam and thought from one nozzle how
many nozzles are there are four nozzles.

So this mass flow rate will be multiplied by four we will get the mass flow rate once we have
the mass flow rate with us right then we can find the power because power is mass flow rate
into VW × U / 1000. VW we have already calculated peripheral velocity is with us mass flow
rate. We have we will be calculating adopting this process divided by 1000 will give the
output right that is all over for today thank you very much.

279
 Stream and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee
Module No # 05
Lecture No # 24
Impulse Steam Turbine Performance

I welcome you all in this course on this steam and gas power system. Today we will do the
analysis on the steam turbine performance.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:35)

In the previous lecture we have already done the found the blade or diagram efficiency for
single stage steam turbine as VU / V1 square VW is the whirl component of the velocity
diagram this is the velocity diagram this is absolute velocity at inlet this is the peripheral
velocity of the rotor this is relative velocity at inlet the relative velocity at outlet and this is
absolute velocity at outlet.

And the angles are this is blade inlet angle this is blade outlet angle this is nozzle inlet angle
and this is nozzle outlet angle right. And this efficiency has to be maximized because
whenever a equipment or system is evolved initially we do not focus on efficiency we focus
on the output right when the output then subsequently our focus is shifted on the efficiency
that output we are getting at what efficiency.

Because efficiency is a very important parameter to for the performance evaluation of any
equipment or any component. So here the blade efficiency the blade or diagram efficiency is

280
expressed by this right. So you will see under what conditions this blade or diagram
efficiency is maximum one thing is here that the ratio of U and inlet velocity because this is
peripheral velocity this is inlet velocity.

Relative velocity is derived from this and this and all the velocities are derived from this and
thus peripheral velocity the main thing is the peripheral velocity and the inlet velocity and
there ratio is denoted by rho. This blade efficiency will be maximum when this is having the
maximum value this is having the minimum value right V1 is let us say it is constant.

We cannot have V1 minimum is 0 it because when there is no velocity at inlet

mathematically then efficiency is going to be the infinite. In this case V1 is also constant
whirl component from is dependent on inlet velocity whirl component VW is dependent on
inlet velocity or relative velocity at inlet either of these and also yet U right. So we will say
that VW first of all VW = V1 cos α 1 + V2 cos α2.

Right or we can say subsequently VR1 cos β 1 + VR2 cos β 2 we will take VR1 cos β 1 out 1
+ VR2 by VR1 cosβ 2 by cos β 1. Now these values of either there equal β 1 β 2 are equal or
their values are very close to each other under any case it is a constant right. And this VR2 by
VR1 this is blade velocity coefficient right so we can always say that VR1 cos β 1 = 1 + this
is also constant so KB right.

Ideal case K = 1 and B = 1 now VR1 we do not have the value of VR1 because VR1
dependent is dependent on V1 the absolute at inlet. So relative velocity is depended on the
absolute velocity so instead of taking VR1 so it cannot be measured we will take V1 cos α 1 -
U. V1 is cos α is in this direction that the component of absolute velocity - U will give us the
VR1 cos β1 this component.

So this component of V1 in this direction minus peripheral velocity U will give this
component so this is going to be the VW right now U ×U. So this has to be ×U and from here
we can take U = rho V1. So VW U = V1 cos α 1 – ρ V1 + KB ρ V1 because U is again
replaced by V1 and this U can also be replaced by rho V1.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:42)

281
Now if you further simplify this so 2 VW U is going to be 2 ρ V1 V1 cos α 1 – rho V1 + KB
now this V1 and V1 this, this and multiplied by this will go here square is going to 2 ρ cos α
1 – ρ2 + KB is it ok? This rho and this ρ is multiplied V1 is taken out this V1 and V1 are
taken out multiplied by this one has gone here rho has gone in.

2
So ρcos α1 – ρ 1 + KB and this is nothing but blade efficiency. Now we have blade
efficiency remember this is a constant this is a constant. α 1 is also constant this is the blade
inlet angle and which is constant.

So sorry not blade so nozzle inlet angle it is a constant. So we can say that efficiency of the
blade is a function of ρ earlier lecture we have also discussed then the output when we
increase ρ output increase if you remember that graph. When we increase the value of U /V1
or the rho then the efficiency increases and it is the maximum value and then it comes down
right. And this sorry not efficiency work output increases and comes down and force
decreases.

When we increases the value of U / V1 when U = V1 there is no force and when U = 0 force
is maximum. So now what we can do we can differentiate this equation for blade efficiency
with respect to rho.

So what we are going to get two rho sorry cos α 1 - 2 ρ1+ KB right again if we differentiate
D2 and B / D ρ2 then we are going to get 2 - 2, 1 + KB or = -4, 1 + KB K and B both are

282
constant so it is going to have negative value. It means if we take this is equal to 0 and the
solution will give the maximum value.

Now this is taken as 0 in that case ρ = cos α 1 by so the maximum efficiency or the highest
efficiency the value of ρ has to be half of the cos α 1 ok and ρ is nothing but U / V1. Now
with this value of ρ what is the value of efficiency? What is going to be the efficiency of the
impulse turbine? In order to find that here we will put rho = cos α1 / 2.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:29)

So efficiency of the blade = two times this is half cosα1 cos α1 - half cos α 1 2 and then 1 +
KB right. And from this you will get two times half cos square α1 – 1 / 4 cos 2 α1 + KB if you
further simplify it then you will get blade efficiency as two times 1 / 4 cos 2 α1 + KB right or
efficiency blade efficiency is half cos 2 α 1 + KB.

Now K is an ideal case relative velocity this K is the ratio of relative velocity of steam which
is leaving the blade and relative velocity of the steam which is entering the blade. So this is
one if there are no fiction losses B is blade angle normally the blade inlet angle and blade
outlet angle the values are very close to each other they are not exactly same they can be
exactly same also but in most of the cases they are very close to each other.

So this K and B we can consider for the sake of convenience we can consider them to be V to
be 1. So K is 1, V is 1 + is 2 and then it becomes half cos square α 1× by 2 and 2 will be
cancelled out.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:35)

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We will get blade efficiency as cos 2 α1 right for speed ratio or U /V1 as for a speed ratio ρ=
cos α1 right. Now we will talk a little about multi staging what happens in multi-staging? In
multi-staging when this is analysis we have done for single staging in multi staging what is
done suppose there is a multi-staging velocity component turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:14)

So simply ray diagram if i want to draw this is the moving blade steam is leaving then again
there are guide vanes steam is entering from here and leaving from here then again though
there is a moving blade and there is a fix blade and then again there is a moving blade right.
Steam is entering from here and leaving from here and we can have N number of such stages.

And cumulative effect of these stages will be the net output of the turbine or the if we the
concerned with efficiency then efficiency is going to be two sigma VW sorry Vw U / V1

284
square. So this is the sigma whirl component of each stage will add them and this will give
the net output of the multistage in the extremes. Second thing is there are losses for the
transmission from this stage to this stage.

The steam leaving the moving blade and entering in the next stage will have some losses in
between all these issues will be taking up when we deal with the impulse reaction turbine ok.
And after this we will go for selection of blade angles impulse turbine blade sorry impulse
turbine blade sections.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:03)

So for this selection in impulse turbine as you know there are blades made out of plates and
there are curved plates like this. So initially this edge was made sharper i will draw bigger
diagram i think that will be make things more clear. Initially the blades are like this when it
started with the section of the blades of impulse turbine this edge was made sharper.

So that there is a smooth entry of the steam then the steam will glide over the surface and
leave from this side later on this side also was made sharper. So the section of the blade
became like this so both the ends were sharp and so there are number of plates in turbine
there are not a single blade there are number of blades. So what happens steam which is
confined to this or which goes into this zone there is a lot of turbulence this is a convex
surface.

So turbulence takes place and this causes loss or decline in the efficiency of the turbine right
in order to overcome this profile types of plates were used. So this side what they need the

285
extended side up to this point. So that there was no turbulence in the vicinity of the convex
surface and the performance of the blades was improved and some of the cases you saw the
cases this also the exit this was also extended.

So that proper direction is given to this team which is going out of the blade but this profiling
of the blade in impulse turbine blades definitely have the improvement in the performance of
turbine. In reaction turbines there aerofoil air foil type of plates these plates will discuss in
detail when we will go for the reaction turbines. The choice of plate angles the inlet angle let
us talk about inlet angle.

Now for inlet angle as you know that nozzle or nozzle angle is fixed it is outside the turbine
this is peripheral velocity of the turbine this is absolute velocity with V is entering the turbine
and here is the relative velocity VR1 and this is blade inlet velocity inlet angle. Now the issue
is that blade inlet angle is depended on the inlet velocity. Suppose the inlet velocity changes
inlet velocity is reduced i want less power inlet velocity is reduced diagram will be modified
like this right.

And in that case blade inlet angle will change to β2 this is β2 right but we cannot say we
cannot open a turbine for different loads and change the blade angle. It is not possible at all
blades are fixed and they are fixed at a particular angle but when the V1 is reduced. So
definitely the blade inlet angle will change and when the blade angle inlet angle is more there
will be shock they will be the change in blade angle will call the shock entry in the blade and
this may damage the blade also right.

So in at this happens in the case only when then there is a variation in V1. So because 10 β1
if you want to calculate 10 β 1 it is going to be V1 sin β1 sorry α1 / V1 cos α 1 - U right. So
normally what we do when there is a partial load the velocity in the last two three stages
reduces drastically. So whatever blade angle we calculate with from the velocity diagram in
the last stage the blade angle is purposefully increased by 5 to 10 degree.

This is for the design purpose right in last but one is stage the blade angle is reduced by 4
sorry increased by 4 to 5 degree in remaining stages blade angle is increased by 2 to 3 degree.
So after all these calculations when we do in the this velocity diagram finally when we go for

286
a design and manufacturing of the turbine so these allowances are taken so whatever value
are getting.

So as we are getting 35 initial stage we will take the blade angle 37 or 38 degree so that shock
entry is avoided at part load. Now for the outlet of the blade now this is about the inlet for
outlet of the blade the different procedure is adopted because the issues related outlet are
different.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:21)

Let us take the two blades one is this one another is this one between them there is a space S
or the pitch of the blade is S. S is the pitch of the blade outlet angle is β 2 right and cross
section area perpendicular to the flow is this one right or it is S sin β 2. So S sin β 2 that is the
distance multiplied to the height of the blade will have certain height. So it is S sin β two
multiplied by blade height or length of the blade.

It has got certain thickness here also normally the edges the thickness is 0.001 inch or 0.0254
millimeters there is a blade thickness. So here we will take blade thickness also into the count
S sin β2 - T ×L. So this is the cross section area of these passage perpendicular to the flow
right and this multiplied by number of passages N this multiplied by number of passages.

Now how would you get number of passages this is number of passages is N = 𝛑 D / S. D is
a diameter S is the pitch will get N the number of passages. Suppose there is an arc there is a
purpose in impulse turbine it is a partial entry of steam as well in some of the cases in that
case suppose if the arc is of λ.

287
So N is going to be λ by S so let us assume there is a entry sorry either of the case whether it
is a full entry or partial entry we can have the value of N. So this is the total area is equal to
mass flow rate multiplied by specific volume divided by VR2 relative velocity of steam
leaving the blades right. Now from here if we resolve this then we will get MV2 by NL Vr 2
= S sin β 2 - T or sin β 2 = M V2 × M L VR2 + T / 1 by sorry S.

So from this we can get the value of angle β 2 because here we have the mass flow rate which
is already with us is specific volume. This we can get from the properties of the vapor then
number of nozzles length is say this passage suppose this is perpendicular to this white board
and you look at the elevation it is going to be like this right.

So this length of the blade so blade will have certain height or length. So length of the blade
is L this is the S sin β 2 S sin β2 - T is in axial direction L radial direction that is how we are
getting the area multiplied by number of such type of passages. Now from here we will get
the blade outlet angle as bβ 2. Now here in this case in that inlet for designing purpose we are
taking the blade angle larger than the what we have calculated here.

But here in this case the blade angle is taken 2 to 3 degree less than that calculated from this
so that i mean in partial load also it works well and further because blade angle is less we will
get some reaction also by the changes of velocity of the vapor. So that is why this angle β2 is
taken normally 2 to 3 degree less then actually which is actually calculated from this formula
after this i think we have completed the choice of the bladed that is all for today.

288
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No# 06
Lecture No # 25
Problem Solving (Impulse Steam Turbine)

I welcome you all in this course on this steam and gas power systems. Today we will solve
numerical's on impulse turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:35)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:41)

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This is first numerical which states that for a single stage 3000 RPM impulse turbine. So
there is an impulse turbine with RPM = 3000. The mean diameter of the blade is 105
centimeters. So the diameter is 105 centimeter.

In turbines, the blades are fixed on the surface of the rotor. If you look at the end view the
blades will look like this. When the steam is flowing perpendicular to the direction of this
board. Now if you look at here, why it is stated that the mean blade diameter because this
rotor is moving in certain speed that is 3000 RPM, right. So when we are moving in radial
direction, the peripheral velocity is changing.

In velocity diagrams, if you look at, we have always considered mean diameter. But in actual
practice, this U is changing when you are moving along the radius of the rotor. Or if you
draw a velocity diagram, for impulse turbine this is absolute velocity V1, blade inlet angle
sorry, nozzle inlet angle, this is blade inlet angle, u. This is relative velocity at the entry now
here, this is blade outlet angle, nozzle outlet angle, this is relative velocity at the exit, absolute
velocity that is it.

So when the u changes, this is U peripheral velocity when there is a change in u, the diagram
will change. So in fact we are going to have different velocity diagrams for different
positions, right that is one thing. So the calculations are done for an average value of the
diameter that is if this is D1, this is D2 then average is going to be (D1 + D2) /2.

Now if we change the U, suppose u is increased if you change the U, same inlet velocity and
blade inlet angle sorry the nozzle inlet angle, the blade angle will change. It means when we
are moving in this direction, the blade inlet outlet angles will be altered. That is why the
blades of the turbine are twisted. The blades of the turbines are twisted because we have to
ensure that steam should glide over the blades, it should not strike the blades.

When the blade angle is changing in that case we will have to twist or these blades have to be
twisted in order to ensure that there is a no shock entry or the steam simply glides over the
blade surface. Which is prime requirement of a impulse turbine right. So here the mean blade
speed is given 105 centimeters. The nozzle angle is 20 that is nozzle inlet angle α 1 is 20
degrees. The ratio of blade speed to steam speed is, steam speed means V1.

290
So this ρ is 0.45 ρ is nothing but U by V1. So it is point four five ok and the ratio of the
relative velocity at outlet from the blades to the inlet is 0.85. It means VR2 by VR1 = 0.85.
The outlet angle of the blade is 3 degree less than the inlet angle. The mass flow rate of, so
outlet angle β 2 = β1 - 3. The mass flow rate of steam is 7 kgs per second. So mass flow rate
is 7 kg per second.

Draw the velocity diagram for the blade and find, so first of all in this case we have to draw
the velocity diagram. Now first of all with the help of these two informations we will
calculate the average peripheral velocity.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:16)

So U = 𝛑 D N over 60 we have taken because this is RPM. So this RPM is converted into
rounds per second. So it is going to be pie into 105 divided by 100, converting into meter,
into 3000 divided by 60 and U is going to be = 164.9 meters per second.

So this is the value of U is equal to we will put here U is equal to. Because we will be
frequently needing this information. So I am noting it down here, 164.9 meters per second.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:11)

291
This is the value of U so in a velocity diagram we can always draw U and direction of U is
this. Now blade inlet angle sorry this nozzle inlet angle is 20 degree. At 20 degree a line will
be drawn and the length of this line is equivalent to V1, V1 is not given ok but we have the
value of ρ, ρ = U by V1 so V1 = ρ by, so sorry, U by ρ= U by ρ.

And that is 164.9 divided by 0.45 it is 366.4 meters per second. So you V1 we can also note it
down, 366.4 meters per second. Now we have the value of absolute velocity of steam which
is entering the blade.

This is nozzle inlet angle alpha1, and alpha1 is given here 20 degree. So now geometrically
we can draw this triangle because we have the value of U is 164.9. And this V1 = 366.4
meters per second. So definitely we can draw, geometrically we can draw, this triangle. But
normally we prefer analytical solutions because analytical solutions are more correct.

In geometrical solutions, the values are not that correct because we have to scale down, we
have to take a uniform value of X for V1 and U and then draw a triangle. So there is a
possibility of error incurring the results so now this is VR1 right. So in order to find that beta
one, in order find β1 we can always take sorry V 1 = 366.4.

Now this is X and this is Y so X = V1 Cos α 1 - U, V1 projection in this direction -U is going

to give you X. And Y = V1 sin α1. We know we have all the values. We have value of V1,
we have value of α one we have value of U.

292
So tan β1, this is blade inlet angle, is V1 sin α 1 divided by V1 Cos α 1 - U. Now we will put
the values, V1 is 366.4 sin 20 / 366.4 cos 20 – 164.9. Now if you solve this, you are going to
get tan β 1 is 0.6985. And this gives the value of β 1 as 34.9 degree. So now we have the
value of beta 1 also right.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:03)

Once we have the value of β1 we can always have the value of β 2. β 2 is β 1 - 3 degree. So it
is going to be 31.9 degree. Now we have found the value of beta 2 as well, but we do not
know the value of V2 and VR2 right. But we have the constant, this VR2 by VR1 as 0.85 but
for this purpose we need the value of VR1.

Now VR1 can be taken from here because we know the value of X, we know the value of Y.
So VR1 2 = (V1 Cos α 1 – U) 2 + V1 sin α 1 whole square right. And this will give now V1 is
366.4 - U is (164.9 cos 20 - 164.9) 2 + (366.4 sin 20)2

Now this 366.4 this 1 will give (125.3) 2 + (179.4) 2 because this is a right hand triangle. So
this square = this square + this square right. And then we get VR12 = 218.8 meter per second
and here also because V1 is greater than VR1. We can see from here also and numerically
also we are getting VR1 as 218.8 meter per second.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:34)

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So VR1 is 218.8 meters per second but once we have the value of VR1 and this ratio the
relative velocity at outlet from the blades to the inlet of the blades VR2 by VR1 is .85. So
VR2 = 0.85 VR1 so VR2 = 0.85 multiplied by VR1 that is 218.8 and we will get the value of
relative velocity at 2 is 186 meters per second right.

Now we have blade outlet angle here sorry blade outlet angle come here so blade outlet angle
is 31.9 right. So we know the direction of relative velocity of the steam which is leaving the
blades and we know the magnitude as well, VR2. So this β 2 is 31.9 and 186 this is the value
of VR2.

We can draw this line once we have this line we can definitely complete the triangle and as
we have found the value of, if it is required, then as we have found the value of VR1, we can
find the value of V2.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:24)

294
So V2 2 = VR2 2 Cos β2 - U sorry VR2 2 (VR2 Cos β 2 – U) 2 + (VR2 sin beta 2)2. And from
here we can do because we have the VR2, we have the value of beta 2, Cos β 2, U is also
with us so we can easily find the value of, or geometrically also we can do that we will be
getting the same result.

Now what is required here because now we have complete; now we can draw the velocity
triangle which is the first requirement for any numerical in steam turbines. Now, what is
required here tangential thrust on the blade. In order to find tangential thrust on the blade, we
have to find the whirl velocity.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:26)

Now whirl velocity of the flow wheel velocity is this one this is whirl velocity right. Now
whirl velocity can be expressed either like VW = V1 Cos α 1 + V2 Cos α2. This is α2 so α 2

295
we have not calculated α2. We have not calculated V2 yet but we can always find the value
of V2 and α 2 with help of the available information ok. So the whirl velocity is V1 Cos α 1,
this is α 1 + V2 Cos α1 or VW = VR1 Cos β 1 + VR2 Cos β2.

This is simple trigonometry, VR1 is this, relative velocity at inlet + β 1 this length + VR2 Cos
β 2 this length. So if information, let us see whether information regarding this is available
with us we have already calculated VR1, β 1 is also with us, VR2 we have calculated. We
have calculated, VR2 is .85 times VR1 so VR2 is equal to, we have calculated VR2, it is 186
meters per second.

So VR2 = K VR1, and K is 0.85 and VR1 is 218.8. So from here we got the value of VR2 so
VR2 is also with us and Cos β 2 is also with us. So in fact we have all the information. Now
we will calculate VW so VR1 is 218.8 cos 34.9 + VR2 186 Cos 31.9.

And this gives the value of VW as 337.4 meters per second. We will note it down here, VW =
337.4 meters per second. This is whirl component of the velocity now tangential thrust on the
blade force.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:27)

Force is on the thrust on the blade is force is equal to mass flow rate multiplied by VW. Mass
flow rate is 7, multiplied by 337.4 this will give, this will be in newtons right. If you divide
this by 1000, it will become kilo newtons and this is 389.46 kilo newtons.

296
So force, here we can write so first answer is, tangential thrust on the blade, F = 389.46 kilo
newton. Now second one is axial thrust on the blades. Now axial thrust on the blades is
perpendicular to this it means this Y- this Y.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:38)

Again, in order to find axial thrust on the blade we can take axial thrust on the blade, mass
flow rate and V1 sin α 1, this is this 1 - we can take VR2 sin β 2, or we can take similar
fraction. We can take VR1 sin β 1 - VR2 sin β 2 sorry yes VR1 sin β 1 - VR2 sin β 2 can also
be taken because this is VR1 sin β 1 - VR2 sin β 2 right.

We can take either of these so VR1 sin β 1 - VR2 sin β 2 now we here we have the value of
VR1 with us. We have value of VR2, sin β1 sin β 2 values are also with us right because
mass flow rate is also given, and this will give the axial thrust as, if you are putting the values
and solving this we will be getting the axial thrust as 188.9 newtons right.

This is the axial thrust means when the shaft is rotating, then force working perpendicular to,
sorry parallel to the axis of the shaft that is known as axial thrust. So axial thrust is 188.9
newtons now after axial thrust, the second is power developed in the blade.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:20)

297
So power is VW U by 1000 this is the force multiplied by the velocity so and multiplied by
mass flow rate. So VW is given so power is mass flow rate is seven, VW is 337.4 multiplied
by U, peripheral velocity, we have calculated. 164.9 / 1000 okay and this gives the power as
389.4 Kilo watt right so we are getting power also.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:15)

Now blade efficiency is 2 VW U by V1 square it is the blade or diagram efficiency. Now VW

is with us so 2 into 337.4 into U, 164.9, divided by V1, we have it is given here 366.9, sorry
366.4 and this will give the blade or diagram efficiency 0.829 if you multiply this by 100, this
is 82.9 %.

298
And the last one is resultant thrust on the blades. Now resultant thrust, we have whirl
component. We have axial component ok and they are perpendicular to each other. So net
thrust will be, now we have the value of VW we can calculate the value of FX.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:19)

We have already we can calculate the force whirl force, that is mass into VW and FX is mass
flow rate, this is already calculated so this is already calculated. It is 188.9 newtons and FW
and FX, the net resultant force is FW 2 + FX 2 now this will give the resultant force acting on
the blades.

After this we will take up another numerical which states that, steam flows from the nozzles
of a single row impulse turbine with a velocity 400 meters per second and 15 degree nozzle
inlet angle. Steam at 5 kg per second comes out of the equiangular moving. Equiangular
means, inlet blade angle = outlet blade angle, so β 1 = β 2.

With an absolute velocity of 80 meters per second so absolute velocity at the exit is also
given with the nozzle outlet angle of 60 degree. So in this case, inlet and outlet information’s
are giving given. Find the power developed and the loss due to friction.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:42)

299
So here in this case V1 is given V1 is 400 meters per second and α1 is also given is 15
degree. Steam at 5 kg per second, so mass flow rate is also given 5 kgs per second comes out
of the equiangular moving blades with an absolute velocity of 80 meters per second. So V2 =
80 and equiangular, so β1 = β2. Nozzle outlet angle is 60 degrees so α 2 is also given 60
degree.

Find the power developed and loss due to friction here U is not given in this case. So
analytically we will have to find the U. So first of all we will draw the tentative velocity
diagram, and that is V1, VR1, U this is β 1, this is β 2, α 1, α2, VR2 and V2 right.

Now here tan β 1 is, we have the value of V1 ok, but we do not have value of so we have the
value of α1 also. So it is V1 sin α 1 divided by this 1 Y divided by X that will give tan β1. So
X is V1 sin α 1 - U now V1 is given 400 meters per second. Sin alpha1 is 20, sorry yes this is
Cos not sin and then 400 cos 20 - U, U is not known to us. Now for tan β 2 = V2 sin α 2, this
is again this is suppose Y1 this is X2 and Y2.

So tan β 2 is V2 sin α 2 or VR2 sin β2 - U either of these you can take but since we have the
value of V2 80 meters per second and we have the value of α 2 also. So it is easy to find the
value of Y2 and then X2 is V2 Cos α2 + U right. We have all the values, we have the value of
V2 is 80 sin 60 / 80 cos 60 + U.

Now this 1 = this 1, because we have said that we have equiangular blades. And out of the, if
we make this equal to this, the only unknown is U. And from here we can get the value of U.

300
And the value of U is coming out as 131 meters per second right. Once we have calculated
the value of u, then other values will automatically come out.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:41)

For example whirl velocity VW whirl velocity is going to be 400 Cos α1 + this 80 Cos α 2. 2
is also known to us, so it is going to be 400 we can write sorry. We can write here V1 and
V2. So it is 400 Cos α 1 + 80 Cos 60 right. This will give the whirl velocity and this is going
to be = VW. We will write here VW = 426.4 meters per second right now power.

Power is mass flow rate VW U divided by 1000. VW is with us, U is also with us mass flow
rate is given here 5 kg per second. So 5 kg per second multiplied by 426.4 ×131 /1000. And
this will give power as 279.3 kilo watts.

Now the second part, find power developed and loss due to friction. Now loss due to friction
is change in relative velocity. It can be found through change in relative velocity.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:35)

301
pf or power friction sorry power friction, mass flow rate VR1 2- VR2 2 divided by 2 × 1000
right. Now we have the value of V1 we do not have the value of VR1.

But VR1 we can easily calculate, VR1 2 = V1 2+ U 2 - 2 Cos, sorry, U V1 Cosα1. This will
give us the value of VR1 now VR2 is also not with us similarly we can find the value of VR2
right. And then once we have the value of VR1 and VR2, or this is one way.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:54)

This is one way another way is VR1 2 = V1 sin α1 2 + V1 Cos α 1 - U it is more of the same
thing right. So this from here we can get the VR1 and VR2 as well. Once we have the value
of VR and VR1 and VR2, we will be putting here.

302
 2
Then power will become 5 times (275 - 184.184) 2 / (2 ×1000). And the power, friction
power is going to be 103.96 kilo Watt. So this is how the friction power loss due friction is
calculated. That is all for today and from the next class we will start with the impulse reaction
turbines.

303
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical industrial engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No # 06
Lecture No # 26
Impulse Reaction Steam Turbines

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems. Today we will start
discussions on impulse reaction steam turbines so far we have analyzed in the impulse turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:37)

In impulse turbine the steam slides over the blade surface and due to change in the direction of
the flow of the steam, the net force is exerted on the blade surface and power is developed. Now
in impulse reaction turbine, the pressure drops takes place in the blade passage as well in impulse
turbine. There is no pressure drop in the blade passage but, in impulse reaction turbine there is a
pressure drop in the plane blade passage as well.

Due to this pressure drop additional force is exerted on the blade, so blade releases two types of
forces one is due to change in momentum impulse force and another one by the reaction due to
pressure drop in the passage. Now if you look at the blade outlet angle of impulse turbine. I will
draw a larger figure.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:37)

304
Blade outlet angle of impulse turbine this is the blade outlet angle β 2 and the passage the
opening perpendicular the flow is this much. So effectively we are using this much of space and
this is suppose S, then this is S sin β 2 this tip of the blade has some finite thickness. So this is
subtracted from here multiplied by height of the blade, this is length of the blade that is
perpendicular to this board.

Number of blades multiplied by relative velocity at exit via V r2 = mass flow rate and specific

mV 2
volume at state 2. Now from this equation we can simply find the value of sin β 2, that is t
lb n V r 2
will go on this side and in order to find sin β 2 , we can divide this by S.

This is for impulse turbine but in reaction turbine because there is a pressure drop, the V r2 this is
specific volume at exit increases and at the same time relative velocity at the exit also increases.
But the rise in relative velocity at the exit is more than the rise in the specific volume so that is
why the beta 2 values in reaction impulse, reaction turbine is slightly less than this.

But this equation has to be satisfied with the modified value of specific volume and the relative
velocity this equation has to be satisfied in any case. Now in impulse reaction turbine if you draw
the velocity diagram for impulse reaction turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:14)

305
Now for the inlet conditions the diagram is going to be the same inlet condition this is V r1, this is
U and this is V1 and this is blade inlet angle and this is nozzle inlet angle right. So the steam is
gliding more the surface in impulse reaction turbine at same time the pressure drop is also taking
place. So without pressure drop if we draw the velocity diagram then it is going to be something
I will extend this one this is V1 and this is Vr1.

So it is going to be something like, this is β 2, Vr2 and this is V2 right. So some impulse force is
exerted on the blade that is the net force due to this effect this component, this is the net force
parallel to this force is exerted on this blade. Now expansion takes place during the flow in the
passage expansion of steam takes place due to this expansion the relative velocity V r2 increases
and increase is significant and we get R2 up to here this R2 is extended and we get R 2 here.

This is actual Vr2 right and if we connect this with this one we will absolute velocity at exit. Now
in reaction turbine because this is not in proportion because in reaction turbine the V r2 is much
greater than Vr1. So this has to be greater than this just a minute greater than this is V r2 and this is
V2.

Vr2 is greater because relative velocity and exit is also increased due to change in pressure during
the course of flow of steam through the blade passage. Now impulse force is works in this

306
direction and reaction due to pressure drop works in this direction and addition to this is impulse
force. This is reaction force addition to this is the net force exerted on the blade.

And if you want to have power developed in this type of turbine then for developing the power,
for calculating the power developed in this turbine we will have to calculate the whirl component
of the velocity, as we do in the case of impulse turbine. The whirl component of the velocity
VW = V1 cos α1- U + Vr2 cos β2. There many ways of finding if we have the value of alpha 1 and
this beta 1 and this is α2.

Then by many ways we can find the whirl component if depending upon on the information
available with us suppose, we have absolute velocity and inlet and outlet then it is going to be V 1
cos α1+ V2 cosα2. If we have relative velocity at inlet and outlet then V r1 cosα1 and Vr1 cos β1+Vr2
cos β2 right.

But normally it is taken like this because in actual practice we know in most of the cases the
absolute velocity at inlet and nozzle inlet angle that is measurable I mean it is always available
and blade exit angle that is why this expression is used in to find the whirl component of the
velocity and power developed is VW U divide by 1000 multiplied by mass flow rate right.

The power developed formula is same only whirl component in impulse reaction turbine changes
due to pressure drop in the blade passage. Since the pressure drop is taking place during the flow
inside a impulse reaction turbine the specific volume of steam also increases.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:33)

307
So if we look at arrangement of the blades in impulse reaction turbine on the rotor, there are
moving blades. They are mounted on the rotor the moving blades are mounted and on stator
fixed blades are mounted. These blades remain stationary because they are mounted on the
casing only these blades rotate in a particular direction and nozzles are fixed in these blades In
fact they are fixed blade patches passages.

They are treated as closure and together these fixed and moving blade row they form one stage
and it is assumed that peripheral velocity remains constant during the single stage. But when
there is an axial movement of the steam and it is ensured while designing the turbine that
velocity of flow or axial velocity remains constant. So the specific volume of the steam is
increasing while flowing along the axis of the turbine.

The cross section area is increased in order to maintain constant velocity of flow. Now because
the pressure drop is taking place in fixed blade and moving blades right and the power
developed. So some of the power is lost in this turbine due to leakage because there is a always a
gap between here and here. So this movement of the steam does not participate in power
development.

So this is a loss in the power but it cannot be completely avoided because we cannot seal both
the sides otherwise there is no movement of the rotor. So there is a term degree of reaction is

308
enthalpy drop in rotating blades or enthalpy drop in the blades and total enthalpy drop in a stage
means a stage consists of row of inside the moving blades. So we can always write the degree of

∆ hb
reaction as enthalpy drop in closures and enthalpy drop in blades.
(∆ hn +∆ hb )

So for a pure reaction turbine the degree of reaction is one, there is no enthalpy drop in nozzles
right. But normally the turbines are impulse reaction turbines, because when there is a change in
the direction of the motion of steam it will exert force on the blades. So the turbine it is an
impulse reaction turbine. Now we will do elaborate analysis of degree of reaction.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:44)

2 2
∆ hb V 1−ф V 2
Now degree of reaction is ∆hb , . Now efficiency of the nozzle = right. Phi is
∆ hn +∆ hb 2∆ hn

2 2
V 1−ф V 2
the carry over coefficient, so ∆hn = . Now V22, this is V22 is Vr22
2 ηn

If we consider this triangle then it is Vr2 2+ U2- 2 UVr 2 cosβ2 right and if we take Vr22 common,
2
then V2 2= Vr2 2( 1 + ρ 2 - 2 ρ 2 cos β2. Now ρ 2 is U/Vr2. Now from here if you are putting this

309
value here in this equation, we will get ∆h n or enthalpy drop in the nozzles = V 1 -ф V 2r 2 sorry 1 +
2
ρ 2 -2 ρ 2 cosβ2.

This is ρ 2the enthalpy drops in the nozzle. Now in impulse reaction turbine it is assumed that,
this efficiency of the nozzle is equal to the efficiency of the blades. So if we write expression for
efficiency of the blades.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:15)

2 2 2 2
V −ф V r1 V −ф V r1
That is going to be = r1 . So enthalpy drop in the blade is r2 .. Now Vr12, if we
2 ∆ hb 2ηb

reform this triangle then V r 12 V r 12 is V12 + U2- 2 UV1 cosα1 right. Now here if we take V12 out
then it is 1 + ρ2 - 2 ρ cosα1.

Now putting this value here Vr1 here we will get ∆h VS Vr22. So this is V12, so Vr2 2- ф V12 1 + ρ2 -
2 ρ cosα1. Now we have enthalpy drop and across the nozzles and enthalpy drop across the
blades and while putting this value together we can find the degree of reaction of rate turbine
impulse reaction turbine. Now for impulse reaction turbine there is a special type of turbine
which is known as Parsons Turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:07)

310
In parsons turbine the degree of reaction is half, when degree of reaction is half or 50 % then
enthalpy drop in blades is equal to enthalpy drop in nozzles. Only in that case the R, is going to
be half once degree of reaction is half there is another characteristics of Parsons Turbine nozzle
is inlet angle is equal to blade outlet angle and nozzle outlet angle is equal to blade inlet angle
right.

And now based on the characteristic of Parsons Turbine we will solve one numerical on Parsons
Turbine because in this lecture I was supposed to include impulse reaction turbine, degree of
reaction we have already discussed. Now generalized equations we have discussed on degree of
reaction.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:22)

311
Now a numerical based on Parsons Turbine now in this numerical the total tangential force on
one ring of Parsons Turbine is 1000 Newton, when blade speed is 100 meters per second the
mass flow rate is 8 kg per second. Blade speed means U this U, is 100 meter per second the blade
outlet angle is 20 degree.

Determine the steam velocity at outlet from the blades if the friction loses which would occur
with pure impulse R 25% of the kinetic energy corresponding to the relative velocity at entry to
each ring of the blades and if expansion losses are 10 % of the heat drop in the blades determine
the heat drop per stage and stage efficiency. So heat drop per stage and gross stage efficiency has
to be calculated.

Now gross stage efficiency is the work developed in the stage and the heat drop in the stage that
is the gross stage efficiency. If we refer this, so W = VW U this is per kg per second flow of
steam the work is VWU and V W U is V1 cosα 1- U + Vr2 cosβ2. Now V1 cosα 1- U + Vr2 cos β2 now
if we multiply this by U, we will be getting the output right. So it is U multiplied by V 1 cosα 1- U
+ UVr2 cosβ2 right further W is equal.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:33)

312
So W = U = ρV1. So it is going to be = V12ρ, will go inside ρcosα 1- ρ2 + ρ 22 Vr22 cosβ2 right. Now
this is the output and we have the enthalpy drop per stage and this will give the gross stage
efficiency that is output of the turbine divided by the enthalpy drop. Now in Parsons Turbine
because the things become simpler because β 1 = α 2 and α 1 = β 2.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:34)

Now in this numerical we will start with force exerted of blades is thousand Newton right and U
= 100 m/s α 1 = β 2.=200 it is given here blade outlet angle. So blade outlet angle automatically
becomes this nozzle inlet angle for Parsons Turbine. So F force is V WU because it is given in

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Newton, will not divided by thousand. So this is work so force is mV W right VW is not with us.
Mass flow rate is given here is 8 kg per second.

So mass flow rate is 8 kg per second, so force is 1000 Newton divide by 8 will give V W. So VW
here is 125 meters per second this is 1000 by 8. Now if we look at the velocity diagram for
Parsons Turbine because these angles are equals both sides and the middle of the peripheral
velocity vector both sides are same. So if we take this X and this is suppose this is Y, X is this
much and this is Y.

So X is VW by 2 - U by two or V W - U by 2 V, V W is 125 and U is 100 divide by 2 and it is

going to be 12.5. So X is 12.5 and Y. Before we take Y we can take Y as this X + U, Y = or Y =
X + U tanα 1. Because we have the value of alpha 1 only, we do not have value of β 1.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:22)

So tanα 1it is going to be = Y /(X + U).Y = X + U tan α 1If we take X + U the X is (V W – U)/ 2 +

V w +U
U. So X is this expression is tanα 1Y. Now Y = X + U tanα 1X we have already calculated
2
12.5 U is 100 tan20 and this will give the value of Y as 40.95 m/s.

Now once we have the value of Y and value of X then tanβ 1= Y / X or = 40.95 /12.5. From here
we will of the value of beta 1 and the beta 1 is 73 degree okay.

314
(Refer Slide Time: 25:50)

Now with the help of this information we can find the value of Vr1 also V r1=√(x2+y2) and this
√(x2+y2) is √(12.52+40.952) and this is 42.8 m/s. So Vr1 is 42.8 m/s.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:34)

Now Vr1 is with us now in order to find V 1 V1 is 112.5. We have already calculated this length
112.5, divided by cos α 1. α 1 is cos 20, so V1 also is determined from here that is 119.7 meters
per second.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:02)

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Now pressure enthalpy drop in nozzle that is isotropic enthalpy drop in the nozzles and there is
equal to enthalpy drop in the blades. Because it is a Parsons Reaction turbine, so the enthalpy
drop in a stage is equally divided between the enthalpy drop in nozzles and enthalpy drop in the
blades and that = (Vr22- фVr12,)/2 efficiency of the nozzle right. And Vr1 is given here and Vr2 =
V1. Vr2 = V1.

So enthalpy drop in nozzle is (119.72– 0.75×42.82)/(2×0.9) that is losses are 10%. So efficiency
of the nozzle is 90% into 1000 to convert work into the joules into the kilo joules.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:21)

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And this is 7.2 kilo joules per kg this is as per the nozzles and steam enthalpy drop will take
place in the blades as well. So ∆hb is also 7.2 kilo joules per kg. So enthalpy drop per blade per
stage is twice of this. So that = 14.4 kJ/kg. Now we have to find stage efficiency, so stage
efficiency is output divided by enthalpy drop.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:06)

Now this stage efficiency is VWU divided by ∆h in the stage. VW is whirl component and U is the
velocity right. So the whirl component is 125 and U is 100 and divided by the enthalpy drop that
is 14.4. This enthalpy drop is in kJ and this is in joules. So this has to be converted into the joules
and this will give us the gross stage efficiency.

As 0.868 or 86.8 % so we have determined in this numerical we have derived all the values
which were required in this numerical and that is all for today in the next class, we will continue
with the Impulse Reaction Turbine thank you.

317
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. RAVI KUMAR
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No # 06
Lecture No # 27
Impulse Reaction Steam Turbine Performance

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems and today we will
discuss impulse reaction steam turbine performance and we will focus on mainly parson
turbine because it is really mainly it is used as impulse reaction turbine. So gross stage
efficiency of parson turbine diagram efficiency of parson turbine will drive and then we will
do one worked example.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:58)

Now in a parson turbine there is a pressure drop in the nozzle and the stage as well that is
why there is increase in specific volume in subsequent stages this also helps us in right. So
there is increase in specific volume and subsequent stages ∆h is also not constant in all the
stages mainly it keeps on increasing in subsequent stages of parson turbine.

The value of ρ it also does remaining in constant for all the stages it also varies from stage to
stage that comes into the picture when we design the parson turbine. And mean diameter of
fixed and the moving blade is same for a particular stage that remains constant for a particular
stage.

318
So in a parson turbine i already explained that the nozzle inlet angle is equal to blade outlet
angle and nozzle outlet angle is equal to blade inlet angle outlet relative velocity is equal to
absolute velocity at inlet and relative velocity at inlet is equal to absolute velocity at outlet.
So these are the conditions for parsons reaction turbine we will start with gain.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:25)

In the kinetic energy moving blades in moving blades the gain in the kinetic energy is V 2r 2 -

K2 V 2r 1 so instead of K2 we will take ф carry over coefficient фV 2r 1 by 2. So this enthalpy in

2 2
V −ф V r 1
blades stage in enthalpy blades is going to be V r 2we can always write 1 efficiency
2η n
of the nozzle or efficiency of the blade both are same.

Now here V 2r 1 now let us draw the velocity diagram also because frequently we will have to
give the difference of velocities. In parsons turbine it is similar so this is blade inlet angle,
blade outlet angle, nozzle inlet angle, nozzle outlet angle right this is V1, Vr1, Vr2, V2 and this
is U now here Vr1. So V 2r 1 again it is V12+ U2 ok.

It is V12+ U2- 2 U V1 cosα 1 right. So now here we take out this V 12 (1 +ρ2-2ρ cosα 1), because

U
ρ= and is a ratio of peripheral velocity and the absolute velocity of steam which is
V1
entering the turbine.

319
 2
2 [1 – ф (1+ ρ −2 ρ cos α 1)]
So ∆h played is V1 and we will put the value here this is enthalpy
2ηn
drop in the stage and same is the enthalpy drop in the nozzles we multiply this by 2 we will
get the enthalpy drop in the stage or if we remove 2 from here we will get enthalpy drop in a
stage except for the first stage.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:27)

2 2 2 2
V 1−ϕ V 2 V 1−ϕ V r1
The gain in kinetic energy in each of fixed moving blade is = except for
2 2

2 2
V 1 [1−ф(1+ ρ −2 ρ cos α 1 )]
the first stage. So Δ hs= ok.
ηn

Now we want to find the gross stage efficiency now for gross stage efficiency if you
remember efficiency for the gross stage need work and then change in enthalpy. Now in order
to find work we need whirl component of the velocity ok.

Whirl Component VW of the velocity is again will refer this figure we will refer this figure
this is whirl component VW right now this is several ways we will express it but we will take
here as V1 cosα1 this is V1 cosα1 - U + Vr2 cosβ2 right now we take V1 cosα1 as it is - U + Vr2
can always be replaced by V1 in parson turbine.

So it is V1 again β2 can be replaced by α1 so VW is this much or we can write 2 V 1 cosα1 - U

work is VW U. So we will multiply this by U and we will replace U = ρV 1 and when we
replace this = ρV1 we will get V12(2ρcosα1- ρ2) now we will write the expression for gross

320
stage efficiency for parson turbine the gross stage efficiency is going to be V 12 2 rho cos or
we will write somewhere here.

W
V12(2ρ cosα1-ρ2) so gross stage efficiency is per unit kg so per unit kg of mass flow rate
Δh
so this is divided by this and give us gross stage efficiency right. And we can further simplify

ηn
ηgs =
this by just putting gross stage efficiency 1−ϕ .
2
+ϕ
2 ρcosα 1 −ρ
If you look at it here 2 ρcosα 1− ρ2 ,2 ρcosα 1− ρ2. So if you take this minus inside it will
become 1 – ф (- ρ 2 + 2 ρcosα 1), 1 - ф we have taken as one expression so 1 - ф.

So this is nothing but ( 1 – ф) + ф(2 ρcosα 1− ρ2.) right. So when this is replaced by this one

and when we divide numerator into denominator by 2 ρcosα 1− ρ2 we get this expression. So
this is the final expression for gross stage efficiency now in this expression the gross stage
efficiency is going to be the maximum in the case when this has maximum value because
efficiency of the nozzle is fixed this is fixed this is also fixed only thing is remaining this.

So this has to be maximized or Z = 2 ρcosα 1− ρ2this has to be maximized with respective ρ.

dZ
So =2 cosα 1−2 ρ = 0 or ρ=cosα 1. Impulse turbine it was cosα 1 /2. if you remember here it
dρ
is cosα 1 ok twice of that. So now we can put ρ= cosα 1here now when we are putting ρ=cosα 1 .
(Refer Slide Time: 12:18)

321
 ηn
ηgs =
Efficiency gross stage is equal to 1−ϕ and this will give gross stage
2 2
+ϕ
2cosα 1 −cosα 1

2 2
η n cosα 1 η n cosα 1
efficiency as η gs = or .
1−ϕ (1−cosα 12) 1−ϕ sinα 21

This is the gross stage efficiency of impulse reaction turbine and parson type it means if we
know the blade inlet angle we can find the gross stage maximum gross stage efficiency right
and of course we too have the value of the efficiency of the nozzle or efficiency of the blade
stage.

After gross stage efficiency we will write blade efficiency or diagram efficiency both are
same right for blade efficiency we need work and kinetic energy at inlet. So first of all we
will calculate the work and then kinetic energy.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:06)

322
So in parson turbine per kg of mass flow rate work is like other turbines V W U right and W =
V12 (2 ρcosα 1− ρ2) this we have already done in previous case right. Now do it again so this is
the work done we do not have expression for kinetic energy. Now the kinetic energy is the

2 2 2
V 1 V r2 −V r1
total energy = + .
2 2

So W we are taking as it is V 12 (2 ρcosα 1− ρ2) right and total energy is this much. Now here
you can see that Vr2 = V1 so we can always write V12/2 + V12/2 - Vr22 / 2 so they are going to

2 2
V 1−V r 2
be added. So it is now Vr1 if you look at the velocity diagram this is V 1 Vr1 U then
2
this is β1 this is α1.

So Vr1 in terms of V1 and U is going to be this is Vr12 = V12+ U2 - 2 UV1 cosα1 right and same
thing we will write here. So instead of Vr1 square by 2 we will write E= V12
-( 1/2V12+ U2 - 2 UV1 cosα1) that is the total energy E kinetic energy
(Refer Slide Time: 16:43)

323
Now after this we will write the total energy as V12(1 – ρ2 + 2 ρ cosα1)/2. So this is the total
energy which is entering the blade so the blade efficiency is going to be ratio of these two and
it is going to be equal to when we take ratio of these two this will be cancelled out and we

2
2(2 ρcosα 1−ρ )
will get η b = right.
1− ρ2 +2 ρcosα 1

Now here also if you put ρ=cosα 1. So maximum blade efficiency max is going to be two

2 2
2 ( 2 cosα 1−cosα 1 )
and this is going to be = 2 cosα 21/ (1 + cosα 21)
2 2
1−cosα +2 cosα
1 1

So this is the maximum efficiency of blade efficiency of parson turbine now here if we
compare the efficiencies of impulse reaction and impulse turbine then on the X axis if you
take cosα1. So the maximum efficiency for impulse turbine is like this here it is going to be
the maximum cosα1/2 and this is cosα1.

But here in this case reaction turbine it is going to be like this here it is going to be maximum
this is for the reaction turbine and this is for impulse turbine right now after this we will solve
we will do one worked example for parson turbine and not a parson turbine this time taken
this is not a parson turbine ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:41)

324
So we will do one worked example on this reaction turbine impulse reaction turbine a steam
flows the problem statement is the stream flows into the nozzle of the turbine stage of the
blades from the proceeding stage. So it is not the first stage right so the blades on the
preceding stage with the velocity of 80 m/s and issues from the nozzle with the velocity of
300 m/s.

So 300 m/s is the absolute velocity which is leaving the stage and 80 m/s is the absolute
velocity with which the steam is entering the blade and angle is 20 degree to the wheel plane
calculate the gross stage efficiency for the following data mean blade velocity is 160 m/s. So
the U of the mean blade velocity 160 m/s so we will take them one by one.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:47)

325
U = 160 m/s right and expansion efficiency for nozzle and blade is 0.9 carry over factor that
is ф nozzle = 0.9 carry over factor is 0.75 degree of reaction is zero is not a parson turbine.
Because here the degree of reaction is 0.3 it is a reaction turbine but it is not parson reaction
turbine blade outlet angle that is β2 = 30 degree as usual we will draw first .

We will draw the velocity diagram this is V1, Vr2, U, Vr2, V2 β1, β2, α1 and α2 right. Now

2 2
V 1−ϕV 2
Δ hisen = here V1 with us V1 is how much 300. So it is 3002 – 0.75 ×802 divided by
n
2ηn ×1000
2×0.9 ×1000 and that will give 47.3 kilo joules per kg because mass flow rate is not note.

Mass flow rate is not given here so we will take kilo joules per kg this is enthalpy drop

∆ hb R
nozzles R= or enthalpy drops in blades is going to be R= ∆ hb = ∆h joules so
∆ hn +∆ hb R−1 n
here we have enthalpy drop in the nozzle. So this enthalpy drop can be taken here R is given
0.3.

0.3
So R we will take from here and will get ×47.3 and that will give 20.3 kilo joules per
1−0.3
kg that is the enthalpy drop in the stage. So here you can say because the degree of reaction is
less than 0.5 enthalpy drop in nozzles is more than enthalpy drop in blades.

In fact it is more than two times enthalpy drop in nozzle is two times than enthalpy drop in
blades.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:24)

326
So once enthalpy drop in the blade fix with us 20.3 kilo joules per kg once the enthalpy drop

3 2
V −ϕ V r 1
in the blades is with us that is∆ hb = r2 . Now here again we will take Vr22 , Vr22 is we
2 ηb
will take from here itself = 2 η b ∆ hb + ф Vr12 from this expression we can get the value of V r2
it is two times efficiency of the nozzles 0.9 ∆ hb we have calculated 20.3 + 0.75.

What about Vr1? Vr1 is not known to us but we have the value of Vr 12 we will write Vr12 but
Vr1 is not known to us so what we will do we will take this triangle again we have the value
of U with us V have the value of V1 and we have the value of U we have the value of alpha1
also this is 20 degree we have the value of alpha1 also at an angle 20 degree right.

So we will take Vr12 = V12 + U2 - 2 U V1 cosα1 now V1 is 3002 + 1602 - 2×160×300 cos20 and
that is Vr12 and then Vr1 is 159.3 m/s Vr1. So Vr1 is 159.3m/s.

Now Vr1 we can use here and we can find the value from here we can take the value of Vr 1
and put this value here and then we can get the value of Vr 2 as 326 m/s. Sorry it is 235 m/s
now we have the value of Vr2 we have the value of V1 and we have the blade outlet angle β2
value also be the same now we can find the value of VW.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:04)

327
Now VW is whirl velocity will velocity is we can take V1 cosα1 - U + Vr2 cosβ2 this will give
the whirl component. Now V1 is 300 cos 20 - 160 - 160 + 265 cos30 now the blade outlet
angle is 30 degree right. Now this will give the value of will velocity as 326 m/s and this is
VW 326 m/s.

Once we have the will velocity we can find the work multiplied this V W with U will get the
work and enthalpy drop in the stage. So gross stage efficiency it is going to be = V W U/∆h. So
326 ×160 /[(20.3+47.3)×1000] this is ∆h in blades and ∆h in nozzles is 47.3 multiplied by
1000 because this is in watts right sorry this is in joules and so this is in kilo joules per kg.

So this gives the efficiency as 0.772 or the gross stage efficiency is turbine is 77.2 % right. So
this is all for today in the next class we will start with the losses in steam turbines thank you
very much.

328
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No # 6
Lecture No # 28
Energy Losses in Steam Turbine

Hello I welcome you all in this course of steam and gas power systems. Today we will discuss
about the energy losses in steam turbines because no machine is 100 % efficient. Even in the heat
engines all the processes are ideal processes. The efficiency is not 100% right, so is the case of
the steam turbine. The steam turbine in addition to the thermodynamic efficiency there are
certain losses also.

And the losses takes place in different stages, so we will take up the losses as internal losses. So
the external losses and we will carry out one work example on the losses in steam turbine.
Regarding the internal losses in the steam turbines, they are dependent upon the state of steam
while flowing through the steam turbines
(Refer Slide Time: 01:14)

So the state of steam is important when it is flowing through the steam turbine. We will start
with the first laws which takes place when steam enters the steam turbine that is regulating valve
or steam stop valve or main stop valve it is an integral part of the turbine right. So we start with

329
regulating valve losses as we know any fluid which passes through any valve in fact passes
through a throttling process.

So on a H-ф diagram h-s diagram, if I want to show a throttling process it is a constant enthalpy
process. This is pressure P 1 and this is pressure P2, it is a constant enthalpy process but the
pressure reduces and that changes the state of the steam also. This may have been that steam
which is entering the turbine is saturated after throttling it becomes superheated steam.

Now regarding the expansion of steam is taking place suppose from state 1 to state 2 expansions
in ideal case. When there is no throttling at all but since the throttling is taking place the
available energy will be like this and this will be loss of energy during the throttling process.
And this pressure loss also because suppose here it is ten bar, now steam may be entering may be
9.8 bar right.

So when steam is entering at nine point eight bar it will be expanded to constant pressure line. So
now we are getting work out of this, earlier we are getting work out of this so definitely output it
will be affecting the output of the turbine also. So it is considered as a loss and the magnitude
this ∆Pr. This is pressure loss in regulating valve is 3 - 5 % of p1.

So in a well-designed valve it is 3 % and in a poorly designed valve it can go to 5 %, 6 % or 7 %.

So range remains between 3 to 5 %. So that is the first energy loss when steam moves into the
turbine. Now the second loss is now after entering the turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:24)

330
Second is moving blade loss, energy loss also takes place inside the nozzles. We will consider
them later on, so now we will focus on moving blade loss. Now in moving blade loss first is let
us take a nozzle and through this nozzle there are number of blade passages right. Nozzle has
certain wall thickness right and steam is flowing in this direction and this wall does not exist in
this annular space.

This wall does not exist in annular space so there is a mixing of streams here and this mixing
cause turbulence wherever turbulence is caused the losses will take place. So here because this is
smooth channel, this is smooth passage uniform mixing is there, eddies are formed. Eddies are
formed at edge of the nozzle and due to these formation of eddies or mixing of two streams some
losses takes place right.

In addition to this now the steam is uniformly spread in this annular space. This is the space
between the nozzle exit and the blade inlet. There is a clearance, so in this clearance when the
steam enters due to wake in this position because there is no steam coming from here it is steam
is either coming from this side or coming from this side and they are mixing here this causes
certain amount of losses.

Next step from this passage steam enters here, now blade edge it obstructs the flow of steam
right when obstruction is there in any losses are bound to happen. So blade has to be designed in

331
such a manner that these losses are minimum because we cannot make them zero, there have to
be some losses. But these losses is by trailing edge of the nozzle or at entry of the blade they are
minimized to zero this nozzles also are refracted.

When we saw the numerical in carry over coefficient ф so this ф has always value less than one
it is approximately .75, normally it is .75 to .8 and that is due to this reason only. Now this loss is
when the steam is entering in the blades it is known as impinging loss. So this is trailing edge
loss, and second one is impinging loss.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:19)

Now in steam turbines the blades are mounted on a shaft right and nozzles are used in a impulse
turbine, the nozzles are used for supplying steam to the turbine blades. So this is the nozzle and
steam is coming through this nozzle and we will take a turbine blade which is fixed on a rotor
this is also fixed on a rotor and steam, and this line will also. Now steam is entering this blades
from this direction there has to be some clearance between the end of this blade and the housing.

I mean this clearance has to be there normally this clearance is of the order of 300 microns or 0.3
millimeters. But there has to be some clearance so this clearance is minimized because what is
going to happen this is annular space so when steam enters in the annular space it will try to
move in this direction and it will flow pass the blade. So this part of the steam will not take any
part in power generation it is wastage or leakage loss.

332
So this flow of steam in this clearance is wastage of energy. Now this has to be prevented, the
one way of preventing is say especially in impulse reaction turbine the degree of reaction is high
this steam is separate or another way of doing it is just increase the blade height just increase the
blade height so blade height is increase there is going to be partial admission of steam in this
region or wake will be created. Now this wake will suck back the steam.

So steam which was passing over this blade between the clearance, between the housing and the
blade will be sucked back in the passage of the blade. So that is how we can but leakage still
with the help of these arrangements, also the leakage cannot be completely minimized or reduced
but it cannot be completely eliminated. So this arrangement can be made for or what is being
done in the steam turbines.

Some constrictions, some padding is provided they are known as constructions. Here we will
discuss them later on and the flow of steam or leakage of steam is prevented this, we will discuss
later on.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:58)

Now another one is blade friction losses when steam is flowing pass the blades I mean the profile
time blades in case of impulse turbine or aerofoil type of blades in case of impulse reaction
turbine, the surface of the blade it offers the resistance to the flow or friction between the steam

333
and the blade surface. This also results in loss of energy ∆h or loss of energy right. So this is
known as blade friction losses so the losses due to turning of the jet when jet or steam jet, when
it flows pass the blades.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:09)

So there is impulse turbine and steam jet is moving over the blades, so it is changing direction.
Now it is not a thin line, the entire steam is flowing in this passage. Some part of the steam is in
the vicinity of the blade, some part of the steam is in vicinity of blade surface. This is blade,
suppose part of the steam is in the vicinity of the blade surface part of this steam will flow like
this and part of the steam will flow like this, because when we do the analyses we take very ideal
case.

But in actual practice the path covered from this point to this point will be different for different
volumes of the steam. That is one thing, second thing is when there is change in direction losses
are bound to happen in actual practice and in this case the change in direction is Pi minus blade
inlet angle minus plus blade outlet angle. So lower the value of this higher the change in the
direction and more will be the losses in blade passage.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:43)

334
Shrouding losses in turbines is done. What is shrouding? Shrouding is suppose, if we look at the
in view of the turbine I am just giving you the schematic view it is going to be like this. There
are number of blades attached to the rotor and the rotor is moving with certain rotational speed.
These blades are tied together with the help of shrouding and this shrouding also causes
interruption in the flow.

So when the shrouding is there the presence of shrouding also contributes towards the losses
during flow in a turbine. Third one is disc friction loss, suppose the fluid which ins team it is
viscous fluid , it is not a non viscous fluid. So it is a viscous fluid flowing over the blades. So the
resistance to flow will be offered it is known as disc friction losses. So these losses will also be
there when there is flow of steam over the surface of the blades.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:11)

335
Another type of loss is windage loss now what happens is in high pressure turbine, especially in
the high pressure area specially in the impulse turbine, there is limited number of nozzles and the
limited number of nozzles and all the blade passages are not directly exposed to the steam which
is coming from the nozzle. In some of the blade there is partial admission.

This partial admission in the blades is known as windage losses right and we will start with the
disc friction loss, there is a formula for disc friction losses in a steam turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:08)

Power loss disc friction = m∆h loss disc friction = C D 2 (U/1000)3ρ kilo-watt. This is empirical
relation, so this where Log( C /0.735 )= 1.277 – 0.2 Log (D U ρ/μ). So from here if we know the

336
diameter of the turbine, peripheral velocity and ρ is U/V 1, then we can get the value of C
provided we have the value of μ

μ is the function of temperature viscosity is always the function of temperature and for steam it is
taken as (1.173 t + 40.68 )×10-7 Pascal seconds. Now here you can see that quit temperature is
cost is increasing because if we increase the temperature the viscosity of the liquid will fall but
viscosity of the gases will increase.

Now here in the case of steam the viscosity of the steam will increase is a vapor with rise in
temperature. So if we know the temperature of entering the steam, we will get the value of
viscosity this value of viscosity can be put here and we will get the value of C and this value of C
can be put here we will get the power loss in disc friction. Now another case is blade windage
losses, I have already explained you.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:39)

So in this case then again in P windage losses = λ(1.07 D 2 + 0.610 Z( 1 – ε)l 1.5 D(U/ 100)3ρ. It is
difficult to remember but this is also an empirical relation where λ for air is generalized equation.
So for air it is one for super-heated steam it is 1.1 to 1.2 and saturated steam = 1.3.

So for three different conditions lambda 1.1 to 1.2 is super all natural steam turbine comes this
way lambda one. Lambda can for steam turbines because the vapor is always super-heated while

337
entering the steam turbine. We can always comfortably take 1.15 average of this. Now this is the
mean diameter Z is the number of velocity stages, so number of stages will be there is a ten
stages turbine Z = 10 it is a 20 stage turbine Z = 20 epsilon is clearance.

It is for the clearance l is blade height is in centimeters. This has to be remembered otherwise it
will be getting all together different results. D is the diameter of the rotor U is the peripheral
velocity U is rho is velocity ratio and this will give you the energy loss in windage in clearance
losses because in turbine there is clearance at two places. So let us take a case when the impulse
reaction turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:28)

So in impulse reaction turbine the nozzles are fixed in the casing and blades are fixed on the
rotor. So these are the blades and this one is nozzle and these blades are fixed on the shaft, there
two places where leakage can be take place these places are this clearance and this clearance. So
in order to prevent leakage, constrictions are provided. Constrictions are nothing but obstruction
suppose, this if you take it here and this is something like obstruction to the flow they are known
as constrictions.

So in fact a sort of throttling will take place through this and slowly gradually the pressure will
reduce or we can have different configuration. We can step type also constriction to offer more
resistance or dual space like this, we can have different type of configuration not like this, we

338
can have different type of configuration but they should not obstruct the movement of the blades
if the constriction are obstructing and they are made of soft material.

So if they come in contact with the blades they will wear out what happens if you make closing
casing instead of putting constriction,if you are putting casing here and if blades strikes the blade
strike the casing the entire turbine will be damaged but constrictions are made of soft materials.
So even if blade edge comes in contact with the constriction it will wear out the constriction.

Now if we draw enthalpy entropy diagram suppose, they are five constrictions so dwell there is
going to be suppose constriction is five, so number of dwells will be four. Dwells means the gaps
will be four and in the first suppose, this is A right and expansion takes place in this constriction
suppose this is A throttling or expansion takes place. In this case the velocity will increase but
when the steam enters here this turbulence.

Because here the velocity is increased but it is confined here again the pressure raises it is not the
pressure rises, the energy is regained. Energy is regained and we get a state B and that is another
pressure. This is another pressure P1, let us say this is P2 and state B. Again the expansion will
take place and then again the energy will be regained and then it is P 3 and this is how the
pressure keeps on reducing and at the last stage you will get the final pressure that is P 2 P, PZ
whatever it is PZ
(Refer Slide Time: 26:23)

339
Now we will do a world example for regarding the leakage of energy losses in the steam turbine.
The first stage wheel running at 1500 rpm of a 20 megawatt steam turbine is a single row wheel
having mean diameter of 2.1 meter.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:43)

So we will put down the values here N = 1500 rpm and the power is 20 megawatt, mean
diameter D is 2.1 meters. The condition of a steam in first stage as follows pressure is 1750 kilo
Pascal or 17.5 bar super heat 110 degree centigrade, it is above the saturation temperature degree
of super heat specific volume, 0.01503 meter cube per kg.

340
The blades are 32 mm long L = 3.2 centimeters and active zone covers 40 % of total
circumference. At full load calculate power absorbed by disc friction. So first of all we will take
pressure corresponding to this the saturation temperature is 205.7715 degree centigrade.

The total temperature is going to be 205.715 +110 it is going to be 315.715 degree centigrade or
you can rounded off to 205.7, because third digit accuracy is not required right. So this is the
-7
temperature now with the help of this we can calculate μ. So μ is( 0.173 t + 40.68)×10 at this
temperature viscosity of the steam is going to be if we put the value of t from here.

So T from here and then we will get Mu = 95.3 ×10- 7 Pascal, second now that formula if you
remember this Log because we need to have the value of C log( C /0.735) = 1.277 - log
(4Dρ/U). So here we have the value of U = πDN is 2.1 into N is 1500 divided by 60 π D N. So π
D is to 2.1 is given here and 1500 is also given here.

So this is D, this is N and the value of U is 165 meters per second. So value of U will note down
here 165 meters per second, μ is also there 95.3 ×10 - 7 Pascal second.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:22)

Now we can calculate the disc friction is now = C D 2( U /100)3 ×ρ and now we have the value of
U. We have the value of ρ C is with us, diameter is with us right. Putting these values here we

341
will get the disc friction that is 23.4 kilowatt, if you compare the output of the turbine it is not
very high though in itself 23.4 kilowatt is substantial energy.

Now power in windage is λ [1.07 D + 0.61 Z( 1 – ε)l 1.5 ×D (U/ 100)3×ρ]. Now λ for super-heated
steam we can always take 1.15. D is diameter 2.1 m right .6 Z. Z is number of velocity changes,
so single wheel having diameter.

So number of velocity change is one, this epsilon, this is partial area where I mean this is active
zone that is 40 %the epsilon is 0.4 which is covered by the steam and l is the length of the blade
3.2 D is 2.1 U again is 165 right. If you are putting all this values the final expression shall come
out to be 190 kilowatt. So this is how with the help of available information for a turbine, we can
find the detraction loss windage the windage loss in the system that is all for today thank you
very much.

342
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department Of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 06
Lecture No # 29
Condensers

Hello I welcome you all in this course on the steam and gas power systems today we will
discuss on condensers, condensers are a very important component of any steam power
generation system
(Refer Slide Time: 00:33)

Which works on rankine cycle if i draw this steam power generation on Rankine cycle 1, 2
expansion 1 to 3and 3to 4 and 4 to 5. If you remember this diagram that 1 to 2 at state 2 the
steam enters the condenser and the condensate is removed at state 3. Now for the steam
power generations there are two devices one is steam turbine and another is steam engine.

If we draw the P-V diagram of steam engine it is something like this state one to state two to
three and 3 to 0 the ideal P-V diagram for steam engine. If you look at this side this process is
PV = constant or PV1.1= constant. If you look at the fair end of the this is a reciprocating
machine the steam engine is the reciprocating machine .So if you look at the fair end of the in
fact this curve is much flatter on this side.

343
So it you look at the fair end if we mention the vacuum let us say vacuum of 50 bar 50
kilopascal or 0.5 bar in that case this part or the stroke will generate very little amount of
energy and this power loss due to fiction will be substantial. So that is why in the steam
engines normally the condensers are not used the steam is come steam comes out the cylinder
at a slightly higher pressure that is approximately 1.1 bar or 1.1 atmospheric.

So that it can go to the atmosphere however in the case of a steam turbine because the steam
turbine is a rotary machine and it is used for high power generation the order of power
generation is very low in case of a steam generation comparing with the steam turbine .So in
the steam turbine if you can maintain the vacuum in the condenser more power can be
generated because the work of turbine is nothing but h1 – h2.

We keep on increasing the sorry we keep on decreasing the pressure in the condenser. We
will be getting more power here. But the issue is to what extent we can reduce the pressure
can we go absolute vacuum that is not possible or even say vacuum of 0.05 or .09 bar that is
also not possible. Because in the condenser heat has to be removed and normally in
condenser heat is removed with the normal water which is available at the site and the water
temperature is normally.

Approximately we can say up to 25 degree centigrade or 30 centigrade. Right and for heat
removal at least temperate difference of 10 degree centigrade has to be maintained I am
giving just approximate values so the steam temperature should not be less than forty degree
centigrade corresponding to that pressure saturation pressure we can expand the steam right.

And definitely the condenser in a plant improves the efficiency because we are getting more
power right. So output is increased.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:32)

344
 TL
Efficiency is also increased if you look at the Carnot efficiency it is η=1− . So while
TH
putting the condenser we are reducing the TL lower temperature. So efficiency is also
increased efficiency of the cycle is also improved once output is increased a steam
consumption is reduced for the same output less amount of steam will be required in the
system.

Number three is thermal stresses in the boiler are also reduced because if the boiler takes the
water from available at the site which is at 25 or 30 degree centigrade and in another case the
boiler is getting water at higher temperature 40 or 45 degree centigrade definitely temperature
differential will reduce and that will reduce the thermal stresses in the boiler itself.

And it is also helpful in economy of the water softening plant because this water is circulated.
So softening plant will be less frequently because it will be required only for the make off
water make off water is approximately 1.5 % of the water circulated in the cycle. So the load
on the water circulated plant is also reduced normally water pool condensing unit is used for
power plants so it consist of a closed vessel.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:14)

345
The condenser is a closed vessel and it is a sort of heat exchanger normally shell and tube
type of heat exchanger is used in the power plants in shell and tube type of heat exchanger
there is a big shell and it is fitted with a bundle of tubes cooling water is circulated in the
bundle of tubes when high temperature steam when I will draw at one tube but there is a
bundle of tube when high temperature in steam comes into the contact into the surface of this
tube, heat is subsequently transmitted to the cooling water. Which is flowing inside the tube
and steam.

Get condensed and it is removed and the volume of steam is drastically reduced. Say at 0.1
bar i will give you some figure 0.1 bar the specific volume of the steam is 19.9 meter cube
- 3
per kg but when it is condensed it is reduced to 1.016× 10 m3/ kg. So there is a drastic
reduction in the volume itself and the volume is reduced a small pump fitted at the outlet of
the condenser will increase the pressure because in the rankine cycle.

If you look at a pressure entropy the 3 to 4 this is compression of water and because it is a
liquid water is a liquid state or condenser in a liquid state the change is volume is
insignificant and the pressure is increased and this high pressure water is sent to the boiler for
heat exchange. So that is another benefit now another component of say this is one. So there
is a cooling water pump in a condenser.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:23)

346
Number one cooling water pump which is used for circulation of cooling water in the vessel
there is a tube .So for circulation of cooling water the cooling water pump in a condenser
number two there is a feed water pump feed water to boiler so another pump is connected to
the condenser is feed water pump. Third is cooling tower cooling tower, cooling tower
cooling tower is required because this water either we have once to system.

Water is entering from this side drain from that side then fresh water is entering from this
side then huge water will be required i will give you the idea that 60% of the heat is reacted
here it is huge 60% heat of the cycle is rejected in the condenser and water cooling. Water
requirement is approximately 5 to 8 kg per kilowatt hour then you can imagine the quantity of
water required for 1 mega watt or 100 mega watt plant.

So therefore the water has to be re-circulated right. So one the heat is taken away from the
water it goes to the if heat is taken away by the water from the steam it goes to a cooling
tower right in cooling tower temperature of water is reduced but cooling tower also has
limitations i mean in normally when we design a cooling tower it is designed for ∆T = 7 to 10
degree centigrade.

So water flow rate because Q = mCp∆T ,for water, so the mass flow rate should be adjusted
in such a way that delta T does not exceed 10 0 C .So that is why huge water is required in
condensers for a power plant now types of condensers , there are mainly two type of
condensers one is jet condenser , another one is surface condenser. So there are two types of
condensers.

347
(Refer Slide Time: 10:32)

Jet condenser and another type is surface condenser but i was explaining to you was a is
about surface condenser but in jet condenser mixing of cooling water with the steam takes
place. So when the fresh water is available or clean is available are known as only this places
are only those sites the jet condensers can be used now jet condensers are further classified
low level jet condenser and number two is high level jet condenser or barometric jet
condensers.

Low level Jet condenser again there are classified parallel flow counter flow and then parallel
flow. So surface condenses classified broadly classified into two classes low level sorry jet
condenser and surface condenses and jet condenser are further classified as low level,
counter flow and parallel flow or high level barometric condenses now for a low level
condenser there is a container shall and at the top air suction pump is required air suction.

Right and it has a converging section then there is a leg ok i will reduce the height. So there is
a converging section then there is a leg which is and this is filled with water this area is filled
with water and from here the condensate is sent to a tank in tank certain level is maintained
certain level of water is maintained so that there is no over flow in order to maintain a water
level a pipe is provided like this.

So whatever over flow is there it goes to the pipe and then from pipe it goes to the cooling
pond there is a cooling pond it goes to the cooling pond from here the water enters to this
container and from here again it is pumped to the boiler right now regarding the steam the

348
steam enters from this side. So steam enters form this side right and from here the water goes
enters in the shell it is by thermo syphon only it was described here.

So the water level rises and it enters the shell from here and water spray takes place from here
the water spray takes place and there are number of trays for breaking the water droplets and
steam enters from the bottom steam comes in the contact with water this is steam which is
entering from the bottom in the contact with the water coming from the top and the mixture
goes to the leg of the jet condenser and subsequently sent to the boiler.

This is a counter flow type of low level jet condenser because steam and the water they flow
in a opposite direction certain amount of air is always dissolved in water so this air is sucked
by air suction pump now in counter flow the things are different in counter flow steam enters
from the top there is only change in arrangement. So now we will discuss about the parallel
flow in parallel flow the steam enters from the top instead of water suction there is entry of
steam from the top right and water is not injected from here.

It is injected somewhere here and they flow in a parallel direction this is a stop this is not
there only this is for extraction of air extraction so in counter flow constructed from here in
parallel, flow air was extracted from here and mixture of air and sorry mixture of a steam and
water they flow in the same direction that is why it is known as parallel flow type of
arrangement but the counter flow type of arrangement is more efficient then the parallel flow
type of arrangement.

Now we will discuss about how high level of jet condenser in high level jet condenser there is
a vessel
(Refer Slide Time: 16:43)

349
And the tail of this vessel or this leg the height of the leg is more than the water column equal
lent to 1 bar pressure that is the height is approximately more than 10.36 meters it is
equivalent to 1 bar pressure so when it is put into the sump ok what when it is put into the
sump water does not rise up to here. So it rises up to normally it rises up to the height of
approximately 9 meters approximately up to the height of 9 m and vacuum is here.

So the benefit of the vacuum is that it entire system works on a very low pressure. So more
rigid can be extracted when it is connected to the turbine and from here it goes to the water
goes to the slump and from this slump there is a pump which pushes water into this vessel
earlier in previous case in low level there was no pump pump was not required to transmit
water into the shell but here a pump is required to transmit water which is available here into
the shell and when the water is transmitted to the shell.

So there are baffles right baffles are used for proper mixing of steam enters from his side. So
it is basically a counter flow arrangement steam enter from this side in the shell and air is
removed from the top pressure arrangements are seen so this is a schematic arrangement of
high level of this jet condenser but normally in the power plants, surface condenser are used
in surface condenser normally shell and tube type of condenser are used in shell and tube type
condenser.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:09)

350
As i explained earlier there are I mean if you classify shell and tube surface condenser then
there is down flow down flow type,central flow type condenser and inverted flow type or
number of passes single pass or multi pass it can be two pass three pass four pass we call it
multi pass.

So in a shell and tube type of condenser necessarily there is a shell right and it has bundle of
tubes this is end cover of the shell and there are chambers water sorry steam enters from the
top steam and it leaves on the bottom condensate right and there are number of tubes here and
water flows inside the tubes.

The bundle of tubes and cooling water enters from the side this is of the tubes so cooling
water enters from this side right pass through this tubes takes a turn and then pass again
passes through this tubes and leave from this side .So it is a two pass surface condenser right
and this coolant which is coming out of the condenser it again goes to the cooling tower and
get condensed gets cooled down there is always dissolved air in the steam.

So when the steam gets condensed the air is liberated right and it is accumulated close to the
tubes of the container normally. so air has to be removed frequently from the condenser so air
electric pumps are used. So there are two types of arrangement dry type of vacuum
arrangement and wet type of vacuum arrangement, wet type of vacuum arrangement the
steam or steam is sucked set along the air or the condensate is also set along the air but in dry
type of arrangement only air is sucked out of the condenser.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:51)

351
So a dry vacuum type of surface condenser if i want to show schematically is going to be a
vessel consisting of number of tubes exhaust steam plus air coming from the top right getting
condensed and removed from the bottom in this type of condensers baffles are provided for
suction of air. So this is a dry type of dry type of vacuum system here only air is sucked out
of the condenser vessel in centre flow system there is a centre flow system where there
number of tubes and steam flows radially invert and air is sent from the centre of the bundle
ok.

So this type of arrangement is known as centrally central flow type of surface condenser now
in a condenser there is always a mixture of air and water right and as per the Dalton's law the
total pressure is the partial pressure of water and partial pressure of air that is Dalton's law for
non-reactive mixtures.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:12)

352
 ma v
( )
V =ma v a +m s v s right, m=m a +m s =m s 1+
ms
=ms (1+ s ) right.
va
Now in a condenser if you do the heat balance steam is coming from the top it out on the total
heat of the steam part of the heat is taken away by the cooling water T CI ,TCO and this certain
mass flow rate. So it is mC P ∆T right and part of the heat is going with the condensate mass
of the condensate right and enthalpy of the condensate right here pressure steam are also
ejected from the condenser because air has to be sucked out.

So part of the heat is also going with the air plus steam coming out of here right. So initially
we will consider air only so suction is talking place and air is coming out of here. If we do the
energy balance that this is stage one let us say this is stage one so
(Refer Slide Time: 25:09)

353
m s1 h s1 +m a1 ha1 =Q+m s2 hs2 + ma 2 ha2 +m c 3 hc [Link] is the total energy balance now mass of the
air whatever mass is entering it is leaving the vessel temperature of air is also constant
because steam is getting condensed it is getting condensed at constant temperature .So both
are equal they can be cancelled out because while doing the analysis it is often asked why
you have not considered the air the heat carried away by the air or heat coming with the air in
the vessel.
m s1 h s1−mc 3 hc 3 =Q right. So this heat which is taken away by the cooling water is the
enthalpy difference of this steam entering from this side and condensate leaving from this
side air does not come into the picture. Now we can further say that this enthalpy it is a
condensate can be in a liquid state or sometimes.

It is a subcooled liquid also but for properly designed condenser, a condenser has to
be ,should not have any sub-cooled liquid inside a condenser should not that is called the
poor design of the condenser condenser should take away only latent heat from the
condensing vapour right. So this hC3 can be calculated the all these things can be taken from
all these properties can be taken from the steam table and we can find the value of Q.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:52)

Now regarding this we will solve one numerical that will give us clear idea about this now in
this numerical the barometric reading is 760 mm of mercury is the pressure at the site is the
atmospheric pressure and vacuum in the condenser is 700 mm of mercury vacuum is 700
meters of mercury means the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:16)

354
So this is above zero pressure this is atmospheric or 760 mm. So if the vacuum is 700 mm it
is 700 below the 760 mm the absolute pressure is 70 mm of mercury right mean condenser
temperature is 35 degree centigrade hot well temperature 30 degree centigrade mass of
cooling water is 45,000 kg per hour intake water temperature is 17 degree centigrade outlet
water temperature 31 mass of condensate 1200 kgs per hour.

Ok these are the figures so initially corresponding to 35 degree centigrade right

corresponding to 35 degree centigrade saturation pressure is 5.629 kilo pascal. So there is a
correction it is not seventy it is 60 mm because 760. So P S is this now corresponding to this
seven into 1.013 divided by 76 it comes around 7.99 kilo pa square right.

So the pressure in the condenser is 7.997 kPa saturation pressure corresponding to this is
5.629 kilo pascal right it is there is some air and partial pressure of air is difference of these
two so partial pressure of air is going to be the difference of these two and it is going to be
2.368 kPa because partial pressure of air partial pressure of a steam is equal to total pressure
inside the condenser.

So mass of the air we can calculate is equal to PV/RT right volume. We can take one right
pressure because pressure is pressure of the air we can take from here R for air is 0.287 kilo
joules per kg Kelvin and temperature is 273 + 35 right and this will give the mass of the air as
0.02679 metre cube per kg right now steam is subcooled to 29 degree centigrade or 30 degree
centigrade ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:13)

355
So Q is mass of the condensate and enthalpy of the condensate. So once we have the enthalpy
of the condensate now we do not have enthalpy of condensate because we do not no the state
of condensate because the vapour which is entering the condenser is a wet vapour.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:41)

So at 30 degree centigrade we will refer the steam table at thirty degree centigrade we will
take the properties of the steam there is hf + xhfg. So it is mass Q is equal to mass of the

45000
condensate Q=mc (hs1 −hwc ) , ×4.18(31-17) =146.63+x2417.87-125.73.
3600
Now once we calculate the Q from here we will put the value of Q here and we get the value
of x right. Ok one thing more it is kg /m3 not m3/kg ok mass of the air is kg /m3 ok.

356
So Q is first of all what we have done Q is equal to heat taken away the in the condenser is
mass of the condensate enthalpy of entering steam or sensible heat of leaving condensate
right enthalpy of entering steam. We do not know right this sensible heat of condensate is
known to us because it is the saturated enthalpy liquid at thirty degree centigrade Q is not
with us Q we have taken from mC P∆T already the heat is taken away by the cooling water
and from here by putting this value.

Here we will get the value of X and the value of X is 0.9 right this is the state of steam which
is entering the condenser now vacuum efficiency is defined as for
(Refer Slide Time: 34:11)

Any condenser is equal to actual vacuum divide by ideal vacuum. So actual vacuum divide
by ideal vacuum right now actual vacuum is how much 60 mm of mercury or into 1.013 by
76 bar or multiplied by 100 then it is kilo pascal right divided by ideal and what is the ideal it
is this 5.629 and this is 0.975 = 97.5 % this is the vacuum efficiency of the condenser under
cooling condenser.

Under cooling is vapour is available at 35 degree centigrade and it is sub cooled to 30 degree
centigrade. So it is sub cooling is 5 degree centigrade it is obvious from the data in the
numerical and condenser efficiency now condenser efficiency is the temperature raise in the
cooling water divided by maximum possible temperature raise. So temperature raise in
cooling water is 31 - 17 and maximum possible temperature raise in cooling water cannot be
more than 35 degree centigrade.

357
Because 35 degree centigrade is a temperature of condensing steam so it is 35 - 17 there is
one more correction here this is 760 because this is in mm this has to be in mm right and now
let us go back to this volumetric efficiency this is going to be 14 by 80. It is going to 0.78 or
it is 78 %.

So efficiency of the condenser is 78 % volumetric efficiency we have calculated in 97.5

volumetric efficiency actual vacuum divided by ideal vacuum actual vacuum we have
calculated from here 60 multiplied by 1.03 atmospheric pressure divided by 760 mm into 100
divided by ideal vacuum. Right and this all we got solutions for all the required parameters in
this numerical. That is all for today. Thank you very much.

358
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No # 06
Lecture No # 30
Problem Solving (Steam Turbine)

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we will solve
the problems on steam turbines and that will conclude on how discussions in steam turbine
(Refer Slide Time: 00:36)

The first problem is the following particular refer to a stage of an impulse reaction turbine
this is about the impulse reaction turbine outlet angle of fixed blades is 20 degree.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:51)

359
So simultaneously we will start drawing the velocity diagram also this is V1 this is Vr1 this is
peripheral velocity U this is Vr2 V2 and angles this is β2 this is β1 blade outlet, angle blade
inlet angle, nozzle inlet angle and nozzle outlet angle right and so outlet angle of fixed blades
is 20 degree. So outlet angle of fixed blades means fixed blades of previous stage so that
becomes ∝1 nozzle inlet angle so ∝1 is 20 degree then outlet angle of moving blades.

Now the outlet angle of moving blades is β 2 β 1is inlet blade angle β 2is 30 degree, radial
height of fixed and moving blades. So radial height of the blade l is 10 cm or 0.1 meter mean

U
blade velocity U is 140 m/s speed ratio is ρ= = 0.625. So specific volume at moving blade
V1
inlet is so VS1 =1.24 sorry 1.24 m3/kg and specific volume of steam at moving blade outlet.

So VS2 =1.30 m3/kg then calculate the degree of reaction it is not parson turbine right so we
have to calculate the degree of reaction adiabatic heat drop in pair of blades total heat drop
the heat drop in the nozzle and heat drop in the blade sum of that gross stage efficiency,
coefficient efficiency of the nozzle is .9 or 90% and carry over coefficient is 0.8 and they are
same in fixed and moving blade ok.

So first of all since velocity is given so we can find the peripheral velocity is given we can
find the inlet velocity inlet velocity is that is going to be 140 /0.625 ,224 m/s. So this V 1 =
224 m/s. So steam is coming at this alpha 20 degree centigrade it is 20 degree centigrade and
U is also with us that is 140 m/s .

So now we can easily draw the inlet angle because this base is known this α is angle is known
this vector is known 224 metres per second and we can draw the triangle and analytically also
we can find the value of β 1 or Vr1 or Vf1 whatever value is required now after this we will do
the we will use the continuity question continuity question say that area πD lnV1 sinα1.

What does it mean? It means that velocity of flow V 1 sinα1 is velocity of flow multiplied by
area πDln blade passage area of blade passage so this is the height of the blade and this is we
have taken periphery entire periphery the number of blades. So multiplied by the height of the
blade this will give the area velocity of flow will give mV 1 this is a conceptual continuity
equation which is used in fluid mechanics.

360
Now again πD ln Vr2 sinβ2 that is Vr2 sinβ2 will give us the mV 2 now πDln again this is the
area multiplied by the velocity of flow at the outlet. So velocity of flow flow velocity
multiplied by the passage area flow velocity multiplied by the passage area right now if now
here why you we have taken this we have taken this if we take the ratio of this we have value
of V1 and V2 as well.

Right this will be cancelled out if you take the ratio of these two now if we take the ratio the
pie will be cancelled out D will be cancelled out ln will be cancelled out m will be cancelled
out V1 and V2 are already with us right. So we need not calculate them V1 is with us V1 sinα is
with us sinβ2 because Vf can also be V2 sinα2 or Vr1 sinβ2.

We do not have these values we have taken already those vectors for which we have the
values but we do not have the value of Vr 2 this value is not with us right. So in order to find
this so we have to find the value of Vr 2 and this is all the other values are known by putting
these values we are getting the value of Vr 2 as 160.6 m/s. Now we have the value of Vr 2 also
with us ok.

Now we have to calculate isentropic heat drop in blades for calculating isentropic heat drops

2 2
V r 2−∅ V r 1
in the blades .We need ∆ h ¿ ¿b= this is the formula efficiencies of the blades is
2ηb × 1000
also efficiency of the nozzles we can take 0.9, Vr 2 is here 160 but you do not have the value
of Vr1 but since we have the other values in this triangle.

We can always find the value of Vr12 = V12 + U2 - 2 U V1 cos α1 , V1 is 2242+ 1402 -2 ×140 ×
224 cos20 and this finally gives the value of Vr1 as 104 m/s from here we will get the Vr12
then will take under root of Vr1 we are getting 104 m/s as Vr1.

Once we have the value of Vr1 with us now phi is also given ф is 0.85 we can find Vr 2 is

2 2
160.6 −.0 .85× 104 sorry this is .85 right and this will give the enthalpy drop in the blades
2× 0.9×1000
as 9.22. So enthalpy drop in the blade is9.22 kilo joules per kg.

361
Right now we have to calculate the enthalpy drop min type nozzles as well and in order to
calculate the enthalpy drop in the nozzles we need the value of V2 , V1 is known but we need
V2.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:30)

And V22 again we will find V22= Vr22 + U2- 2 U Vr2 cos β2.

Geometrically also it can be d1 but if you do it numerically we will be getting better accurate
value now Vr2 is 160.62 + 1402- 2×140 × 160.6 cos 30 right and this will give the final value
of V2 as 80.3 m/s. So V2 is 80.3 m/s right and now if I want to find or if I wish to find the
enthalpy drop in the nozzles because that will give the total stage enthalpy drop.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:45)

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Enthalpy drop in blades enthalpy drop in the nozzle so enthalpy drop in the nozzles is going

2 2
V 1 −∅ V 2
to be ∆ hn = in order to convert rate into the kilo joules and that is
2ηn ×1000

2 2
224 −.85×80.3 and this will give the enthalpy drop in the nozzle is 24.83 kilo joules per
2×, 9×1000
kg.

It means ∆ hn = 24.83 kilo joules per kg now in order to find the degree of reaction now we
have the values of enthalpy drop in nozzles enthalpy drop in blades.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:00)

∆ hb
So degree of reaction is R= . so it is going to be 9.22 /(9.22 + 24.83) and this
∆hn + ∆ hb
degree of reaction is going to be 0.271 or 27.1%.

This is the degree of reaction of this particular stage now adiabatic heat drop in pair of blade
rings gross stage efficiency now we have to find gross stage efficiency in order to find gross
stage efficiency we should know the output of the turbine VWU.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:58)

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So VWU, VW whirl velocity is going to be equal to we know the value of α and sorry α 1 blade
inlet angle and sorry nozzle inlet angle and blade outlet angle.

So we will take V1 cos α1 -U + Vr2 cosβ2 and then we will multiply this by U that will give
the output multiplied by U right so V1 is 140× (224 cos 20-140 + 160.6 cos 30) ok and this

140 ×205.8
will be because it is in enthalpy drop is in kilo joules.
1000(9.22+24.83)

So 9.22 + 24.83 so when these are added it is 34.05 and this ratio is 0.846 or 84.6% right.
Similarly, we will try to solve another numerical this is about the parson’s turbine so in
parson turbines we always know that degree of reaction is half, 0.5 and in parson turbine
(Refer Slide Time: 16:14)

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Develops 1000 kilowatt power at 400 rpm and consumes 9 kg of steam /kWh. So per unit of
power generation or 1 kilo watt power generation it consumes 9 kg of a steam, steam is
supplied at 1200 kilo pascal pressure and 250 degree centigrade temperature. So this is the
pressure it is 1200 kilo pascal or 12 bar pressure and temperature is 250.

So it appears three at the super heated steam isotropic efficiency of expansion is 85% the
blade angles are 35 degree and 20 degree at inlet and outlet tips respectively. So blade inlet
and outlet angle are given find drum diameter a diameter of the shaft and blade height at the
stage where pressure is 150 kilo Pascal the blade height to drum diameter ratio is 1 is to 12
ratio of 1 is to twelve is recommended .

So ratio of blade height and the drum diameter is 1 is to 12 find the power developed at the
stage if flow velocity is 80% of peripheral velocity neglect the friction losses right so here
first of all we will draw the
(Refer Slide Time: 17:35)

Temperature entropy diagram because it is required here of a rankine cycle because the steam
turbines they work on rankine cycle, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. So try to understand this numerical because
this steam is entering the turbine at 12 bar so steam entering here is 1200 kilopascal it is it
appears to where super heated steam and stage.

The stage we are analyzing when the pressure is reduced to 150 kilopascal so the pressure is
reduced to 150 kilo Pascal that stage we are analyzing so first of all we must know the state
of the steam at this stage right.

365
(Refer Slide Time: 18:45)

So h1 1200 kilo Pascal saturation temperature is 187.96 so at 250 the enthalpy is 2 935.6 this
is the enthalpy of a steam right. S1 if you remember what we have d1 during the analysis of
vapour cycle the entropy of 6.83 kilo joules per kg now it is expended to 150 kilo Pascal. So
150 kilopascal saturation properties are here and steam is definitely at this pressure because
150 kilopascal is very low pressure.

So steam is definitely somewhere here right so a steam is a mixture of liquid and vapour and
entropy here is of saturated vapor is 7.223 it means it is a wet steam. So entropy is remaining
constant and S2 = 1.4337 + X 5.7893 and S1 = S2 and from here we will get the value of X.

The value of X is from here it is coming as 0.932 that is the quality of a steam at this stage
when the pressure is 150 kilo Pascal now at this stage we will calculate enthalpy h 2 and h2 is
again hf is 467.13 + 0.932×2225.97 and this gives the enthalpy at stage 2 or this is not state 2
this is 2 dash.

This is state thus is state 2 right. So enthalpy at state 2 is 2541.7 right and h 1-h2 now why we
are doing this we are doing this because once we know the h 1-h2 and then ∆h = h1-h2 that is
2935.6 1 h2 is how much kilo joules per kg 2541.7 kilo joules per kg.

So h1-h2 is ∆h is 393.9 kilo joules per kg ok now specific volume also we can calculate here
specific volume V2 = X V2 is quality multiplied by specific volume that is 1.1593 and there is

366
going to be = 1.08 kg meter cube per kg now mass flow rate now if you look at the statement
of the problem 9 kg of a steam per kWh.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:56)

It means mass flow rate is 9 kg of a steam multiplied by kilo watt it is 1000 divided by hour
and this gives the mass flow rate as 2.5 kg per second right. Now we will do we will use the
continuity equation again π(Dr +lb) lb ×Vf = mv same equation we are used in continuity
equation .So it isπ(Dr + Dr/12) Dr/12 Vf =mv and U peripheral velocity U =π(Dr+ DR/ 12)
N/60 and N is given here.

400 rpm and that is going to be equal to find the power if flow velocity 80% of the peripheral
velocity it means this =Vf by 0.80% of peripheral velocity is Vf this =Vf by.8 so value of Vf
we can put here from here right and the equation becomes π(Dr+ DR/ 12)×0.8 π(Dr+ DR/
12)N/60 =mv.

We are having with us a specific volume is also with us so we have mass specific volume
mass is given here specific volume we have already calculated N is with us right and Dr is
not with us height of the blade is ratio is given .So we do not require height of the blade only
unknown here is Dr right. So we can write and we can solve this and we will get the value of
Dr as 0.772 simply.

What we have to do? We simply it will come Dr cube = something 1 Dr will come from here
1 Dr is here. So Dr cube multiplied by some value is product of mass and specific volume
and then again we will take the cubic root and we will find the value of Dr so Dr is 0.772

367
meters this is the drum diameters when drum diameter is with us we can always find height
of the blades height of the blade is from diameter by 12.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:41)

So height of the blade is Dr/12 and once Dr is with us l can be calculated it is calculated as
6.4 milli centimeter 6.4 centimeter height of the blades and U now U =π(Dr + Dr/12) N/60 N
we are already having so we can calculate the value of U also and that calculated value of U
is 17.52 m/s right.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:30)

Now velocity of flow once we have the value of U the velocity of flow is 0.8 into 17.52 and
this gives the velocity of flow as 14 m/s this is the velocity of flow and now we have to
calculate because we have to calculate we have to find the power developed at this stage. So
for calculating the power developed we need to have the value of VW whirl velocity.

368
So we will draw a triangle this is UV1, Vr1, Vr2, V2 now here blade angles are known 35 and
20, 35 and 20 ,we know only β 1 is β1 is 35 degree and β2 is 20 degree and we have the value
of Vf so if we properly draw this diagram actually V f1 = Vf2 there is no carry over. So Vf1 so
these there are =Vf1 and this is Vf2 so this is component Vf1 and Vf2 both are equal right and so
now if we if we have to calculate the value of VW.

Vw will be this is Vr1 this length + this length this is X and this is Y right and this is the total
whirl component so VW is X + Y and X = this is Vf 1. So Vf is constant so Vf /tanβ1 + Vf/
tanβ2 right = Vf we are already having with us 14/tan35 + 14/ tan20 right and this will give
the value of VW as 58.5 m/s.

Now this value of VW will be multiplied by 14 that is peripheral velocity and in order to find
the power developed.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:52)

Power developed is mVW U/1000 that is the power developed on kilo watts mass flow rate.
We are having 2.5 kg per second VW is 58.5 U is 17.52 divided by 1000 and that will give
power developed as 2.56 kW Right that is all for today from the next class we will start with
the gas turbines thank you very much.

369
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Depart of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No # 07
Lecture No # 31
Gas Turbine Cycle

Hello I welcome you all in this course in steam and gas power systems today we will start
with the gas turbine cycle now in a gas turbine the working fluid is a gas it can be air also but
normally the working fluid is gas. So far we have analysed the steam turbines where the
steam is the working fluid in the gas turbines because we are using gas and phase change
does not take place during the entire cycle.

In steam power systems there is a phase change since there is a phase change mass flow rate
less mass flow rate is required in those type of systems because during the phase change a lot
of I mean heat reaction or absorption takes place right. So heat interaction is more when there
is a phase change but still in the gas turbines the entire cycle works taking gas as a working
fluid so there is no phase change in the cycle.

It is single phase cycle that is why the sensible heat transfer takes place in all the processes of
the gas turbine. Due to this fact the mass flow rate in the gas turbine is high or large volume
has to be handled in the gas turbine that is why centrifugal and axial flow compressors are
used in the gas turbines which can handle the large volume large bulk of the working fluid.

Now it works on the steam power cycle works on the rankine cycle the gas power cycle
works on joules or Brayton cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:05)

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So if i draw the joule cycle on pressure and volume diagram it is going to be like this starting
from 1 to 2. Now isotropic extension in gas turbine state 1 to state 2. Then 2 to 3 is cooling or
if it is open cycle gas turbine in that case air is taken from the outside the compressor disk
this process takes place inside the compressor normally centrifugal or axial flow compressor
are used in gas turbines.

And when the state four is attained the constant pressure heat addition is done inside the
combustion chamber. There is a separate component and in all these processes unlike engines
IC engines at all combustion engines in gas turbines all these processes that too take place in
different components. Expansion in turbine then compression in a separate compressor then
heat addition in a separate combustion chamber there is a separate dedicated combustion
chamber for adding heat to the working fluid.

If we transform this on temperature entropy diagram then these processes now this is pressure
2 and this is pressure 1 this cycle works between 2 pressure and pressure 1 right and process
3 to 4 is isotropic process. So 3 to 4 is isotropic compression which takes place inside a
compressor 4 to 1 is constant pressure heat addition we get 1.

And after stage 1 again expansion takes place inside the gas turbine that is state 1 and 2 that
is were for us. You study state 1 to state 2 expansion in gas turbine because this produces the
output. Now part of this output is used for running the compressor and these lines are not
parallel lines they are diverging lines right and the constant pressure lines. And this power

371
generated in during expansion from state 1 to state 2 is part of the power is used to run the
compressor to compress the gas.

In the steam power system only pump is required because when there is a phase change the
entire volume is converted into a very small volume or negligible volume right. So a small
pump is required to just to increase the pressure of the feed water. But here because we are
dealing with the gas the fluid is the gas state only so bulk of the fluid has to be handled. So if
substantial part of this output is consumed by the compressor.

It is substantial part of the power generated or the energy generated during expansion process
is consumed by the compressor. Now remaining part this is work of the turbine and this is
work consumed by the compressor. Now first of all we will try to find thermal efficiency of
the cycle that is the first thing we should do as we did in the case of vapor compression
system sorry yes vapor power system.

Thermal efficiency means network done divided by the heat added so network done here is
thermal efficiency is work done divided by heat added. Thermal efficiency work done this is
not the work of the turbine but the network done. So it is work of the turbine minus work of
the compressor divided by heat added. Work of the turbine say because it is always it is an
isotropic expansion process right.

So work of the turbine is CP T 1 – T2 but here pressure is not constant but we are taking CP this
taking CP there is often confusion among students this taking this C P does not mean that the

ɣ
pressure is constant. In fact, in isotropic process work is (P1 V1 - P2 V2). This is the
ɣ −1
expression for work done during expansion how we got about this work done expansion is?
VDP from state 1 to state 2 right.

If you use this formula and work done is and for PV is to power ɣ is equal to constant
followed during this process adiametic process reversible adiametic isotropic process. So if
you follow this use this equation integrate this you will be getting this expansion right. Once
we have this expansion which is derived from this VDP - 1 to 2 right.

372
P1 V1 is because this fluid can be treated as an ideal gas then P1 V1 = P2 V2. Sorry right P1 V1
is because this fluid can be treated as an ideal gas and P 1 V1 = P 2 sorry P1 V1 is RT1 and RT1
here it is a cycle it is an air stated cycle we are not analysing the gas turbine it is the joules
Brayton cycle it is air stated cycle in air stated cycle the working fluid is assumed to be the
air right.

So here we are finding the thermal efficiency of air stated cycle this is known as joule cycle

ɣ Rɣ
or brayton cycle. So now we can take P1 V1 = RT1 so RT 1 - RT 2 and this can be
ɣ −1 ɣ −1
(T 1 - T2) and if you further take this is nothing that CP right.

So CP is the expression for this it is nothing to 2 with the constant pressure process right.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:45)

So work is CP ∆T now here turbine work is T1 - T2 work done by the compressor work
consumed by the compressor in fact or work done on the compressor is CP T4 – T3. So this
much work will be taken out of this to run the compressor and net heat supplied is this is a
constant pressure process C but this is also CP T1 – T4.

Now CP will be cancelled out sorry T1 – T4 ok because here we are taking air as a working
fuel but in actual gas turbines what happens when the air is compressed? The air is
compressed combustion takes place and flue gas is the burned fuel is also mixed with the
gases right the specific heat change that we will discuss later on right now we are discussing
on air standard cycle.

373
So thermal efficiency is T 1 - T2 - T4 – T3 / (T1 – T4) or if we can rearrange these (T 1 - T4 - T2
- T3)/ (T1-T4 ) or = (1 - T2 - T3) / (T 1- T4) ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:32)

Now what we will do we will take T4 / T3 = (P4 / P3) (ɣ-1)/ ɣ ; T 1 / T2 = (P1 / P2) (ɣ-1)/ ɣ where P4
= P1 and P3 = P2. So both the expressions are same it means T4 / T3 = T1 / T2 right.

or (T2 / T3) = T1 /T4 (T 2 / T 3) – 1= (T 1 / T4) - 1. (T2 – T3) / T 3 = (T 1 – T4) / T4 or (T 2 - T3) /

(T 1 – T4) = T3 / T4 or =T 2 / T 1. Now we will be putting this here and we will be getting
thermal efficiency as = 1- T3 /T4 right.

Now T3 / T4 is nothing but 1 - 1 over R raise to power gamma -1 gamma. Where R is P 2 / P 1

for here yes P2 this is P2 and this is P1 pressure ratio. So R is P 2 / P 1. So thermal efficiency of
air stated gas turbine cycle is 1 - 1 upon R pressure ratio raise to power (ɣ - 1) / ɣ right but
this is for air standard cycle.

In air standard cycle also this is ideal air cycle when it comes to the actual Brayton cycle.
Here we have not considered any kinetic energy of gas to total energy includes the kinetic
energy also we have taken only enthalpy change in enthalpy C P ∆ T right but say here in the
entire process the velocity of the gas is quite high. So kinetic energy we have not considered
second thing is there are losses in the processes.

374
So this is no longer isotropic process compressor will require more energy for compression
that is 4 dash right. So actual work in the compressor is CP T4 /– T3 right similarly during
expansion it is not a vertical line it is an inclined line. So it is 2 / so the work of the turbine is
CP T1 - T2/ third is in the chamber also in the pressure drop due to flow resistance.

And pressure is no longer P2 it is slightly less than it is the expansion to start up here. So that
also we are not taken in count. So the actual cycle deviates quite substantially from the ideal
cycle. But we need this air stated efficiency or the purpose of comparing the performance or
we should have the base value of the efficiency only that we can compare the value of
efficiencies of different turbines.

So it is essentially required but the actual thermal efficiency of the turbine will differ. Further
if we use the cycle for gas turbine power generation then heat addition we have taken C P T1 –
T4.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:12)

But actually addition will be CPG T4 - sorry T1 - CP T4 temperatures are in Kelvin right. And
this also will include mass of the fluid mass of the fuel 1 kg of working fluid is here but here
it is not 1 kg it is 1 kg plus fuel burned with 1 kg. So 1 + MF so these things will take down
later on right now let us solve some worked example of gas turbines we have already taken
into account Brayton cycle actual cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:23)

375
Now we will take the some numerical from this so starting with first numerical a gas turbine
plant works between fixed absolute temperature limits 300 Kelvin and 900 Kelvin
temperatures are already given in Kelvin. The absolute pressure limits being 100 kilo Pascal
and 400 kilo Pascal so P1 and P2 are also given.

The isotropic efficiency of compressor is 0.8 or 80% and the turbine is 85 % or 0.85 right
estimate the actual thermal efficiency of the plant and the power available for driving external
load. So if the fuel consumption is 1 KG per second and the calorific vale of fuel is 42 mega
joules per kg so first of all we will draw the temperature entropy diagram of actual cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:09)

The two pressures P1 and P2 this P1 = 100 kilo Pascal and P 2 = 400 kilo Pascal. So starting
from P1 1 to 2 but it is not an isotropic process as efficiency isotropic efficiency point eight it

376
is 2/now 3 and this 4 and this 4 /. Now isotropic efficiency of compressor now it has to be
explained here.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:04)

Isentropic efficiency of the compressor is actual work done and ideal work some actual work
done is more. So ideally what should be the work done in compressing the gas that is C P T2 -
T1 and actual work consumed is T2 /- T1. So isotropic efficiency = T2 - T1 / T2 / - T1.

Isentropic efficiency of turbine here turbine actual output is less here actual output is input is
more than a ideal input here actual output is less than ideal output. So isentropic efficiency of
the turbine is going to be CP T3 - T4/ / CP T3 – T4 or it is going to be T 3 - T4 / / T 3 - T4 right. So
it is actual ideal, ideal actual now here the efficiency of the compressor is 80%.

Now the initial temperature limits mean T 1 = 300 Kelvin and another limit is 900 Kelvin. So
T3 is the highest temperature 900 Kelvin now if you want to have work in the compressor
work consumed by the compressor we should have the value of 2 / right. So first of all we will
calculate the value of T2 so T2 is T1, P2 / P 1 raise to power ɣ - 1 / whole ɣ.

So T2 is 300 P2 / P1 is 400 / 100 (1.4-1/1.4)

(Refer Slide Time: 21:23)

377
And this brings the T2 as 44 5.8 Kelvin now we have the efficiency 80%. So 0.8 = T 2 - T1
divided by T 2/ - T1 or T 2/ = T1 + T2 - T1 / 0.8.

We have the value of T2 T1 is already 300 Kelvin we will put the value of T 2 and T1 here and
we will get the value of T 2/ and this T 2/ is 482.25 Kelvin right. Now after getting T 2/ we can
calculate in similar fashion we can get the value of T 4/ also because these temperature values
will be required when we will calculate the efficiency.

(1.4 – 1) / 1.4
So Similarly T3 /T4 = 400 / 100 this is P3 /P4 and this gives the T4 as 605.65 Kelvin.
So now we have the value of T1, T2, T 2/, T3 and T 4/.

Again efficiency of the turbine = T3 - T 4/ / T3 -T4 or T 4/= efficiency of the turbine T 3 - T4

T3 - T 4/. So T 4/ is T3 – T4 now we have the value of T3 at 3 is 900 Kelvin and T4 we have
right now we have calculated and we will get the value of T 4/ and T 4/ is 649.8 Kelvin.

Now we have all the values of the temperatures and these values will help us in calculating
the efficiency of the cycle. Now here it is stated that if the fuel consumption is 1 kg per
second. So mass of the air plus mass of the fuel right H 3 - mass of the air H2/ = mass of the
fuel into calorific value of fuel right. So here we can find mass of the air and mass of the fuel
divided this by mass of the fuel.

So this is mass of the fuel calorific value is 42 mega joule per kg or this can be taken as forty
2 thousand kilo joule per kg because here we are dealing with the kilo joules right. Now this

378
gives the mass of the air and the mass of the fuel ratio is 97.88 or fuel air ratio is here is 97.88
means per kg of fuel will require this much of air.

/
Now the work of the compressor is C P T 2 - T1 right now CP is known to us 1.005 it is
standard value for air T 2/ we can take from here 482.2. And T1 is 300 Kelvin and the work of
the compressor is work of the compressor we will write here 183.16 kilo joules per kg after
this we will calculate work of the turbine
(Refer Slide Time: 26:28)

Work of the turbine now here mass of the fuel is also added at P mass of the air plus mass of
the fuel. So for 1 kg of air the mass of the fuel will be what is the fuel ratio fuel air so the air
fuel ratio was 97.88 : 1 so 1 / 97.88 will be added here right and this is this will give C P (T3 -
T 4/ )since CP of the gas is not given to us otherwise CP would have changed.

It would have increased but since CP of the flue gas is not given to us we will assume C P of
/
the air here so it is 1.1 / 97.88, 1.005 T3 is 900 – T 4 is 649.8 Kelvin and this will give the
work of the turbine as 254 kilo joules per kg but this work is not available to us what is
available for the use is difference of turbine work compressor so the network here so
(Refer Slide Time: 28:03)

379
Network is equal to work of the turbine minus work of the compressor that is 254 – 183.16
once we have network with us and mass of air is also with us this is per kg of this is kilo
joules per kg of air right mass of the air is also with us mass of the air is 97.88 for burning 1
kg of fuel and we have the calorific value of 1 kg of fuel that is 42 mega joules per kg right.

So this will be multiplied by in order to find network this will be multiplied by mass of the air
97.88 and this will be in kilo joules divided by calorific value that is 42,000 when we take
ratio the efficiency of the turbine comes around 16.5% so one thing what has to be
remembered that mass circulated in actual gas turbine cycle is not constant.

Compressor is taking air but when the air enters the combustion chamber mass of the fuel is
also added and both the mass the flue gases the flue gases consists on the air and the burned
fluid it takes part in power generation in the turbine right. So that is all for today in the next
class we will further discuss on gas turbines.

380
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 07
Lecture No # 32
Gas Turbine Cycle Performance Evaluations

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we will discuss on
gas turbine cycle performance evaluation. The performance of any machine is important
evaluation is very important for any machine in the gas turbines.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

The performance evaluation is done with the help of thermal efficiency isentropic efficiency of
compressor isentropic efficiency of turbine right. So in the compressor when the compression
takes place from state 1 to state 2 in the gas turbine from state 1 to state 2 it is isentropic
temperature in this compression the power consumed it minimum. But in actual practice this
point two is shifted to two dash right.

So isentropic efficiency comes into picture so isentropic efficiency of the efficiency of the
compressor is T2 - T1 / T2/ - T1. Now suppose I change the compressor ratio suppose for this
compressor the compression ratio is four I take another ratio another compressor which is

381
another compression ratio is 6 and then if I compare if the efficiency but it what happens this
isentropic efficiency varies with pressure ratio.

So it becomes very difficult to compare the performance of different compressors so in order to

correlate with this polytrophic efficiency has come into picture. Polytropic or small stage
efficiency now Polytropic or small stage efficiency is for differential rise in pressure what is the
actual power consumption? So the pressure is saying but there is a difference rise in pressure or
differential rise in temperature or Polytropic efficiency of the compression can be two dash.

DT over DT/ this is DT and this is DT / right and this ratio is and once we have polytropic
efficiency we can compare the performance for different compression ratio right. Similarly, for
the turbines again expansion takes place like this so in turbines this is DT / and this is DT. So in
polytropic efficiency of the turbine this is compressor polytropic efficiency of the turbine is
going to be DT/ / DT reverse of this okay

We know that PV by T / = constant right and P ɣVɣ is equal to let us say C1 T /ɣ or P ɣ-1 P V ɣ = C1 T
/ɣ
. This is also constant so we get P ɣ is equal to some constant C T /ɣ-1
= T ɣ or we can always
write DP / P in differential form is equal to ɣ / ɣ - 1 DT / DT/.

Now we have taken DT so DT can always be replace by efficiency polytropic efficiency so ɣ / ɣ

- 1 polytropic efficiency of compressor DT/ by sorry DT/ T /is going to be T /DT / DT/, DT/ /
DT/.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:36)

382
Now again we get if we integrate this right if we integrate this so you will get from 1 to 2
integrate from 1 to 2 now we will go for a full stage we are taken for a smalls stage now we will
integrate this now if we integrate a T2 / / T1 starting from T1 to T2 / is going to = P2 / P1 ɣ - 1/ ɣ.

This is small stage efficiency right or we can say that if you want to take polytropic efficiency
from here it is going to be ɣ - 1/ ɣ log or natural log let us state log P2 / P1 divided by log T2 by T1
right. And this will give this will give (ɣ - 1/ ɣ) × (N / N – 1) for this process 2 to 2 dash right
and once we get this we can say that (N – 1 / N) = (ɣ - 1/ ɣ) polytropic efficiency of the
compressor right.

So now instead of putting say T 2 / will not during this process exponent is not gamma during this
process only the exponent is gamma but if we know the polytropic efficiency we can always use
gamma we do not want to use suppose for another compressor for another compressor the
compression is like this two double dash right. So here we can have the pressure ratio as T 2 / / T1
= P2 / P1 (ɣ - 1/ ɣ) polytropic efficiency.

Similarly for the turbine for turbine we can write T suppose this is 3 and 4 and 4 /right. So 3, 4 / /
ɣ - 1/ ɣ
T3 as P4 / P3 here it will multiplied not to be divided. So that is the benefit of small scale
sorry small stage efficiency this efficiency this small stage efficiency is used for comparing the
performance for the different compressor.

383
Now we will try to find optimum pressure ratio for maximum power what should be the
optimum pressure ratio for some specific output in a gas turbine right.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:04)

Now T2 / T1 next one is optimum pressure ratio for specific output so T 2 / T1 = T3 / T4 = P2 / P1 ɣ -

1/ ɣ
it is well known for an adiabatic process 1 to 2 and 3 to 4. Now P 2 / P1 is pressure ratio and
this is ɣ - 1/ ɣ fine.

Now work of the compressor = H2/- H1 and that = CP T2 / - T1 or it is = CP T2 - T1 / efficiency of

the compressor. Work of the turbine = H 3 - H4 / = CP T3 - T4 / = CP T3 - T4 efficiency of the
turbine it will multiply. Network is going to be CP efficiency of the turbine - CP T2 - T1 efficiency
of the compressor that is the net work.

Or we can say it is CP efficiency of the turbine T3 (1 - T4 / T3) – (CP / efficiency of the

compressor) T1 (T2 / T1) - right now this is X this is X suppose this is X. So T 4 / T3 is 1 by X so =
TP efficiency of the turbine T3 (1 - 1 /X) right. –(CP /efficiency of the compressor) T 1 (T2 / T1)
it is X right. It is X - 1 this is net now we will differentiate this with respect to X and I will put it
zero as usual practice and then will find the value of X.

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So when we differentiate this DW by DX it is 0 = CP and T T 3 and this is 1 / X square this is X -
1 so 1 by X + X square this is T1 - CP efficiency of the compressor T1 and this is 1 derivative of
this is 1. So X = under root efficiency of the compressor or efficiency of the turbine T3 by T1
right. X is pressure ratio raise to power ɣ - 1/ ɣ.

ɣ - 1/ ɣ
So X is pressure ratio now from here we can find the optimum pressure ratio and that is
going to be equal to efficiency of the compressor efficiency of the turbine T 3 / T1 ɣ / 2ɣ-1. So when
a turbine is working between because normally the extreme temperatures are given T 1 and T3 are
given and we know the polytropic efficiency of the compressors and the turbine and gamma if
working fluid is air right.

Then we can always find the optimum value of pressure ratio for maximum output because if
you increase the pressure ratio the compressor work consumed by the compressor will increase at
the same time output will also increase or if reduce the pressure ratio the work consumed by the
compressor will reduce at the same time output will also reduce. So we have to strike the
optimum value between this and this is the optimum value for pressure ratio between the
temperature range of T3 and T1 right.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:47)

Now after this we will solve one example on gas turbine performance and this is about air at
temperature 15 degree centigrade enters the gas turbine plant working at pressure ratio 5.

385
(Refer Slide Time: 14:56)

So P2 /P1 is 5 we will note down values here first so P 2 /P1 = 5 and P1 is 15 + 273 = 288. Actually
it is 273.15 but we normally neglect one five because if we neglect it will have very small
barring on negligible barring on the results. So T1 is ok turbine inlet temperature is ok a turbine
inlet temperature is 800 degree centigrade so T3.

Let us draw the temperature entropy diagram also four so T 3 is are 800 degree centigrade so 800
+ 273 = 1073 kelvin and polytropic efficiencies small stage efficiency we have already derived a
derivation on that of compressor and turbine are .87 small stage efficiency assume C P 1.005 for
air and gases.

And calorific value of fuel is 42 mega joules per kg of fuel calculate overall efficiency, specific
output, fuel of air ratio and specific fuel combustion. So P2 / P1 is given here polytropic
efficiency is (N / N – 1) ɣ - 1/ ɣ from here we will get the value of N / N - 1 because polytropiic
efficiency is given 0.87 and gamma = 1.4 for air.

So we will get the polytrophic efficiency once we have the polytrophic efficiency then we can
get T2 // T1 = P2/ P1 N – 1/N that’s it. That is the benefit of having polytrophic efficiency. We do not
have to do otherwise stage efficiency than first of all you are calculating T 2 and then with the

386
help of this isentropic efficiency we are calculating T 2/ normal process was this is T2/ that
isentropic efficiency is T2 - T1 divided T2/ - T1.

So first calculate T2 and then from this equation calculate T2/ then with this small stage efficiency
we can directly calculate the value of T2/. Now T2 / T1 is already five it is given five T1 is already
given 288 and this will give the value of T2/as 488 point six kelvin right. For expansion process
for expansion and minus one upon N = ɣ - 1/ ɣ polytropic efficiency for turbines right and for
turbines also T4/ / T3 = P4 / P3 raise to power ɣ - 1/ ɣ polytropic efficiency.

From here P4 / P3 also known to us that is 1 / 5 right from here we will get the value of P 4 /and T4/
is 719.2 kelvin. Now we have the T3 we do not need P4 so we have T4/so we have the value of T1,
T2 /, T3 and T4/ right.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:10)

Now we can find easily calculate the network is network is CP T3 / T4/ - CP T2/ / T1 and we have
all these values T3 T4/ T2/ T1 CP given and this will give the network as 154 kilo joules per kg.
Similarly, we can find the Q also C P T3 - T2/ right if we take this ratio that will give the efficiency
that is work net divide by Q right and this is nothing but 154 / 587.5 it is 26.27.

A specific output per KG of now specific fuel consumption fuel consumption per kilowatt hour
and here per KG this much of heat is required we know that Q and this Q will come from how

387
much of fuel and how much energy is generated in kilowatt output is in kilowatt. So specify
consumption is kilogram of fuel consumption per Kilowatt hour of power generation right. This
is how we can calculate the specific fuel consumption in this case.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:01)

Now we will take another problem on the gas turbines that is an open cycle gas turbines plant
operate with the pressure ratio on of 4.5. We will quickly solve this problem an open cycle gas
turbine plant operates to the pressure ratio of 4.5 while using 82 kg per minute of air and 1 kg per
minute of fuel right.

So flue gases will be sum of this 83.4 the net output of the plant is 200 kilowatt when 230
kilowatt is needed to drive the compressor air enters the compressor.
(Refer Side Time: 21:37)

388
So let us first draw the cycle on temperature entropy diagram air enters the compressor at 100
bar and 15 degree centigrade. So T1 is 15 + 273 = 288 kelvin and P1 is 100 bar. So there is a
small correction the pressure is not 100 bar it is 1 bar so I made necessary correction the pressure
is it is close to atmospheric pressure.

So the air enters compressor one bar this is 1 bar so P 1 = hundred kilopascal ok and air and the
gases enters the turbine at 765 so T3 is 765 degree centigrade. So first of all we will calculate T 2
= T1 P2 / P1 (ɣ - 1/ ɣ) and the pressure ratio is 4.5. So T1 is 2884.5, (1.4 – 1) / 1.4 and this T 2 is 442.6
kelvin.

/
Now once we have T2 we can calculate the value of T2 that is isentropic efficiency of
compressor is this is T2 / T2 - T1 / T2 / - T1 or T2 / = T1 + T2 - T1 / isentropic efficiency of the
compressor. Now we have the value of T 1 and T2 and this will give us the value of T 2 as now but
we do not have compressor efficiency.

Now so we need calculate the isentropic efficiency of the compressor we do not have isentropic
efficiency of the compressor. Now this can be I will found out by taking work by the compressor
work of the compressor is 230 kilowatt and that is equal to mass of the air specific heat of the air
(T2 - T1)/ efficiency of the compressor and mechanical efficiency of the compressor because

389
mechanical efficiency is also given the mechanical efficiency of both compressor and turbine are
0.9.

This mechanical efficiency is not isentropic efficiency so we should not get confused this
mechanical efficiency with isentropic efficiency. So this is going to be expression for power in
the compressor this is mass of the air specific heat ideal temperature rise divided by from here
we will get efficiency of the isentropic efficiency of the compressor right. Mechanical efficiency
is given here .98 so from here we will get isentropic efficiency of the compressor.

And this is going to be 94.21% right. Now first part we have completed isentropic efficiency of
the compressor now we have to have to find isentropic efficiency of the turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:46)

Now for the turbine output turbine output is 200 + 230 right and this is equal to mechanical
efficiency mass of the gas specific heat of the gas T3 - T4 isentropic efficiency of the turbine right
and this is 430 mechanical efficiencies 98 percent is given mass of the gas is 82 + 1.4. So 82 +
1.4 this is 83.4 kg right and specific heat of the gas is also given 1.128 1.128 Kilo joules per kg
kelvin.

390
 (n-1)/n
T3 and T4 we have already calculated T4 we have not calculated so T4 is going to be T3 is
given here. So T3 by T4 = pressure ratio is 4.5 and (N -1/N) . So T 4 is T3 is 765 / 4.5 (n-1)/n is 1.34.
So .34 / 1.34 this will give the T4 as 708.7 kelvin.

This is 765 + 273 this is 765 degree centigrade ok 273 right. And this will give T 4 as 708.7
kelvin now T3 /T4 now once we have value of T4 right. We can get the value of efficiency of the
turbine from this equation now efficiency of the turbine is here is 85%.

So isentropic efficiency of the compressor is there and isentropic turbine efficiency are
calculated now overall efficiency of the plant for overall efficiency output is with us we need to
know the input.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:40)

Now input is Q = mCP GT3 - mA CP A T2 / right CPG is given in the numerical that is 1.128. Mass
of gas is 83.4 T3 we can take from here 765 + 273 hundred and 38 mass of the air 862 C P A is
1.005 and T2 / is so T2 / we have already calculated this will give Q = 793.6 kilo watt right.

In order to find the overall efficiency, the net output net output is 200 kilowatt divided by the
heat supplied 793.6 kilowatt multiplied by 100 and this will give the overall efficiency as 25.2%
that is all for today from next class we will continue with the modification in gas turbine.

391
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 07
Lecture No #33
Gas Turbine Cycle – Modifications

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we will discuss
about the modifications in a gas turbine cycle inorder to improve the efficiency or output of
the cycle it is not often decided to improve the efficiency of the turbine. Sometimes it is
decided to have high output of the turbine may be sacrifice of some part of the efficiency of
the turbine. So we will discuss both the things.

So means of improving the efficiency and the output they are four methods through which we
can improve or the combination of these methods through which we can improve the
efficiency and output of the turbine the one is open cycle with regeneration open cycle with
regained open cycle with intercooling effect of modifications.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:10)

We will discuss later on but these three processes whether we can also use for improving the
performance desired the performance of gas turbine cycle we will start with regeneration.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:21)

392
Now if i draw the temperature entropy diagram of a gas turbine cycle state 1 to state 2 now
two to three heating takes place. We are taking state three now three to four expansion takes
place right and in the open cycle gas turbine this is temperature and this is entropy in an open
cycle gas turbine the gases emerging from the turbine are send to the surroundings in the
open cycle gas turbine.

Air is sucked into the system from the surrounding fresh air it is compressed and then heat is
added in the combustion chamber and the then the fuel gases they expand in the turbine and
exhaust of turbine is send to the surroundings but here the gases which are leaving the turbine
are at very high temperature. If you compare the temperature of compressed gas and this is
wastage of heat now if this gas can be used for heating the outlet of the compressor or the gas
emerging from the compressor we can save some amount of energy.

Right if i show you the arrangement of compressor and turbine on the shaft. It is depicted like
this threre is a compressor air is sent from the surroundings and air is discharged then air goes
to the combustion chamber where fuel is injected from the combustion chamber and this is
state 2 and after the combustion chamber the temperature is increased to state 3 and then it
goes to the turbine and state four is here now i want to heat the gas available at state 2 at the
exhaust of this gas turbine.

So this exhaust is passed through a heat exchanger regenerator so heat exchange arrangement
is made in a regenerator right and this air emerging from the compressor is heated up to the
temperature five. So after state 4 it passes through the gas exchanger and state 6 is attained

393
now temperature of state 4 = temperature of state 5 the hot gas is the counter flow heat
exchanger.

So the gases entering from this side hot side the temperature of hot fluid entering the
exchanger in ideal case it can become the temperature of cold fluid leaving the heat
exchanger but in actual practice this does not happen in actual practice this is a heat exchange
regenerator is a heat exchanger of gas to gas type of heat exchanger in gas to gas heat
exchanger.

The effectiveness is very low the effectiveness of this heat exchanger is 0.75 the effectiveness
of heat exchanger is actual heat transfer the actual get transfer let us say we are not getting 5
we get 5 /so actual heat transfer is from T2 / to sorry T5 /to T2 / so CP T5 / – T2 / and maximum
possible heat transfer that is CP.

T4 - T2 / that is the maximum possible heat transfer and this is gives the actual heat transfer
and this for the realizing this effectiveness = 0.75 large surface area required because it is air
to air heat exchanger. So overall heat transfer coefficient is very low so overall heat transfer
is Q = UA LMTD. So U is low high value of area has to be taken now we will write
expression for thermal efficiency when regeneration is present in turbine now for ideal
processes.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:21)

Turbine efficiency is net work output that is T 3 – T4 this is turbine output minus compressor
input T2 - T1 ×CP this is CP this is in fact this is H 3 - H4- H2 - H1 this expression we have taken

394
CP ∆ T right and divided by heat transfer in the process that is now C P T3 - T4 T3 - T4 because
T4 = T5.

Here we are considering all ideal processes we are not considering any irreversibility here so
T 3 – T4 so thermal efficiency is T3 - T4 because CP and CP will be cancelled out minus T 2 - T1 /
( T3 – T1) and that will give 1 - T2 – T1 / (T 3 – T1) now again T2 / T1 = this is P2 and this is P1
= P2 / P1 ɣ-1/ɣ.

Because these processes are adiabetic processes = T3/ T4 right so T2 / T1 -1 = T3 / T4 – 1, T2 –

T1 / T1 = T3 – T4 / T4 now T2 – T1 / T 3 – T4 if you are using this equation you will be getting
1 -T1 / T4 or = 1- T2 by T3 and either of this two we can take.

Now we have come to the final expression thermal efficiency = 1 - T2/ T 3 right now we can
do further manipulation 1 - T2 / T1 into T1/ T3 right or we can say pressure ratio now this T 2 by
T1 can also be taken as CT and this T 1 / T3 can be taken as T maximum temperature ratio
because T1 is the lowest temperature and T3 is the highest temperature right.

So thermal efficiency can also be expressed in terms of CT divided by this is not T max
actually this is 1 by T max because T max is T 3 / T1 ok. So this is divided by T max once CT
= 1 suppose in a case CT = 1 there is no compression or no energy spent in the compression
in that case thermal efficiency is 1-1 / T max that is Carnot efficiency.

Right and when CT = this is maximum temperature ratio this is T max = CT square and then
we can have thermal efficiency = 1 -1 upon CT that is simple gas turbine the efficiency of the
simple gas turbine this is efficiency of the Carnot cycle working between temperature range
this and this right so this is one way of increasing the performance of a gas turbine that is by
regeneration now output of the turbine can also be increased by using reheat cycle that is
open cycle with reheat.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:44)

395
In case of reheat as we have done in case of steam turbine that i will draw it again in
temperature and entropy state 1 to state 2 that is compression 2 to 3 as heat addition now 3 to
4 expansion in high pressure turbine then again reheating up to temperature T 3 this is
temperature 5 = temperature 3 and then expansion at 6 this is known as reheat cycle because
expansion is taking place in two stages.

If we draw if we wish to draw the schematic of this then the schematic is going to be like this
a compressor at state 1 the air is sucked in the compressor the air is compressed to state 2
then it goes to the combustion chamber then we get state three at the exhaust of the
combustion chamber then expansion takes place inside they are all on a single shaft
expansion takes place in a high pressure turbine.

Now this is state 4 then there is again combustion chamber where again heat is added 4 to 5
and we get state 5 and 5 to 6 expansion again it takes inside a turbine 5 to 6 the arrangement
is like this right so in this case this reheat cycle does not increase efficiency in gas turbines it
does not increase efficiency because heat is added at two stages yes the symbol of this
compressor has to be change.

Here it has to be like this compressor this is the high pressure turbine and this is the low
pressure turbine now output is in two stages enthalpy at 3 - enthalpy at 4 enthalpy at 4 -
enthalpy at 5 now if you want to have thermal efficiency of the cycle in that case the net
output is H 3 – H4 + H5 – H6 – H2 – H1 / H3 –H2 + H5 – H4.

396
This is going to be the thermal efficiency of this turbine now the question arises to what
pressure this expansion takes place so the output is max. suppose the expansion takes place
up to here then reheat will go suppose expansion does not takes place up to state four it takes
up to here so the cycle will be reheated the expansion will be like this if the expansion takes
place further expansion takes place and the cycle is going to be like this right.

So under which case the output is going to be the maximum now in order to find this first of
all we will write the equation for the output output of the turbine output of the turbine can be
taken from here this is the output of the turbine because anyway this is going to remain fixed
H2 – H1. So output of the turbine is work of the turbine is H 3 - H4 + H5 - H6 that is CP T3 - T4 +
CP T5 - T6 right.

Now CP T3 1 – T4 / T3 + CP T5 1 – T6 / T5 now this is pressure 1 this is pressure 2 and at state 5

we can takes pressure X some pressure X now work of the turbine again = C P T3 1 - T4 / T3 it
means 1 - PX / P3 ɣ-1/ ɣ ok and + CP T5 1 - T6 / T5 it means P3 is nothing by P1 / P2 only this is
P2.

Sorry this is P2 this is P1 right so pressure is pressure raise from P 1 to P2 ok so it is T6 / T7 so

ɣ-1/ ɣ
T6 / T7 is P1 by P X now this for the sake of convenience. We take this as A constant A
because this is constant right once we consider this as the work of the turbine can be written
as CP T3 1 - PX / P2 raise to power PA + CPT5 1 - P1 / P X A.

We have to find the optimum value of PX optimum means for which the output is maximum
so we differentiate work of the turbine with respect to DTX when differentiation take place
then CP T3 ok here T3 = T5 so we can always take T3 1- A P X A - 1 P2 -A
right + CPT3 1 – T1A
TX to power - A.

Sorry 1 PX to power - A 1 + A PX to power 1 A - 1 because this P X raise to power - A - A

become + A PX to power - A - 1 this is P X and P1 raise to power A . Right now this is going to
be = 0 this is going to be = 0 then the final expression will be like this 1 - A P X raise to power
A - 1 P2 - A + 1.

Say this one will not be there when we differentiate this one will also disappear A remains
the constant so it is - A PX raise to power A - 1 P2 raise to power A + A PX raise to power - A

397
- 1 and P1 raise to power A right and this is going to be = 0 and then we get PX raise to power
A - 1 P2 raise to power - A = PX raise to power - A.

-1 P1 raise to power A this gives PX raise to power A – 1+ A + 1 = P1 raise to power A and

P2 raise to power A and this will be cancelled out. So PX 2 A is going to be = P1 A and P2 A or

PX is Type equation here. and the pressure ratio is 4 so this pressure ratio has to be 2 and
this pressure ratio has to be 2 or pressure ratio is 9 then this pressure ratio has to be 3 and this
pressure ratio has to be 3 right.

So this is how we can get the intermediate pressure for maximum output in a reheat cycle
now in addition to this we can do intercooling also cycle intercooling now in cycle
intercooling instead of reheating while compressing the work is saved while compressing
now state 1 to instead of going from directly from state 1 to state 2 the fluid is compressed.

Let us say from the state 1 to state 7 right and then it is cooled again to state 8 and then 8 to
state 2 so it is something like this that compression is done in two stages that is known as
open cycle inter cooling in intercooling.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:03)

From there is an intermediate state so state 1 to state 7 the compression takes place then the
air is cooled to state 8 temperature of 8 in ideal case temperature at 8 = temperature at 1 and
then again compression takes place 8 to 9 right and if you want to find the optimum pressure
for this same methods we will use and then we will get optimum pressure or PX = under root.

398
Again P1 and P2 product of P1 and P2 but intercooling what happens in intercooling when
we do intercooling the heat addition in increases work input in the compressor is reduced that
is the benefit and what we are losing we are losing the heat this much of heat which has to be
additionally added in the combustion chamber right so this is about and we can have a
combination also we can have a cycle.

Which has intercooling as well as reheating arrangement and it can also have an arrangement
of regeneration that is also possible so depending upon the requirement combination of all
these three can be used in order to improve the performance of the cycle or in order to
improve the output of the cycle.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:07)

Now if we compare with respect to the efficiency and the output efficiency of the turbine and
output of the turbine and a typical case pressure ratio = 4 is taken maximum temperature 864
Kelvin is taken T1 is 288 Kelvin and P1 = hundred kilo Pascal right. If we compare the
performance then regeneration can improve the performance by 50 % output it will not affect
the output right but it can increase the efficiency by 50 % intercooling.

Intercooling will reduce the efficiency by 6.5% but improve the output 10.2% why it is
improving the output because the work spent or the energy spent in compressing the gas is
reduced reheat it reduces the efficiency 10.4 % but improves the output up to 24.5% if i mean
expansion takes place in both the first stage expansion takes place at optimum pressure.

399
Then again expansion takes place to the lower pressure now reheat plus regeneration if we
combine these two together then efficiency can increase up to 66.7 % and work 24.5 %. So if
we use regeneration efficiency and the work output both can increase if we combine reheat
and regeneration intercooling and regeneration it is 68 % and 10.2 %.

Right as reheat plus intercooling will reduce the efficiency 18.2 % and 34.7 % and these
values are for particular this type of input we can have a table for different type inputs and
depending upon the requirement we can choose the process modification process which can
improve the performance of gas turbine that is all for today thank you very much.

400
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 07
Lecture No # 34
Problem Solving (Gas Turbine Cycle)

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems and this session will
solve certain numericals.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:35)

But before start solving numerical I must tell you that the gas turbines are we amply discuss the
open gas turbines rankine cycle gas turbines. There are closed cycle gas turbines also and there
are semi closed type also or semi open.

Now in open type of gas turbine the compressor sucks air from the surroundings and this air
participates in combustion in the combustion chamber hot flue gases emerging from the
combustion chamber they go to the turbine expansion takes place output is attained and exhaust
of the turbine is sent to the atmosphere or used for regeneration.

In close cycle gas turbine the entire circuit is closed it means if we start from this temperature
entropy diagram state 1 to three and four the entire cycle is closed cycle no fresh air is suck into

401
the system in the combustion chamber the air is used other than the air in the cycle outside is
used for burning the fuel in this case in such type of system we can use low grade type of fuel
also and the entire system can work on relatively high pressure this pressure at stage 1 need to be
specific pressure it can be let us say 2 bar or 200 kilopascal.

So the entire cycle will shift in upward direction and it is going to be for the same output we can
have a compact cycle it has a certain advantages and disadvantages. First advantage is because
the cycle can operate on high pressure side so the thermal efficiency is high or we can design a
cycle for high thermal efficiency when thermal efficiency is high it means for the same power
output the size of the plant will reduce the smaller size either we can say thermal efficiency is
high if we are maintaining the same output then we can go for a smaller turbine.

For this close cycle gas turbine part load efficiency is also very good I mean it is better than the
open cycle gas turbine. If you compare the part load efficiency it is a efficiency and the load
every power generating machine is designed for a particular load right at a particular load
efficiency may be high but the moment you change the load efficiency may not the reduction or
in efficiency may not be significant right.

But in turbo machines this happens with the reciprocating machines like IC engines 2 stroke or
four stroke engines but in turbo machines this curve is like this it is almost vertical. So that the
moment you deviate from the design condition the detoriation in the efficiency is very fast but if
you compare the this known as design performance but if you compare the but if you compare
the off design performance of flow cycle gas turbine and open gas turbine.

The off design performance of close cycle gas turbine is greater than that of total cycle gas
turbine and in because the cycle is close. So working medium is not lost there is no loss in
working medium right for burning in the burning the flue in the combustion chamber external air
is used Reynolds number is high. In during the cycle right and in this cycle no contamination
takes place.

402
So due to contamination loss in energy due to contamination that is also avoided in closed cycle
in the closed cycle in gas turbines and of course we can use inexpensive fuel for flow cycle gas
turbines they are certain disadvantages also disadvantages it is a dependent system because
cooling from process state 1 four to state 1 has to be done in a condenser.

So it is a dependent system it is I mean it is a complex system also it is not as simple as the open
cycle gas turbine it is a complex system and cost wise also cost of low cycle gas turbines is high
right.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:28)

Now after this we will solve certain numerical on gas turbines this is the first one which states
that a gas turbine plant consist of 1 turbine per compressor drive and another for output both are
having their own combustion chamber which are served by air directly from compressor. Air
enters the compressor at 100 kilopascal and 15 oC and its compressed with the isentropic
efficiency 0.76.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:01)

403
So we start let us start drawing the temperature cycle on temperature entropy diagram so state 1
to state 2 and it has certain isentropic efficiency. So definitely the compression is not isentropic
so we will be getting 2 / air enters the compressor at 100 kilopascal. So P1 = here we will write
100 kilopascal and T1 is 15 so 15 + 273 288 kelvin.

Isentropic efficiency is 0.76 gas inlet temperature and pressure both turbines are 680 oC. So this
is gas inlet temperature this is T3 and T3 is 680 oC + 273 is going to be 3953 kelvin or to write
here T3 = 680 + 273 = 953 kelvin.

And 500 kilopascal so P2 is 500 kilopascal the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 86 % so
isentropic of is 0.86 this is isentropic efficiency of the compressor. The mass flow rate of the air
at the compressor inlet is 23 kg per second mass flow rate is 23 kg per second. The calorific
value of fuel is 42 mega joules per kg.

So CV is 42 mega joules per kg calculate the output of the plant and thermal efficiency as
assuming CP and air CP = 1.005 kilo joules per kg kelvin and gamma is 1.4 for air is C P for gas is
different so this is CP for air CP for gas is 1.128 kilojoules per kg kelvin and gamma is 1.34 so
these are the data cycle is this and the particular thing about this numerical is that it has 2
turbines both are having their own combustion chamber which are served by the air directly from
the compressor.

404
So compressor air is divided into two parts it goes into two different combustion chambers and
combustion takes place the gas inlet temperature and pressure in both turbines is also same. So
we will start with finding out the temperature at salient points P4 because it has also certain
efficiency this is T4 /. So the numerical are related with the gas turbines first thing you should do
you should try to find temperatures at all the places.

Once we have the values of temperatures if specific heat is normally given if the numerical they
specific heat of the gas is not given you can take the specific heat of the air and that is how you
can find the total energy or enthalpy in that place and enthalpy difference can be calculated right.
So first of all because we will find the temperature of air at state 2 so 2 /T sorry T2 /T1 = P2 / P1 ɣ-1/
ɣ
.

So ɣ is 1.4 so ɣ - 1 by 4 ɣ 1. and 4 – 1.4 it is 0.4 / 1 by 1.4, 1.3, 1.5 0.286 so directly we can use
0.286
0.286 instead of writing this. So T2 = T1 is 288 P2 /P1 now P2 is 500 T1 is 100 and this case
value of T2 as 456.34 kelvin right.

Now once we have the value of T2 we can write here T2 = 456.34 kelvin again once we have the
value of T2 then T2 - T1 / T2 / - T1 = efficiency 0.76.

Now T2 / = T1 + T2 - T1 / efficiency of this 0.76 this is efficiency of the compressor right and then
is T1 is 288 + T2 is we have calculated 456.34 - 288 / 0.76 and this gives the value of T 2 / as 509.5
kelvin. So T2 / = 509.5 kelvin now we have value of T2 we have value of T2 /.

Now T3 is 953 kelvin it is already with us now T3 is with us we can easily find the value of T 4
because all these values will be required later on.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:43)

405
So T4 T3 / T4 = P4 / P1 0.286 instead of writing ɣ - 1 over ɣ and rating .286. Now T 4 is T3 / P2 /P1 T3
= how much 953 so we will directly write 953 kelvin and P 2 / P1 is 500 by 100 0.286 and this gives
the values of T4 as 633.56 kelvin.

So T3 T4 633.56 kelvin ok now T4/ so T4/ sorry T3 - T4/ divide / T3 - T4 is efficiency of turbine
efficiency of turbine is given here it is 0.86. So T 4/ = T3 - efficiency of the turbine T3 - T4 and that
is T3 is 953 kelvin. So 953 – 0.86, 953 - T4 is 633.56 and this gives the value of T4/ is 678.28
kelvin.

So T3, T4, T4/ is 668.2 eight kelvin now we have temperatures at all salient points right. Now after
this we will calculate work consumed by the compressor because compressor is providing air for
both the turbines and each turbine is having its own combustion chamber.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:05)

406
So work of the compressor is C P T2 / - T1 right now T2 / is 509.5. So 1.005, 509.9 - T 1 is 288 right.
So work of the compressor is 222.6 kilo joules per KG this is work of the compressor. Now work
of the turbine each turbine because both are the turbines are having the maximum temperature
right.

So work of per kg per kg work for each turbine is same if you change the mass flow rate then
definitely we are going to have different work output. So per kg of gas work output is turbine is
CpG this is CpA T3 - T4/. CpG is given here 1.128 T3 is 953 and T 4/ is right 678.2 and then work of
the turbine is 309. 88 kilo joules per kg.

Now this turbine is used for running this compressor so this is specific work output mass of the
air in compressor = mass of the gas multiplied by specific work of the turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:09)

407
Now if we have to find the ratio of gases gas and air then mass of the gas divide by mass of the
air right = work of the compressor divide by work of the turbine. Work of the compressor we
already calculated 222.6 kilo joules per kg right work of the turbine is 309.88 or 309.9. So the
ratio of mass of the gas and mass of the air is 0.7183 kg.

It means this ratio is existing for so if we are using now it means 1 kg of air which is sucked into
the compressor is burned in the combustion chamber right some mass of the fuel is added
suppose X mass of fuel is added. So 1 + X out of that this much of flue gases are used in 1
turbine to meet the energy expand spent energy spent in compressing the gas.

Now this 1 kg of air and X kg of fuel - this will give the output will be used for output turbine
not give the output it will give for output turbine.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:45)

408
So now mathematically we can write so this mg by ma will write somewhere mg by m a = 0.7183
because we will be requiring this information later on. Now ma + mf mass of the air + mas of
fuel burnt here H3 - ma H2 / combined in for the turbines we have considered this m f for both the
combustion chambers right = mass of the fuel into calorific value of the fuel right.

And if you are kg using add is 1 because we want find how much fuel is burnt for 1 kg of air. So
if we take 1 kg of air then mf H3 - H2 / = mf CV right now H3 again 1 + mf cpg P3 - cpa T2 / = mf into
42000 because the calorific value is given in mega joules. So this mega joules it has to be
converted into the kilo joules because we are dealing in Kilo joules.

Now T3 is with us T3 is 953 kelvin CpG is also with us 1.128 CpA specific heat of air is 1 .005 T2 /
T2 / we have already calculated 509.5 kelvin now only known is mass of fuel. So mass of the fuel
we are getting here from here we will be getting the mass of the fuel as 0.0137 five kg of fuel per
kg of air mass of fuel this much of mass of the fuel is used for 1 kg of air.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:20)

409
It means the total mass of the flue gases is total mass of the flue gases is 1 + m f that is 1 +
1.01375 this is the total mass kg per kg of air this is the total mass of the flue gases if we are
compressing 1 kg of air right but out of this is used for running the turbine which is driving the
compressor. So difference of these 2 mass of flue gases will be available for power generation.

So – 0.7183 will be used for output so MO = 0.2954 kg per Kg of air is it clear. First of all here
calculated how much mass of fuel will be burnt for 1 kg of air part of this flue gases this much is
used for running the turbine which is driving the compressor rest of the flue gases will be used
for power generation. So this is the amount of flue gases which are available for power
generation when 1 kg of air is in circulation.

So power output is going to be 0.2954 now the mass of the air circulated in 23 kg per second
into 23 into work output of the turbine. So work of the 2 turbine is 309.88 we have calculated
earlier we have calculated earlier for work output of the turbine. So power output is 2105.38 kilo
watt right.

And thermal efficiency thermal efficiency = power output 2105.38 divided by heat supplied. The
heat supplied is 1.01375 this is mass of the fuel burnt here we will use only mass of the fuel
burnt and calorific value of the fuel. This is the amount of heat liberated if we take this ratio
multiplied by 100 and that will give 15.85 % that is the thermal efficiency of system ok.

410
(Refer Slide Time: 24:00)

Now after this we will take up another numerical which is based on reheat cycle. Now reheat the
problem statement that states in a compound gas turbine air from compressor passes through heat
exchanger for regeneration heated by the exhaust gases from the low pressure turbine and then
into high pressure combustion chamber.

The exhaust gases for high pressure turbine passes through a low pressure combustion chamber
to low pressure turbine which is coupled to the external load means this problem there is reheat
and regeneration right.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:39)

411
So if we draw the temperature entropy diagram for every problem this temperature entropy
diagram has to be drawn. So now state 1 to state 2 and this efficiency also this HP and LP
turbines are .86 and .84 and .8 respectively okay. So this has certain efficiency we will get 2 dash
so isentropic efficiency of compressor HP turbine LP turbine are given .86, .84 and .8
respectively.

The mechanical efficiency is also given right so output will always multiplied by the mechanical
efficiency that is the actual output will be getting right. So mechanical efficiency is the output
available at rotor shaft divided by the output generated in the turbine. So turbine output and
output available at the rotor shaft that ratio will give us the mechanical efficiency is .92.

In the heat exchanger 75% heat is available so effectiveness 75 % the temperature of gas entering
HP and LP turbine is 6 and this temperature is different 6625 degree centigrade respectively. The
atmospheric temperature and pressure 15 and 100 kilopascal CP for air and gas both are same
compression ratio 4. So single compression ratio P2 / P1 = 4.

Now air is heated upto this .3 sorry this is three will get from regeneration so we will write 4. So
it is 4 from 4 it is expanded to 5 again this is 5 / the from 5 / to 6 sorry 5 to 5 / and then it is again
reheated state 6 and 6 to 7 and then 7 / ok. And after 7 this it should be heated upto three this is
T3 state 3 but it is heated upto T3 /only ideal temperature is 3.

If the regeneration is perfect this is regeneration has certain effectiveness it is it is only .75. So it
will go upto three dash only now this is the temperature entropy diagram for entire process. Now
first of all as we have done earlier in array numerical we will find the temperature at all the
states.

So T2 quickly we will go for this T2 = 2 884 raise to power 0.286 here .286 is again ɣ - 1 /ɣthat is
1.4 - 1 / 1.4, .4 divided by 1.4, 1.3, .5 and 0.286 okay. So this gives T 2 = 428 kelvin now again T2
- T1 / T2 / - T1 = efficiency of the compressor is .86.

412
Efficiency of the compressor is .86 right now T 2 is with us T2 / is not known from here we will
get the T2 / and the T2 / is 450.79 kelvin of 450.8 kelvin right. And it is easy to do I mean we
know the value of T2 we know the value of T1 and this is known to us and we can find the value
of T2 /.

Now 1 turbine is used for running the compressor so T 4 – T5 / CP right and it used to run the
compressor CP T2 / - T1. But here this is the turbine output and compressor is coupled with shaft
so turbine output has now again it has mechanical efficiency of 92% .92. So this will be
multiplied by mechanical efficiency so 0.9, 92, 1.0 because it is same for both the cases.

T4 is T4 is how much it is given here maximum temperature T4 is 600 oC so 873 kelvin - P5 /=

1.005 × T2 / is 450.79 - 288 from here we will get the value of T5 /. So T5 / is 756.05 kelvin.

Now we have but do not know the pressure at this P X this PX is known to us but we know the HP
turbine isentropic efficiency HP turbine is 0.84 that is T4 - T5 / divide by T4 - T5. Now here we
have the value of T4 we have the value of T5 / we can find the value of T5 now the T5 is 722.35
kelvin. Once we have value of T5 we have value of T4 than T4 / T5 = P2 / PX ɣ - 1 /ɣ right.

Now ɣ - 1 /ɣ is known to us P 2 we know it is P2 /P1 is 400 so at P1 is 100 kilopascal it is given

here P1 is 100 kilopascal so P2 is 400 kilopascal right. Now from here T4 and T 5 are also known
to us we can find the PX and the PX is 163.9 kilopascal. Now here we have the value of pressure
and temperature here and this is 7 / right.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:39)

413
Now we can find the value of T 7 because T6 / T7 again = PX / P1 ɣ-1/ɣ. Now we have value of T6 is
625 + 273 = 898 kelvin right. So P6 is with us T7 we have to find out PX is with us P1 with us this
is also with us we know all this values.

So T7 is 779.7 kelvin right since we have value of T7 we can easily calculate the value of T7 /.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:27)

T7 /- T6 / T7 - T6 = isentropic efficiency of low pressure turbine that is .8. Now from here we will
get the value of T7 other values are known. So T 7 /is coming 803.33 kelvin. Now we have
temperature at all salient points and now we can calculate the energy interaction.

414
One thing is remaining that temperature is three dash because this temperature will required to
find how much heat is added in this process.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:10)

So effectiveness of regeneration is given that is 0.75 and that = T 3 /- T2 /divided by T7 /- T2 / T7 /

this is temperature of exhaust gases and this is the exhaust of the compressor. This is the
maximum possible temperature difference or maximum possible heat transfer and this is actual
right. So here these values are known this is known this is known T3 /we can get from here and T3
/
is 715.19 kelvin.

Now we have temperatures at all salient points right now heat transfer Q per kg of air = Cp (T4 –
T3 /) + Cp T6 – T5 /. This is the amount of heat transfer we have the value of all these values with
us this will give us the heat transfer of 361.56 kilo joules per Kg right. Will be putting T 4 T3 / T6
T5 /from here and we will be getting this is the amount of heat liberated by burning the fuel in
cumulatively in these 2 processes main heating into combustion chamber and then reheating in
another combustion chamber.

And work output is Cp T6 - T7 /right and we have the value of T6 and T7 also and this will give
the work output as 95.14 kilo joules per Kg right. And then we will take the ratio W by Q and W
by Q multiplied by 100 will give us the thermal efficiency and which is 26.31% right. So this

415
numerical involve the reheating in the cycle and as well as regeneration of the cycle that is all for
today from the next class we will start with centrifugal compressors.

416
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No # 07
Lecture No # 35
Centrifugal Compressors

I welcome you all in this course on the steam and gas power systems, today we will discuss the
centrifugal compressors. The compressed air in mechanical engineering applications is often
required and centrifugal compressors are used in the gas turbines so it is imperative to discuss
them here.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

We will start with the working principle of centrifugal compressors then we will draw velocity
diagram, how much work has to be supplied to the centrifugal compressor will drive the formula
for that.

There is a phenomena slip factor we will discuss the slip factor pressure rise in a centrifugal
compressor and we will do one worked example as I said earlier the compressed air is required in
variety of mechanical engineering applications.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:22)

417
There are two types of compressors, one is reciprocating compressor, three types in fact
reciprocating compressor they are known as positive displacement compressors. And another
type is centrifugal compressors and third one is axial flow compressors and these are known as
dynamic.

The positive displacement compressors are used where high pressure ratio is required, because
but the mass flow rate is not very high in reciprocating compressors, because they work on slider
crank mechanism, they work on, there is a slider crank mechanism as in the case of IC engines.

So, there is a crankshaft connecting rod and there is a piston which does to and fro motion in a
cylinder and at the end or at the head there are valves. If I draw a vertical diagram of a vertical
compressor, so head is having two valves, they intermittently open and discharge the gas or air to
the supply pipe line. And if I draw the pressure and the velocity, sorry pressure and volume, PV
diagram for a reciprocating compressor.

It is going to be like this, from state 1 to state 2 then the state 3. Now here the volume at state
three is shown as zero but practically it is not possible. I mean there has to be some clearance
between the top dead center within the top dead center and the cylinder head, otherwise breakage
may take place or some hearing may take place. So instead of having volume at three, zero, some
volume is left three, that is known as clearance volume right and since clearance volume is there.

418
This is at the end of the stroke right, so the process starts like this, the piston starts moving in
upward direction, both the valves are closed, so it a closed system. So, process one to two takes
place in a closed system, the process two to three when piston has travelled certain distance now
initially both the valves are closed one of the valve, exhaust valve will open and pressure will be
relieved sorry the gas will be released from the piston.

It is a constant pressure process, for open system right. So, in fact the volume is reducing and in
fact the mass flow rate is taking place across the system that is why the volume is reducing. So,
up to this is the entire stroke one, two, three, so part of the stroke the system remains the closed
system and the part of the stroke the system becomes the open system at the top dead center, the
outlet valve is closed and inlet valve is open.

But the pressure is high this gas available at state three is expended to state 4. And from state 4
the suction starts then inlet valve will be open, fresh air will come in, both the valve will close
then compression outlet valve will open the high pressure gas will leave the cylinder and then
outlet valve will be close, inlet valve will be open. Then there is the expansion of gas takes place
in return stroke.

Here the inlet valve will open and the air will be breathe into the cylinder. Now here in this case,
because it is a reciprocating machine working on the slider crank mechanism, we cannot go for
very high RPM, because this is not totally balanced. There are certain unbalanced forces in this
mechanism and if we go for very high RPM, unbalanced force will be very high. So, these types
of compressors are used where pressure ratio is very high, and mass flow rate is low mass flow
rate, high pressure ratio.

Our theme of these compressors is approximately 1000 RPM or 800 RPM or 1200 RPM. Now if
you take the centrifugal compressor, this is a rotor dynamic machine. It is a rotary compressor.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:31)

419
In a rotary compressor there is a shaft and impeller is fixed and there is housing. So there is no
unbalanced force so these type of compressors, they can go up to say 30,000 RPM, right. In
centrifugal compressors because I will explain you the mechanism later on there is an axial entry
of air and radial release. So along the shaft there is an axial, the air breathes into the compressor
in the axial direction and it leaves the compressed air leaves the compressor in radial direction.

So there is a change in direction. In axial flow compressor the flow is in only in axial direction,
right. Because there is no deviation in the direction so efficiency of the axial compressors is the
highest, followed by centrifugal compressors and the reciprocating compressors have low
efficiencies. So a normally reciprocating compressors they have efficiency for the order of 75 to
80%.

It varies between 70 to 80%, 85 or it may go up to 85 %. But, these compressors have

efficiencies more than 90% or more than 90%. Now in centrifugal compressors, now we will
discuss in details about the centrifugal compressors. Now the elements of a centrifugal
compressor is first of all there is an inlet pipe which is connect, suppose there is shaft, right. First
of all I will draw the end view of centrifugal compressors.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:23)

420
It necessarily has one impeller that is very important part of a centrifugal compressor, it is a disc,
impeller is nothing but a disc. And it is disc is mounted on a shaft. Right. And it has vanes. The
number of vanes may differ it is 15 to 20 vanes and vanes are diverging passages, right. And
vanes are surrounded by the diffusers, because when the air enters, in axial direction. The
compressor is rotating in certain RPM with the help of a motor.

Because in compression external energy is required. External work is required, so a motor is

fixed so motor moves the compressor right, with a certain RPM right. And when the fluid enters
this impeller, I will draw the end diagram also, it is something like this. There is a housing inside
the housing there is impeller. And impeller is having the vanes, vanes I will draw with a different
color, impellers are having the vanes.

So when this disc is moving it can have entry for both the sides. The impeller can have entry
flow of here from both the sides. It can have entry from one side or it can have entry from both
the sides. Now this impeller, the air enters this impellers. So air has, it is already moving with
very high rotational speed this energy is imparted to air also starts moving with the high velocity.
Now if you look at the first law for open system.

First law for open system says DH + VDV + GDZ = 0 or H 2 - H1 + (V2 2 - V12 )/ 2 + GZ2 - Z 1 =
0. Right now when high velocity, this H 1 and H2 right, it is delta P by row, VDP. So the kinetic

421
energy is imparted to the gas, so physically if you look at a centrifugal compressor, the air is and
the coming in contact with the impeller and kinetic energy is imparted to the air right.

Now the energy, the kinetic energy from impeller is imparted to the air moves in outward
direction. Right, then this energy, kinetic energy is converted into the pressure energy in a
diffuser, so there are two types of diffuser one vane less diffuser and another is weight diffuser.
So when air enters the vane diffuser it is also a diverging section. When the air enters the vane
diffuser, the velocity is reduced and the pressure is increased.

And after the vane diffuser there is a volume casing of increasing the cross section, this is
increasing and at the end of the volume casing there is exit. So, in a nut shell initially the air is
sent into the compressor, kinetic energy is imparted by the impeller. Now this kinetic energy is
converted into the pressure energy in vaneless diffuser vane diffuser and volume casing and it
goes out of the system. Now if we draw the enthalpy entropy diagram for centrifugal
compressor.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:57)

Instead of temperature entropy if you draw it is more the same thing if you draw enthalpy
entropy or temperature entropy, enthalpy and entropy diagram for a centrifugal compressor. So
initially the air is sucked in, so air is available at state 1, it is sunk into the compressor, so the

422
pressure and the suction of the compressor is below the atmospheric pressure. Only then air can
be sucked in and it is not an isentropic process.

So, we can say the process is 1 to 2 or 0 to 1. This is entry to the compressor at reduced pressure.
Now in the impeller enthalpy is increased, right. Enthalpy is increased and the air enters with
certain relative velocity right. Now here in compressors machine is already moving with very
high velocity. So, relative velocity at inlet is higher than the relative velocity at the outlet in
turbine it is reversed.

So in turbines normally a relative velocity at outlet is greater than rate of velocity at inlet. But
here because work is being done on the fluid in turbines, the work is done by the fluid but here is
work is done on the fluid, so relative velocity is inlet is higher than the relative velocity at outlet
and that is where these passages are be diverging. So the relative velocity is reduced at the outlet
of impeller right.

And if you notice in turbines in axial flow turbines, we have considered us constant 𝛑 DN /DN
and is it is U = 𝛑DN, if it is enough RPM then it is sixty by DN / 60. But, here you can see it is
moving in a radial direction in turbines, it was moving in axial direction in parsons turbine or D
Laval turbine, it was moving in axial direction now the fluid is moving radial direction.

So peripheral velocity is also changing means the kinetic energy is also changing right. So it has
two component in impeller then, there is a change in relative velocity, relative kinetic energy
corresponding to relative velocity and there is a change in kinetic energy corresponding to
peripheral velocity these two components are here when the air leaves this impeller it has very
high kinetic energy.

Absolute velocity is very high. At inlet absolute velocity is not high, but at the exit with those
kinetic energy has been imparted to the air the kinetic energy is very high. So this kinetic energy
is converted into pressure energy in vaneless diffuser, so this is one, this is state 2 in vaneless
diffuser state 3 and this will be V 3, V2 2 - V3 2 / 2, then vane diffuser, similarly vane diffuser that
is 4 then V4 2 - V3 2 / 2, then in volute casing.

423
 2
Five so then it is V5 / 2 and finally the gas emerges from here. This is the enthalpy entropy
diagram for the moment of fluid in a centrifugal compressor. Now work, how much work, or
power will be consumed in running the compressor, so in order to find the energy consumed in
running the compressor we will have to draw the velocity diagram, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:07)

Now in this velocity diagram the vanes are radial, this is the easiest one when the vanes are
radial, this is impeller, and vanes are radial, they are like this. They are moving with certain
peripheral speed of omega or rotational speed the certain rotational speed it is moving and omega
R1 this is R1 and this is R2, so ω R1 will give U1 and ω R2 will give U2. So in this velocity diagram
the U will also change.

Now there is an axial entry that is like this and blades have peripheral velocity in this direction.
U, this is U. so relative velocity will be like this that is why this blade is curved at the bottom. So
that there is no shock entry, the fluid will slide over the surface. This is V, R 1, V1and this is also
velocity of flow and this is U 1 and this is blade inlet angle and this is nozzle inlet angle but that is
in 90 degree

As we call in turbines right, now if the discharge normally gas turbine the radial blade type of
because RPM is very high. So, that is why the radial vane type of centrifugal compressor is used.

424
Now at the outlet this is going to be the relative velocity, right. Because it is radial this is
peripheral velocity U2. And this is going to be the absolute velocity V2. Right, and this is α 2 and
this is β 2.

Now in this compressor at the entry there is no wirl component because power is calculated with
the will component only. So at the inlet there is no wind component at the outlet this is the wirl
component. So output is will, first of all we will drive the generalized equation and then we will
go for the specific case. Suppose inlet also there is a wirl component the log inlet velocity instead
of it is like this that is known as prewhirl.

We will discuss prewhirl later on then torque is VW 2 R2 – 1R1 and when we multiply torque with
omega that is VW2R2 - VW1 R1 ×ω that will give the output, right. And this is VW2 U2 - VW1 U1.
Here when the when there is a radial entry this is 0, it is VW 2 U2, now VW2 this is V2 cos α /2 is
also U2, so output is U2 2. If you know the peripheral velocity at the outlet will get the power
consumed or work and the mass flow rate because the impeller has certain width, right.

And the mass flow rate will always be calculated as 𝛑 B1 B1CF1 and ρ 1, because the density will
also change when the gas is compressed density will be also changed, this is the expression for
mass flow rate in a centrifugal compressor. Now if you take this generalized equation and we
consider these velocity diagrams.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:56)

425
Now, work is VW2 U2 - VW1 U1, now VR1 2 VR1 2= U1 2+ V1 2 - 2 UV1 cos α 1. That we have
already done, now VR2 2= U2 2 + V2 2- 2U V2 cosα2, right. Now V1 cos α 1 is VW1 and V2 cos α2
is VW2. Now if we rearrange these then we will get VW1 sorry VW2 U2 - VW1 U1 = VR1 2- VR2
2
/ 2 + U2 2 - U12 / 2 + V2 2 - V12 / 2.

Right, now this energy, this energy if you remember this h phi diagram this transmission takes
place inside the impeller, and this transmission of energy takes place inside the diffusers. Now
there is a term slip factor which is commonly used in case of centrifugal compressors.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:39)

426
The slip factor is when the vane suppose there is a curved vane moving in this direction in
leading direction the pressure is high, but in trailing direction the pressure is low and the break is
created, right. And because the number of vanes they are number of vanes they are numbers so
this side there is the negative pressure, this side there is a positive pressure. So instead of leaving
in this direction the fluid tends to leave in this direction with a certain angle.

So here instead of having a radial case, instead of having, leaving in vertical direction it leaves in
this direction. When fluid is leaving in this direction definitely because peripheral velocity is
constant our V2 component will change. And this will change the whirl component also or the
output will be reduced. So slip factor is denoted by mu and the values of slip factor is, it varies
between 0.93 or 0.95.

So the output is W = σμ U 2 2 then mu is this one and there is another phenomenon that is known
as prewhirl. Now, when the air is moving in the centrifugal compressor it is moving with a very
high velocity and it is likely in some of the cases it may exceed the sonic velocity or chocked
flow may take place in order to the moment it causes the sonic velocity then and they exit, right.
The shock will take place. The shock flow will take so in order to avoid that because in that case
that might damage the compressor also, it is not there thing to happen, so prewhirl is provided.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:51)

427
So if let us draw this ideal diagram this is VR 1 V1 and this is U1, right. So prewhirl is prewhirl is
sorry this is V1, so instead of radial entry this angle is change. When we change this angle then
relative velocity at the inlet is also change. Or relative velocity at the inlet is reduced. And that
avoids the chock flow inside the compressor which is not desirable. Now regarding the slip
factor this is μ it is the work done on the compressor that is VW 2 U2 right divided by work done
on the compressor when there are infinite number of vanes.

It is an imaginary situation when there are infinite number of vanes there is no slip. So when
there is no slip VW2 infinite U2 and this will give or this will be cancelled also slip ratio is VW 2 /
VW2 infinite. Now after this we will we will also calculate then pressurize in a centrifugal
compressor W. we know that the W is, cp T O2 / TO1 we are taking stagnation properties in the
dynamic compressors.

Stagnation properties are taken because kinetic energy of the gas is never neglected. So it is
always taken into the account that is why it stagnation properties are taken and the work is also
σμ U2 2, right. And there is a factor sigma which is known as power input factor to take into
account the losses and power input factor varies from 1.03 to 1.04.

So σμ U2 2 this is so this both are equal so T O2 / - TO1 = σμ U2 2 /CP right and once these values are
given we can find that PO2 / PO1 = 1 +σU, U2 is 6 sorry σμ U2 2divided by CP ɣ / ɣ - 1 by manipulation
we can find this 1. Because PO2 / PO1 = TO2 by TO1 ɣ / ɣ - 1.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:16)

428
Now we will solve a numerical on this a centrifugal compressor, so quickly we will solve this
numerical centrifugal compressor is running at 900 RPM sorry 9000 RPM delivers 10 meter
cube of free air. Free air means air available at atmospheric pressure and temperature, the air is
compressed from 100 kilopascal and 20 oC.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:40)

So let us take P1 = 100 kilopascal T1 is 273 + 20, 293 Kelvin, to the pressure ratio of 4. So R
pressure ratio is 4, with the isentropic efficiency 0.82. Blades are radial at the outlet of impeller
and the flow velocity is 62. So we have V F is 62 meters per second. Maybe assume throughout
constant the outer a radii of the impeller is twice the inner and the slip factor may be assumed as
0.9.

429
So, D2 or R2 by R1 or D2 / D1 =μ= 0.9. The blades are having coefficient the blades area
coefficient of 0.9 maybe assumed inlet calculate final temperature of air. So final temperature of
ɣ - 1 / ɣ
air is, so first of all T2 as we did earlier T2 = T1 pressure ratio and T2 - T1 / T2 / - T1 =
efficiency 0.82 that will give the T2 / from because the T2 we have calculated here is 435.6 kelvin.

And T2 / is 466.85 kelvin many times we have done this exercise so I will cut short it like this
right. Then mass flow rate, free air delivered anyone free air delivered we get the mass flow
rate.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:41)

M = PV over RT, pressure is atmospheric 600 kilopascal volume is 1, R is 0.287 and T is 293
and this gives the let us take in per minute ×6, so mass flow rate is 713.5 kg per minute, right. So
this gives the mass flow rate is 713.5 kg per minute. So work is M×C P T2 / - T1, now we have the
value of T2 /, we have the value of T1 we have the mass flow rate.

We have the value of CP so, work is calculated, work is 207.7 kilowatt. This is the amount of
energy which will be required to run this compressor right.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:57)

430
And when the blades are radial W is σμ U 2 2 / 1000 that = CP T2 / - T1. That is for per kg of air and
that gives the value of U2 as 440.6 meters per second. So U2 is 440.6 meters per second. Now, we
have calculated the σμ sorry U2 and now we can because we have the ratio.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:37)

So once U2 is with us, U2 is = 𝛑 D2 N /60 and is given 9000 RPM, D2 is not told to us 𝛑 is 360
we know and we know the value of U2, that will give D2 Is 93.49 centimeters. And definitely D1
is going to be 46.75 centimeters, this is half of the D2.

431
Now, V = velocity of flow 𝛑D1, sorry valuating the charge, volumetric inlet, volume of air
sucked into the compressor 𝛑D1B1 velocity of flow, N, K, this is blade area coefficient. Now, D 1
we have already calculated we have the value of VF is 62 meters per second. This is 62 meters
per second, right. V is 10 kgs per second, 10 meter cube per second, it is given here.

So volume metric suction, 10 meter 3per second D1 we have calculated, VF is with us, K is also
with us, that is .9. And this will give us the value of B1. So B1 is 0.122 meter or 12.2
centimeters, now blade inlet angle tan β 1.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:27)

If you remember the velocity diagram at inlet, this is V 1, VR1, U, this is β 1. So tan β1 = V1 / U or
VF1 / U. because V1 = VF1 and that is 62 and this is U1. So 62 U, what is the value of U, this is
440.6 / 2, because we have the value of U2, so U1 is this divided by 2 and this gives the β 1 as 0.28
sorry 15.7 degree.

Now regarding β 2, sorry so the second angle is impeller blade angle at inlet and diffuser blade
angle at outlet. So diffuser blade angle means it is α3, diffuser inlet angle. So, will take the blade
angle as the outlet, so this is the blades are radial so this angle α 2 and this is going to be = tan α 2
and this is going to be the blade inlet angle for the diffuser that is α3 right.

432
So tan α 2 = VF2 divided by μ and U2 here slip factor will also come into the picture right. And
this will give 62 / 0.9 ×44.6 and from here we will get the value of α 2 as 8.9 B. In the coming
class we will be solving more numerical on centrifugal compressors that is all for today. Thank
you very much.

433
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No # 08
Lecture No # 36
Centrifugal Compressors Characteristics

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we will discuss
centrifugal compressors characteristics the working of centrifugal compressor.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:37)

We have already discussed in the previous lecture and in the previous lecture we considered
the radial blades of the centrifugal compressor right and we have drawn the velocity diagram
for inlet and the blades are moving in this direction. so this is U 1 this is V1 = Vf1 and this is
Vr1 right and in the radial blades the air will be leaving blade from the radial direction this is
Vr2 and peripheral velocity at outlet and this is going to be the absolute velocity.

Ok and this is β1 this is β2 and this is α2 and this is α1 now in many of the applications the
radial blades are not required the radial impeller blades are not required the vanes we can
have backward curve vanes and the forward curve vanes. So if the vanes are curved backward
like this in that case the air will be leaving the vane in this direction opposite direction of
flow.

Right and then this β2 will be less than 90o and after this again U2 and then we will get V2 and
this is Vr2 here V2 is reduced right another arrangement can be done in the forward vane when

434
there is a forward vane in that case air will be leaving the vane in this direction V r2 right and
this is U2 this U2 and addition of this will give V2.

This is V2 ok now here the value of β2 is greater than 900 now the issue is which type of
vanes we should go for so this is the direction of U 2 and relative velocity + U2 will give the
absolute velocity now we have three type of vanes now the issue is for the particular
application which type of vane we should go for now if we look at this type of geometry this
is one type of geometry extreme geometry and this is another type of extreme geometry.

Now in backward vanes and the forward vanes if you look at the forward vans the absolute
velocity which is leaving the compressor is very high of baller is very high here in this case
the absolute velocity which is leaving the impeller is low and it means in forward curve vane
the other parameters are same rpm and shape is same pressure raise will be more because it is
it has important more kinetic energy because change in peripheral velocity is going to be the
same.

Right and change in the relative velocity they vary but the outlet absolute velocity is very
high so pressure raise in for the other parameters are same the pressure raise is quite high in
case of forward curved vane but in forward curve vane the emperor is moving on this
direction this side will have high pressure this side will have low pressure slip will take place
further this is a convex surface.

So definitely the separation will be more losses will be more so forward type of vane is not
very efficient type of arrangement efficiency of backward curve vane is more in comparison
to the forward curve vane but if want to have high pressure raise then we should go for
forward curve vane right. So these are the velocity diagrams for forward, backward and radial
flow vanes. For pre-whirls, previous lecture also I explained, pre-whirls is provided just to
avoid exceeding the sonic velocity.

Inside the compressor because compressor is rotating with very high speed rotation is being

Vr1
40,000 or 50,000 rpm or thing so that number M= .So we should check from this
γRT 1
formula whether insides the impeller velocity of air is not exceeding the Mach one that their

435
other dimensional parameters to judge the performance of the compressor these
dimensionless parameters are number one flow coefficient
(Refer Slide Time: 06:36)

Now flow coefficient denoted by Φ is the actual mass flow rate and mass flow rate
corresponding to the impeller tip velocity the mass flow rate corresponding to impeller tip
velocity will be this is the cross-section area the velocity and density this is volume
representing the volume and this is multiplied by the density it will be the mass flow rate so
this is the value of flow coefficient for a centrifugal compressor the optimum value.

Normally the optimum value of coefficient is 0 .3 it varies between 0.28, - 0.32 second one is

∆ hstage
head coefficient the head coefficient is denoted by λ= 2 . Now these parameters are used
U 2 /2
for generating the performance of a centrifugal compressor or comparing the performance of
two different centrifugal compressors.

The third one is pressure coefficient that is isotropic enthalpy change divided by tip velocity
so if there is an ideal process the head coefficient and pressure coefficient are going to be the
same. (Refer Slide Time: 08:57)

436
Now third one which is very important is reaction or degree of reaction is denoted by R in

∆hrotor ∆ T rotor
some of the author denoted by omega also right and R=Ω= = =.
∆ hstage ∆ T stage
C p ∆ T rotor
So it is delta T rotor divided by delta T stage ok and it is about = 1− . DeltaT stator
C p ∆T stage
or vanes rotor means which is the part of the compressor which is being rotation motion and
stated means the part of the compressor. Which is static right and divided by delta T at stage.

Now delta T is stated or this is let us take in an CP ∆T stage so CP ∆T is stator if you

remember that in vane less part and the vane diffuser the enthalpy change is due to change in

2 2
V 2−V 1
kinetic energy so it is going to be R=1− right. Now again this is equal to
2C p ∆ T s
2 2 2
V f 2 +V w 2 −V f 1
thisR=1− .
2 Cp ∆ Ts
(Refer Slide Time: 11:30)

437
Why I have done this in a so suppose there will be a compressor for gas turbine this is V f and
this is U1 and β1 Vf V1 ok so Vf1 is V1 at the outlet this is Vr2, U2, V2 right and this V2 = Vf2
square or Vr2 = Vf2, Vf22 + VW22 now velocity of flow it is constant in this type of arrangement
so this can be cancelled out and R = 1 – VW2 2/2CP ∆TS sorry.

We have to take kinetic energy so this has to be divided by 2 actually this R=1– (V22 - V12)/( 2
CP ∆TS) so this two are missing in earlier expressions so we can make a correction. So this is
going to be 1 - 2CP ∆TS right because this R=1– (V22 - V12)/( 2 CP ∆TS) this is energy.
So this two was missing in earlier expression. So I have added it here and now this work can
further be replaced as 1 - VW22 / 2 VW2 U2 now this VW2 will be cancelled with this one so R =
1- VW2 / 2U2 and only in the case when Vf1 = Vf2 now after this we will solve some of the
numerical on based on centrifugal compressor the first one is a centrifugal compressor.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:21)

438
Used as a super charger for aero engine handles 3 kg/sec of air so the centrifugal compressor
is ending here at the rate of 3 kg /s the suction pressure and temperature are 100 kPa and 280
K. So suction pressure and temperature.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:43)

So P1 = 100 kPa and T1 = 280 K the suction velocity is 90 m/s. So this suction velocity is 90
m/s after isentropic compression the impeller and in the impeller the compressions are 150
kPa so P2 is 150 kPa and temperature is 335 K and velocity is 230 m/s calculate isentropic
efficiency right.

So work done is in the centrifugal compressor is CP (T2’- T1 )+( V2 2 - V12 )/ 2 and because
this is always in kilo joules and we should initially we should divide it by 1000 to concert the

439
expression in kilo joules so work done is 1.005 this T 2 is T2’ 335 - T1 280 + V2 is to 230 this is
V1 is to 230 square - 90 square divided by 2 into 1000 and this gives 81.7 kJ/kg.

So work is 81.7 kJ/kg and we have to find isotropic efficiency now T 2 is T2 / T1 = (p2 / p1 ) (γ-1)/
γ
right gamma is 1.4. So we can take this as 0.286 or so let us take 1.4 here. So T 2 is T1 is 280
p2 is 150 and p1 is 100.

So it is 1.5(1.4 -1)/1.4 ok and this gives the value of T2 as 314.4 K now we have the value of T2
we have the value of T2 dash now isotropic work this is the actual; work we have calculated
now the isotropic work because in rotator dynamic machines the kinetic energy cannot be
neglected as I told you earlier so work done.

2
Isotropic is going to be CP (T2 - T1 )+ (V2 – V12 )/2 ×1000 = 1.005 and T2 is we have
calculated 314.4 - T1 280 + again V22 that is that expression is same 902 / 2 ×1000 and then we
get isentropic work as 56.97 kJ/ kg and we have to calculate the isentropic efficiency =
56.97 /81.7 ×100.

We will give 69.7% ok so that is the difference between a isotropic efficiency of a gas turbine
what we calculate in gas turbine right there we do not consider this kinetic energy but in
actually when in a compressor when there is a change in the absolute velocity so this kinetic
energy has to be considered while calculating the isotropic efficiency the total work total
power is work done is 81.7 the total power is going to be this multiplied by mass flow rate
that is three.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:50)

440
So power is 3×81.7. So power is going to be 245.1 kilo watt now overall, efficiency of the
unit after the impeller if the air goes to the diffuser right when air goes to the diffuser then C P
(T3’ - T2’ ) that is from impeller sorry the impeller tip to the diffuser it is between impeller tip
to the diffuser and this is =( C2 2- C 1 2 )/ 2 ×1000.

Right and that is = (2302 - 902 )/2×1000 now we have taken part earlier we have calculating
work consumed we included this also but now we are exclusively dealing with this and this
will give us the temperature T3’ because the rest of the things are known to us so temperature
T3’ is going to be = 357.3 K. So if we look at entropy diagram.

So this is the enthalpy increased from 1to 2 and this is 2 to 3 enthalpy increase 3 dash this is 2
dash this is 3 dash ok now once we have the T 3’ now the P3 is P2 T3’ / T2 this is we have not
we are not considering any loss during this because it is not given in the numerical value. So
we are consuming isentropic process.

So here that that case we can take 1.4 /(1.4 – 1) that is gamma 1 gamma - 1 or 3.5 whatever
value we want to take and this provides us the pressure P 3 that is 188 kPa right. now we have
the value of p3 and we have the value of p1 also right with the help of these two values we can
calculate the value of T3 / T1 = (P3 /P1 )(γ-1)/γ.

Now considering this we get the value of T 3 as 335.4 Kelvin now we have the value of T 3’ we
have the value of T3 also.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:21)

441
So overall efficiency the overall efficiency of the compressing machine overall efficiency is
going to be ƞ0 = (T3 - T1 )/( T3’ – T1) now we have all the value we have the value of T3’ we
have the value of T3 we have value of T1 also and this gives the overall efficiency as 71.6%
right now.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:00)

We will take up another numerical this is about a centrifugal compressor centrifugal blower
which compresses 5 m3 /s of air from 100 kPa and 150 C to 150 kPa is the blower the working
principle of blower is same as the working principle of centrifugal compressor only pressure
ratio is different in blower the pressure ratio is very low incorporating into the compressor.
So the compressor compresses 5 m3 of air.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:25)

442
So V = 5 meter cube per second from 100 kPa and 15 0 C to 150 kPa so P1 = 100 kPa T1 = 288
K , 150 C 288 K T2 = 150 kPa the flow velocity of the inlet and outlet of the machine is the
same and = 70 m/s the inlet and outlet impeller diameter are .3 and .6 respectively.

So DI = 0.3 metre DO = 0.6 meters the blow rotates 7000 rpm so N = 7000 rpm calculate
impeller inlet and outlet blade angles so first of all we will calculate T2 temperature at the
exit it is going to be T1,( P2 /P1 )(γ -1)/γ and that is going to be equal to i will write the expression
here T2 = 329.7 K because we have the value of T1 we can take from here P2 /P1 is 1.5.

Gamma is one gamma = 1.4 and from here we will get the value of T2 as this now U1
peripheral velocity at inlet U1 = πD1N /60 we have the value of N we have the value of D I or
D1 so U1 can be calculated as 109.95 meters per second since the diameter has driven from .3
metre to .6 metre so U2 will also be doubled as 219.9 metres per second right now CP work is
CP (T2 - T1 ) is specific work = CW2.

U2 by 1000 right now here we have the value of T 2 we have the value of T1. we have the
value of U2 also this will covers the value of CW2 and that is = 190.4 m/s sorry yes 4 metres
per second it is will component right so comparing simply T2 - T1 with the input to the blower
we have calculated the CW2 now once we have CW2 with us now we want to calculate blade
inlet angle blade inlet angle.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:39)

443
Vf1 U1 Vr1 and this is β1 so tan β1 = Vf1 /U1 Vf1 is 70 so it is 70 / 109.95 from here we will get
the value of β1 is 32.4 degree right now similarly we will calculate now β 2 is this is β2 right
and this β2 is tan β2 =Vf2 / ( U 2 - VW2 )this is V1 and this is VW2 and this is Vf2.

So Vf2 divided by this part and we have all the values with us and from here we will get the
value of β2 as 67.1 degree α2 is this one similarly α2 can also be calculated as tan α2 = Vf2 / VW2
right and then α2 = 20.2 0 now the third part is breadth of the blade at inlet and outlet. So we
have to find the value of V and in order to find the value of V.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:36)

V1 = π D1 b1 Vf1 this is area velocity volume V1 N is 5 = π is known to us D 1 is 0.3 into b1 and

Vf is power 70 this will give the value of b 1 now the b1 is 7.58 centimetre now similarly V2

444
for π D2 V2 Vf2 Vf1 = Vf2 but we do not have the value of V2 right we will use the relation P1
V1 /T1 = P2 V2 /T2 ,P1 and P2 and T1 and T2 are known to us V1 is with us.

We will calculate the value of V2 and this V2 is V2 = 3.82 m3/s and this is this value 3.82 we
will put here D2 is with us Vf2 is with us with the 70 m/s and that will give the value of b 2 that
is 2.19 centimetre that is all for today from the next class we will start with the axial flow
compressors thank you very much.

445
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical Industrial Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 08
Lecture No # 37
Axial Flow Compressor

I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems today we shall start with Axial
Flow Compressors. In the previous lecture we discussed the centrifugal compressor.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:35)

In centrifugal compressor, the fluid was entering along the shaft. There was an axial entry of the
fluid or air and exit was radial. It was entering the compressor, there was an impeller, impeller
imparting energy or doing work on the incoming air and then air was compressed and finally, we
got high pressure gas or air at the exit of the compressor. Now in axial flow compressor, the
movement of the fluid is only in axial direction.

That is why because there is no change in direction that is why the efficiency of axial compressor
is more than the centrifugal compressor. In axial compressor also like axial flow turbines, we
have done the impulse turbine and impulse reaction turbine like that in axial flow compressor
also there is several rings on stages each stage consists of fixed blades and moving blades.

446
So arrangement is like this only, there is a shaft on the blade are mounted and there are moving
blades there are fixed blades also which are mounted in the casing these are fixed blades. So now
in this case the energy is consumed by the compressor moves with the help of a motor the shaft
rotates in a certain speed, air is sucked in and its gas compressed when it exits from the other
end.

So air enters from here right, it will go from first stage, second stage, third stage it is shown
converging because we have to maintain constant axial velocity. It is Va or Vf, for designing the
compressor. For the purpose of design of the compressor, this velocity has to remain constant.
This direction the pressure is increasing, when the pressure is increasing velocity has to remain
constant, will have to reduce the cross section area or size of the compressor.

That is why it is known to shown as converging passage right, it has number of the stages. Stages
may go up to 18, 20, and 25. In this compressor if we look at the stages different stages, let us
examine one stage of axial flow compressor.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:40)

So each stage has fixed blade and the moving blades. Suppose there is a fixed blade like this and
then there is small gap between these two and then there is a moving blade. So there number of
fixed blades and there is a number of moving blades and they have mounted on the shaft, the

447
shaft is parallel to this board and it rotates with a certain rotational speed. And the air moves in
this direction axial flow direction.

Now in this compressor like impulse turbine, if it works as an impulse turbine then there is no
pressure rise in moving blades. There is only pressure rise in fixed blades it works as a impulse
turbine. Then there is no pressure rise in moving blades, there is pressure rise fixed blades. These
are fixed blades and these are moving blades. Regarding velocity, velocity will definitely
increase in moving blades because the kinetic energy will be imparted to the moving air and
these acts as a diffuser so velocity gets reduced.

But normally the axial flow compressors they work as impulse reaction turbine reverse impulse
turbine not impulse reaction turbine reverse impulse turbine. So here the pressure there is a
pressure rise, if we see the pressure rise so there is pressure rise in moving blades and fixed blade
as well and regarding the velocity the velocity increases in moving blades and it falls in fixed
blade. Now first of all we will what will do will draw a velocity diagram for axial flow turbine
then that will make things clearer.

So there is a blade in a axial compressor not turbine axial flow compressor velocity diagram for
an axial flow compressor, the air is supposed to glide over the surface right. When the blade is
moving in this direction, air is supposed to glide over the surface so this is V r1 right and the blade
is moving with certain velocity in this direction. So it is U, here we do not have U 1 and U2 in
centrifugal compressor because the radial flow.

So we had U1 and U2 different peripheral velocity at the impeller. This inner diameter of the
impeller and the outer diameter of the impeller because flow is taking place in axial direction. So
there is only one peripheral velocity that is U and this is the absolute velocity of air through
which it will be entering the blade. So in axial flow turbines the angles are the axis taken in the
shaft axis is taken as a reference.

In earlier in I mean in the reaction turbine or impulse reaction turbine, the peripheral direction of
the peripheral velocity was taken as a plane of reference right. Here axial flow, axial direction is

448
taken as plane of reference. So axial direction, when we take as a plane of reference then this
becomes V1 right and this is Vr1 velocity U is this and velocity U is perpendicular to the axis of
the shaft.

Now this is V1, Vr1 sorry this is V1 this isVr1 this is U, so this is angle ∝1, this is angle β 1
regarding exit also regarding exit also the triangles are like this because this is V r2 right. So
regarding axis also this is V2 and this is Vr2. This is ∝2 and this is β 2 and this is U and this is V 1,
V2. Now here in axial flow compressor, there is one more thing to discuss the work in a stage, is
equal to axial flow compressors.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:26)

2 2 2 2
V −V r2 V 2−V 1
The work in a stage = r1 + , here peripheral velocity component is missing because
2 2
there is nothing like U1 and U2. There is only one constant peripheral velocity so energy imparted
to the fluid by virtue of changing peripheral velocity is 0. So if we look at this then per stage
work in axial flow system we can say is less than the per stage work in centrifugal compressors.

Now here this is axial velocity Va or it is velocity of flow also Va velocity of flow right. So U is
equal to, if we take these two triangles then U = Va tan β 1 + Va tan β2 or we can say U /Va = tan
β1 + tan β2. Similarly for this triangle U = Beta sorry β 1 and α1 this is α1 not tan β2. Now in this
triangle Va tanβ2 + Va tan α2.

449
So again we can take U /Va = tan α2 + tan β2 or we can say that these two if we compare these
two then tan α1 + tan β1 = tan α2+ tan β2. So this relation is frequently used in analyses of axial
flow compressors now we will calculate the tangential force required to compress the gas.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:11)

Tangential force is VW2 - VW1

for the mass flow rate of 1kg/s,
otherwise it will be multiplied
by the mass flow rate. Also and
then work is F×U = U(VW 2 – VW1
)= U(Va tan α2 – Va tan α1), and
then we can say it is UVa (tan α2
–tan α1).

If we use this relation then work is UVa(tan β 1 –tan β2). So either of these expressions can be
used for finding out work done on the gas or air during compression in an axial flow compressor.
Now temperature change in a stage because in compressor normally we have to find the
temperatures and different stages.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:13)

450
 UV a (tan β 1−tan β 2)
So temperature change in a stage ∆T = ∆ T = , there is an expression we will
Cp
discuss it later on, that is work done factor it will be multiplied by then you want to have an
actual temperature rise. It will multiplied by the work done factor and if you want to have

γ / γ−1
( Δ T )st
pressure ratio in the stage that is going to be r p =[1+ηs ] ,To1 we have taken stagnation
T o1
temperature at inlet because we have consider the kinetic energy also. So when we consider the
kinetic energy is converted into the pressure energy so this will result in the raise in temperature.
So this is the expression for pressure ratio in a stage now we will do the pressure raise, so what
we have calculated done so far.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:41)

451
We have just discussed the working principle, we have discussed the velocity diagram, we have
discussed the work output. Now pressure rise in aerodynamic force in a stage of axial flow
compressor.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:56)

So we will start with Bernoulli’s theorem, P 1/ρ + V12/ 2 = P2 / ρ + V2 2 /2 because it is moving in

horizontal direction production in potential energy is 0. So ∆P =1/2 ρ(V1 2 - V2 2) = ∆P .

This minus this = 1/2 ρ(V1 2 - V2 2) , 1/2ρ, now if you draw again this diagram this is V 1 Vr1U β1
α1, So this is VW and this is Va. So it is V 1 is Va 2 + VW2 in same fashion, if we take into account
this diagram α2 β2 Vr2 V2 and U. Here also the V2 2 is Va2 - VW22 and then this will be cancelled

452
out it is going to be 1/2ρ(VW 1 2 - VW2 2) or it is 1/2ρ Va2 and the VW is nothing but Va tan α1. So
tan 2α1 - tan 2
α2 . So only axial velocity is with us and density is with us. We can find the
pressure rise in this stage, so axial force now once we have the pressure rise pressure multiplied
by area will give the force.

So axial force Fx= S lb ρ Va 2 (tan α1 - tan α2) (tan α1 + tan α2)/ 2 or this is mean blade angle α 1
tan α1 + tan α2. So we can replace this by tan α m it is not the angle of mean of the angle but mean
of the Tans of the angle so this is axial force. Now the compressor will also experience.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:17)

The whirling force which is perpendicular to this one sorry this is an compressor, so compressor
will have the force will be exerted in the axial direction force will also be exerted in whirling
direction and that force Fwir = ṁ(VW1 – VW2 ) and that is Vf S L n ρ. This is volume, this is
density VW1 - VW2 and the net energy consumed by the axial flow compressor will be
Pythagorean sum of this means net force.

It is going to be equal to under root this force square of this plus square of this and the direction
of the force will be the ratio of these two and that is going to be, this Fx / Fwis , F x / F WIS and
that is going to be = tan α m because these terms will be cancelled out this is Va. So these terms
will be cancelled out and we will be getting the ratio of these two as tan αm.

453
Now before dividing it we can write Vf or Va2 S length of the blade, ρVW1 is the V1 that is why
square has come here. This is cos α 1- sorry tanα1 - tan α2 now they will be cancelled, now if we
take the ratio of this and in order to find the direction then we will get all this terms. They will be
cancelled out and this will also be cancelled out and what we are going to get is tan αm .

So we have calculated work force required in a axial direction to compress the gas force required
in the peripheral direction. This is the force in axial direction, this is the force in peripheral
direction and then Pythagorean sum of these two forces will give the net force required for
compressing the gas and there ratio will give the direction right. Now we will solve one worked
example of axial flow compressors.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:33)

Calculate the pressure rise and work done by rotating cascade of axial flow compressor for
following data peripheral velocity 200 m/s flow, velocity is or Va axial velocity is 186 m/s and
α1 and α2 are given ρ = 1, that is density of air or working fluid assume isentropic compression.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:58)

454
So ∆p=1/2 ρ Vf 2 (tan2 α1 - tan2 α2 ) we have already done that. Now here ∆P = 1/2×1×186 2(tan2
45 – tan2 14 ) and this gives the pressure rise as 16.22 kilopascal that is the pressure rise.

Calculate the pressure rise at work done by rotating so work done is UV f (tan α 1 - tan α2).
Simply we will put the values U is 200 m/s, 200 –186( tan45 - tan 14) and this give will the work
done as 25.9 kW. This is the work or energy consumed by compressor in for the movement of air
or for the compression of air and after this we will take another numerical which is a little
lengthier.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:01)

455
In eight stage axial flow compressor, so there is a axial flow compressor consisting of eight
stages the overall pressure ratio is 5 is to 1. So compressor has number of stages right and
cumulative effect of pressure rise is 5 is to 1 and the overall efficiency of the compressor is 90%
the temperature and pressure at inlet will write down here. So that later on time is saved, so the
temperature and pressure at the inlet.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:10)

So T1 = 200 C or 293 K we will just add 273, here 273 + 20 = 293 K that is T 1 and 100 kPa
pressure P1 = 100 kPa. The work is divided equally between the stages, so each stage on each
stage same amount of work is being done on the gas. The mean blade velocity is 175 m/s and
50% reaction design is used.

When there is a reaction is 50% then α1 =β2 and α2 = β1 as we did in the case of turbine, same
thing will be done here. Also in axial flow compressor, if the degree of reaction is 50%. Then
this nozzle inlet angle is equal to blade outlet angle and nozzle outlet angle is equal to blade inlet
angle.

The axial velocity throughout the compressor is constant is equal to or V f = Va = 100 m/s okay.
So we assume that eight how many stages are there eight stages though Z is denoted by this

456
stage. So Z = 8 there is a pressure rise in each stage and the temperature at the outlet of the

γ−1/ γ
P oz
compressor TOZ /TO1 = ( )
Po 1

γ−1/ γ
P
If the compression index is not given we assume it to be Gamma. So T OZ /TO1 =( oz )
Po 1
because index of compression is not given. We will assume it to be gamma Toz = 293 (5) (1.4-1)/1.4
( 1.41 – 1) / 1.4 = 0.286.

So directly we have put the values and the T OZ, we are getting 464 K. So T OZ 464 K and the
compression is not isentropic because the efficiency is given is 90% overall efficiency is 90%.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:25)

So ƞ = (TOZ - T1)/(TOZ’– T1 ) ; TOZ’ = T1+ (TOZ – T1 ) /ƞ T1 is 293 + TOZ. We have taken as (464 -
293)/.9 and that gives TOZ as 483 Kelvin. So TOZ’ is 483 K same thing. We have done as we did
earlier also.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:24)

457
Now work is if we take as a thermodynamic process then work = C P(TOZ’ - TO1 ). This is the work
done on the gas and this is equal to CW1-CW2 sorry(VW2 – VW1) × U that is one in one stage
multiplied by number of stages. This is the work, this is not the work in the entire compressor
because this whirl component is only for one stage. So this work multiplied by the peripheral
velocity multiplied by the work number of stages.

This will give Vf (tan α2 - tan α1 )UZ okay. Now here we can get the value of tan α 2- tan α1
because this is = W. Now here we have the value of T OZ’ 483 K TO1 293 Kelvin and U is also
given 175 m/s .

So this is 175 and this one is 8 , this is 175 and this one is 464 and T O1 is 293 and this is equal to
this one both are equal from here we will get the value of tan α 2- tan α1 and tan α2- tan α1 is
1.3639 okay. That is equation one, and second and second third second one.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:51)

458
We know that U = Vf (tan α1 + tan β1) if you look at the velocity triangle α 1 and this is β1 and this
is V1 Vr1 and this is U. So U = this is Vf. So U = Vf (tan α1+ tan α2) or U = 175 and Vf is 100 =
tan α1+ tan β1and this = tan α1+ tan β1= 1.75.

Now add these two you will get Tanα2 + tan β1. So if you add these two this will be cancelled out
if you add these two, then this will be cancelled out then Tan β 1+ Tan α2 and β1= α2. So we can
comfortably say that tan β1= (1.3639 + 1.75)/2 and from here we will get the value of β 1 and the
β1 is 57.4 degree. So β1 is 57.4 degree.
Now once we have the value of β 1, we can either take the equation from either of the equation.
We can calculate the value of which angle is required power required blade angles. So β 1 is with
us, we can calculate the value of α1 and once α1 β1 are with us. We can find the value of α 2 and β2 .
So here the α1 is 10.95 degree it is = β2 and this is equal to α2.

So all blade angles are known here that is all for today and in the next class we will start with the
characteristics of axial flow compressors.

459
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical industrial engineering
Indian Institute of Technology - Roorkee

Module No # 08
Lecture No # 38
Axial Flow Compressor Characteristics

Hello I welcome you all in this course on Steam and Gas Power Systems today we will discuss
axial flow compressor characteristics.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:30)

We will start with the dimensionless parameters, which are used for comparing the performance
of axial flow compressors then losses and axial flow compressors, choking flow, stalling, surging
and we will do some worked example. There are certain dimensionless parameters which are
used in axial flow compressor in order to judge the performance of axial flow compressor.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:00)

460
Number one is flow coefficient of an axial flow compressor is the mass flow rate and mass low
rate at tip of the blade and this is V f where flow velocity. This is flow velocity tan ∝1 +tanβ 1, it is
nothing but Vf / U because rest of the things for calculating the mass flow rate are going to
remain same.

Only there will be a change in velocity, velocity actual mass flow rate and mass flow rate
corresponding to tip velocity. So we will be getting this expression, so flow coefficient is
1
Φ= , it is the dimensionless quantity.
tan ∝ 1 +tanβ 1
(Refer Slide Time: 02:13)

461
Another is head coefficient, head coefficient is denoted by λ right and it is ∆h rise in a stage
divided by enthalpy corresponding to u2 /2, peripheral velocity. This is kinetic energy at the tip
of the rotor. Now enthalpy rise is u(VW2 – VW1)/ 1/2 u2 then u and this will be cancelled out and
2(VW2 - VW1 )/ u.

This is head coefficient and we can further write 2V f (tan α2 – tan α1) / Vf (tan α1 + tan β1) or
this Vf will be cancelled out it will become dimensionless and after the head coefficient there is a
pressure coefficient. In pressure co efficient the difference between these two is pressure
coefficient the ∆h isentropic enthalpy rise is taken into the account okay.

And we can always say, that the pressure coefficient is isentropic efficiency multiplied by head
coefficient like steam turbine. So impulse reaction, steam turbine axial flow compressors also do
have degree of reaction.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:28)

It is denoted by R, in some of the books it is denoted by Ω or capital λ So the degree of reaction

( ΔT R)CP
is R= then energy imparted in rotor divided by energy imparted in stage or work in a
( ΔT S ) C P
2 2
W S−(V 2 −V 1 )/2
stage or we can write R= okay.
WS

462
Now V22 - V12 is work in a stage minus, now in a velocity triangle velocity diagram, this is V R1
V1 and this is u and this is Vf and this is VW right. So V22 is nothing but Vf 2 + VW22 and V12 is Vf 2
- VW12 / work in a stage.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:13)

Now degree of reaction R is equal to, now instead of doing it here, we can write this is sorry
2 2
V W 2−V W 1
VW22 + Vf 2 – Vf 2. So this will be cancelled, so R=1− . And the work in a stage is
u ¿ ¿¿
u(VW1 + VW2 ) sorry u(VW2 - VW1) and this multiplied because this is 2 here this is divided by 2
and 2 will come here.

V w 2 +V w 1
So R=1− or R =1 - VWM /u ,VWM is mean whirl component. So this is how we can find
2 ×u
the degree of reaction of an axial flow compressor. Now if we compare the centrifugal
compressor with axial flow compressor
(Refer Slide Time: 08:05)

463
And axial flow compressor and centrifugal compressor, the flow is radial in the flow is axial as it
implies from the name itself. Pressure ratio per stage is high 5 is to 1 or 6 is to 1. Here the
pressure ratio per stage may be 1.2 is to 1. But in axial compressor we can have number of
stages, it is very easy to add on stage in axial flow compressor. So per stage pressure is low but
we can have number of stages in axial flow compressor.

Isentropic efficiency in centrifugal compressor is less than isentropic efficiency of axial flow
compressor, the reason I have already told you because in centrifugal compressor there is change
in direction okay which imparts losses in the during the flow of fluid, that is why isentropic
efficiency of centrifugal compressor is less than isentropic efficiency of axial flow compressor.

We are not discussed here this choking and surging, so but we will discuss after this. So choking
and surging the gap is quite substantial in case of centrifugal compressor but choking and
surging stage, here the gap is not much the choking and surging. I will discuss after this, this as
large frontal area, this is small frontal area so because axial flow compressor have small frontal
area that is why they are very useful for jet propulsion or in aircraft applications right.

But when working with contaminated fluid, when in centrifugal compressor if the fluid is
contaminated we can use centrifugal compressor but that is not the case of axial flow
compressor. In axial flow compressor, the working fluid should not have any contaminations it

464
should be clean starting torque to start the compressor. The starting torque in centrifugal
compressor is less than the starting torque in axial flow compressor.

And this centrifugal compressor construction cost is less, it is less complicated. Here
construction cost or fabrication cost is more and is a little, more complicated. If you compare
with the centrifugal compressor, now before we start with the numerical, we will very short we
will discuss the choke flow we have already discussed for centrifugal compressor during flow
inside the compressor.

The velocity should not exceed M=1= Vf / √(γ RTO) . So this should not shoot Mach or flow
should not become choke flow, otherwise if it becomes supersonic in the later stage some shock
may take place and that will occur energy losses during the flow through a the compressor and it
will hamper the efficiency and it will also physically damage the compressor right. So it is
ensured that choke flow does not take place inside the compressor there is a term stalling, now
stalling it is due to the change in the direction of inlet.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:58)

Suppose in a cascade there are number of blades let us take three blades and there is a different
angle of incident, angle is changing and here at particular angle, and fag end he flow separation
may take place. This is known as Stall and this is stall is not stationary it moves in opposite
direction of the flow with half of the speed right and that is known as Rotating Stall.

465
(Refer Slide Time: 12:57)

Now another phenomena is surging, let us draw the mass flow rate and pressure ratio and this is
the surging curve. This is a characteristic curve and in this position there is a pressure ratio. But
there is no mass flow rate it means the output valve is closed. Now in this position, mass flow
rate is very high but pressure ratio is 0 it means the valve is fully opened, full throttle.

It is imaginary situation because if pressure ratio is not there will not be any flow so practically
some pressure ratio has to be there right. Now there is a characteristic curve from here which
cuts, this at state let us say this is A, this is B, this is C. Now when the flow is taking place at
state C and we partially close the valve, when we partially close the valve the mass flow rate will
reduce we further close the valve the mass flow rate will reduce.

When the valve is fully closed here, when we slightly open the valve the pressure ratio will
increase and mass flow rate will also increase. It is reverse of this, why it is happening the
moment? The moment we open the valve the fluid will come with the certain velocity and this
velocity will be converted into the stagnation pressure and that is how the pressure ratio is
increasing but up to certain point only.

Now we are closing valve, we cross this point D and come to this side. When we come to this
side, we further close the valve in that case pressure ratio will decrease. Initially when we are

466
closing the valve the pressure ratio was increasing, now we are closing the valve the pressure
ratio is decreasing it means pressure in the pipe at the exit of the compressor is more than at the
exit of the pressure at the pipe, the pressure in the pipe is more than the pressure at the exit of the
compressor. So reverse flow will take place, so fluid will start flowing it is unstable type of flow.

The fluid will start flowing backwards towards the compressor but the moment it enters the
compressor the pressure will be neutralized and there will be interrupted flow or oscillating flow
type of phenomena. So this is known as the surging in the flow and it is witnessed in both in
centrifugal compressor and axial flow compressor as well.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:00)

Now after this we will do a worked example now this numerical states that in an axial flow
compressor the overall stagnation pressure ratio achieved is 4.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:15)

467
So pressure ratio is stagnation pressure ratio PO2 / PO1 = 4 and isentropic efficiency is 86 %. The
inlet stagnation pressure and temperature are P O1 = 100 kPa and TO1 is 320 K, the mean blade
speed is 190 m/s. So U = 190 m/s, the degree of reaction is 0.5. The mean radius with radial
angles air angle of 300 and 100 and rotor inlet and outlet respectively.

Work done factor is 0.88. Calculate the stagnation polytrophic efficiency. So here we will start
simply TOZ = TO1. Now Z we are assuming, Z number of stages in axial flow compressor and in
each stage is certain degree of pressure rise will take place and cumuli effect will be PO2 / PO1.

So T oz =T oz ¿ and that = 320 (4)0.286 and this TOZ = 475.7 K. This is the temperature at the exit of
the compressor not at the exit of the stage TOZ dash will be calculated as TO1 + (TOZ - TO1 ) /ƞisn.

Now we have the value of TOZ, TO1 isentropic efficiency TO1 is already with us. So TOZ dash will
be is going to be 501 Kelvin. Now we will take polytrophic efficiency, small stage efficiency is
η p =ln ¿ ¿

This is polytrophic efficiency, we have already done earlier this one right and now we will be
putting the values. We have all the values with us and from here the polytrophic efficiency is
going to be 0.884 okay. Now we will go for velocity diagram for the compressor now velocity
diagram for the compressor, we can always take from the velocity diagram.

468
(Refer Slide Time: 19:53)

From compressor u /Vf = tanα1 + tanβ1. If we draw the triangle then this is V1 V R1 this is u α1,
β1. Now α1 and β1 are known to us calculate the relative air angles of 30 0 and 100 so for α1 and
β1 are known to us okay.

So tan α1+ tan β1 that = 0.7536. So V f = U / 0.7536 = 190 / 0.7536 = 252.12 m/s. So V f, we can
note down because we will be frequently reading this 252.12 m/s.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:07)

Now VW2 = Vf2 tan α2, Vf2 = tan α2. Now here since, here since degree of reaction is 0.5. So α1 =
β2 and α2 = β1 right. So now VW 2 = Vf tanα2 and that is = 252.12 tan30 and that is = 145.56m/s.

469
So this is CW , VW2 = 145.56 m/s. Similarly we can calculate V W1 = Vf tan α1 and that = 252.12
tan 10 and that is going to be 44.45 m/s. So VW1 = 44.45 m/s.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:36)

So work done per stage is u(V W2 – VW1) λ, u is with us, u is 190 V W2 and VW1. We have already
calculated Lambda is 0.88 and this gives work done per stage as 16.9 kJ/kg right.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:18)

Work in compressor is work done in stage and total work done during compression is C P (TOZ
dash - TO1). This is total compression and CP is already with us, 1.005. TO Z dash we calculated

470
501 K. TO1 is with us, this is 320 kelvin and from here the work of compression is calculated as
181.9 kJ/kg . So compression work is 181.9 stage work is this much if we take the ratio.

We can find out the stages, so number of stages Z = 181.9 / 16.9 = 10.76 or approximately
eleven stages. So number of stages Z = 11 because we have to take the integer. We cannot take
10.76 stages. So eleven stages during compression stage axial flow compressor now once the
stages are calculated, then inlet velocity V1.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:50)

V1 = V1 α1,β1, Vr1, u so V1 is Vf / Cos α1. So V1, we are getting from here. We are getting V 1 =
256 m/s and temperature at inlet because we have only stagnation temperature. So temperature at
inlet is going to be T1 = TO1 – V12 /2CP.

This is stagnation temperature, so inlet temperature is going to be 320 K – 256 2 / 2×1005. I have
converted Kilo joules into Joules in specific heat and then this gives the value of T 1 is, 302 K.
Stagnation temperature is 320 and absolute temperature is 302 Kelvin.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:16)

471
Now after this P1 /PO1 = (T1 / TO1 )γ/(γ-1) right. Now here we have the value of stagnation pressure
at inlet 100 kPa ,T1. We have calculated TO1 is also with us this will give the value of P 1as 81.6
kilopascal.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:56)

Now we need to calculate the density at inlet ρ 1 is P1 V1 / R T1 sorry P1 /R T1 right. Now P1 is

mean values are with us R = 0.286 and this will give the ρ 1 as 0.941 m3/ kg okay. Now the mass
flow rate is 20 kg /s and blade to hub ratio is .4.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:37)

472
Blade to hub ratio means in axial flow compressor, this is hub the blades are mounted to the hub
and this ratio blade to hub ratio is .4. So 0.941 ×π r t2 (1 - 0.42)×252.12. This is the velocity of
flow we will give the mass flow rate and that is = 20.

This is density of air at inlet we have calculated ρ/RT 1, this is because mass flow rate is taking
place between the hub and the tip. So this cross section area we have calculated here multiplied
by the velocity and we are getting mass flow rate. From here we are getting the value of r t and
the rt is 17.87 mm and when we multiply this 17.87 ×0.4, we will get the diameter of the hub.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:09)

473
So tip diameter and ro = 0.4 ×17.87 = 7.15 mm. So now we have the diameter of the blade tip,
diameter of the hub and rest of all the values. So that is all for today in the next class we will
start with Jet Propulsion.

474
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No # 08
Lecture No # 39
Jet Propulsion

Hello I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power system today we will discuss
about the jet propulsion.
(Refer Slide Time 00:38)

Now jet propulsion is something like, if you provide or if you impart the momentum to the
fluid, in such a manner that reaction to this momentum gives the thrust to a body. So that is
known as jet or a propulsive force the momentum gives the propulsive force to the body then
it is known as jet propulsion right. Now the momentum of a gas can be imparted. How the
momentum to the gas can be imparted?

Now one thing is we compress the gas right and then we release the gas then the momentum
can be imparted and release through a nozzle. Suppose there is a body, at the back side of this
body if I put a nozzle and pass pressurized gas through this nozzle right. And this when the
gases leave the nozzle due to reaction of that, this body will move in this direction right. But
in practice how it is realized if you draw a temperature entropy diagram of an arrangement, in
a jet propulsion system there is a diffuser.

475
Because the body itself is moving with suppose let us take this type of system is used in the
jet engines and another is rockets right. Jet engines they do air breathing they take air from
the surroundings and air is used for burning the fuel. And high velocity jet they leave the
engine, and reaction to that causes propulsive force on jet engine.

But rocket does not breath it has its own oxidation mechanism, which creates the jet out of
the body of the rocket right. So in a jet engine because the body itself is moving with a very
high velocity. So when the air is sucked in so there is a diffuser fixed in the engine. So
diffuser, let us say atmospheric air is atmospheric conditions are O. So in the diffuser, the
pressure is increased to state 1.

And since it has its own efficiency it so instead of state 1 state 1' will be attained right. After
the diffuser in jet engines, there is a compressor where compression where of and normally it
is an axial flow compressor. So in this compressor the further pressurize takes place. So this
is state 2 and this is state 2' I am taking both ideal and real processes simultaneously. Now at
state 2 has happens in the case of gas turbines in jet engines also.

The fuel burns and constant pressure heat addition this is P 2 and this is P1 and this is P0.
Constant pressure heat addition takes place, and we attain the state 3 and when state 3 is
attained a turbine is used. The purpose of turbine in jet engine is not to produce power the
purpose of turbine is to run the compressor right and output of the turbine is used for running
the compressor.

Now at the exit of the turbine, still the temperature and pressures are very high right. And this
high temperature and high pressure fluid is expended in the nozzle. And which produces
propulsive force so this is 3 this is 4, 4' , 5, 5' . So this is the entire process of, it is very similar
to the arrangements in the gas turbine right. Only thing is, in the gas turbines the output of the
turbine is used for power generation or you that is a high-grade energy so it is used for the
variety of the purposes.

But here the main purpose of this gas turbine is to run the compressor. And the gases
available at the exit of the turbine which are at high pressure in temperature, they are
expended in the nozzle. And very high velocity gas leaves the nozzle and that causes the

476
propulsive force. Now jet engines if you do the energy balance between this state o and state
1 right.
(Refer Slide Time 05:27)

So hO + VO2/ 2 = h1 + V1 2 / 2, ok. And this gives h1 is equal to, because this is almost I mean
0, or if you compare with the VO, it is negligible right. So we write H1 = HO + VO2 / 2, ok.
Because VO depends upon the speed through which the object the jet is moving right. Or we
can say it is Va in order to avoid any confusion ok.
And then it is T1 = TO + Va 2/ 2 CP. So these are normal equation for diffuser we will be using
frequently using in the analysis of gas this jet propulsion system. Now there are certain terms
which are used for jet propulsion.
(Refer Slide Time 06:38)

477
First is thrust. Thrust is for per kg of mass flow rate it is the velocity of the jet minus velocity
of Va, that is VJ - Va. The jet is moving at a certain velocity Va in this direction right. And
then the jet is the velocity through which the fluid is leaving the jet right. So thrust will be V J
- Va if we take mass of the fuel into the account then it is going to be (1+ F / A)(V J – Va )
right.

Now thrust power is going to be, this is the, thrust is force and in order to find the power you
just multiply this by Va you will get thrust power.
(Refer Slide Time 07:45)

Now another term is propulsive power is nothing but change in kinetic energy1/2(1 + F/A)V j2
– 1/2 Va2. So if we neglect this F/A, then it becomes (VJ2 – Va2 )/2. That is propulsive power.

Thrust power we have already calculated, (1 + F/A)(V J – Va) ×Va right. Or if we neglect this,
then it becomes (VJ - Va )×Va. Now ratio of thrust power and propulsive power is propulsive
efficiency. So that propulsive efficiency is thrust power divided by propulsive power. So
thrust power is (VJ – Va) ×Va /[1/2 (VJ2 – Va2 )].
(Refer Slide Time 09:18)

478
And then we rearrange the terms then we get propulsive power as, propulsive efficiency as,
2(VJ - Va,) Va /( VJ - Va,)( VJ + Va) and this will be cancelled out, 2 Va /(V J + Va). Or it is 2/
(1 + VJ /Va) ok and this is known as propulsive efficiency.
(Refer Slide Time 10:02)

Now every power generating machine has thermal efficiency also. So a jet engine has thermal
efficiency. And thermal efficiency is again,[ (1 + F/A)V J2 - Va 2 ]/ 2, that is the change in the
kinetic energy. Multiplied by N calorific value of the fuel, or this is the mass of the fuel
associated per kg of air. And this will give the thermal efficiency of jet engine. And ƞ o = ƞth ×
ƞp. And that will give the overall efficiency of the jet propulsion system.
(Refer Slide Time 11:04)

479
Now the there are certain advantages of jet propulsions over other methods or other
technologies. So there are certain advantages of jet propulsion system. First of all, specific
weight is less specific weight means mass per unit of power generation it is less. So that is
why it is used for it is suitable for the aircrafts or air aviation. Unbalanced force is no
unbalanced force there is no unbalanced force in jet propulsion system.

So when unbalanced force is not there, reliability is high reliability is high when there is no
unbalanced force because chances of failure are less and we can go for higher thrust right.
Third is small frontal area so a small frontal area means it is suitable for the purpose of for
aviation purpose because it has a small front frontal area which will produce lesser drag
during the movement in the air.

There is no restriction in the power output. In IC engines, if you use, in aircrafts we use IC
engine detonation is the limiting parameter. But here detonation the no detonation takes place
so detonation is not a limiting parameter in case of jet engine. It can go for a very high speed.
Speed is high and lubrication is IC, if you use IC earlier in in in aircrafts IC engines were
used.

But IC engines because it is a sliding type slider crane type mechanism is used in IC engines,
substantial lubrication is required. In jet engines that much lubrication is not required so that
is also benefit. At higher altitude where pressure is very low, their efficiency is better than
other engines. So for higher altitude because these aircrafts they normally navigate at the

480
height of then kilometers or twelve kilometers at that height its efficiency is better than the
other engines right and there are no pressure fluctuations in this engine also.

So there are certain benefits that is why this engine is used for aircrafts or air navigation. But
there are certain disadvantages also. First of all noise level is very high in jet engines the
noise level is very high. So that is why normally though it is always said that the gas turbines
having high very high thermal efficiency if you compare with the uh IC engines. But they are
not used for surface transportation. So noise is also one of the criteria.

There are other things also like power load efficiency of these turbo machines is very poor if
you compared with the reciprocating machines or reciprocating engines like petrol engine or
diesel engine. Their power load efficiency is much much better than power load efficiency of
gas turbines. Because when we run the vehicle on the road, we do not run the vehicle on the
designed condition.

When you are driving a scooter you are driving in the first gear in the crowded area. When
you are highway you are driving your car or scooter exceeding the optimum design
parameters. So we rarely drive our vehicles on optimum design conditions or design
condition. So when we deviate, we always deviate from the design conditions.

And if you use the gas turbine engine or the jet engine for these type of applications, because
they have very low power load efficiency so they are unsuitable for such type of applications.
But noise is also one of the criteria why these engines are not used for surface transportation.
So now after this we will solve one numerical on jet propulsion. We have already discussed
the jet propulsion, thrust, thrust power, propulsive efficiency, propulsive power, propulsive
efficiency, advantages of jet propulsion.
(Refer Slide Time 15:33)

481
Now we will do one example on jet propulsion now here, in a jet propulsion unit, the total
pressure and total temperature at intake to the compressor are .6 bar and 0 degree centigrade.
(Refer Slide Time 15:45)

So P1 or is equal to or let us say P1, P0 it is confusing with the stagnation so we will start with
P1. So P1 is 0.6 bar and T1 is 273 k. The speed of the propulsion unit is 190 m/s ok. So Va =
190 m/s.

The total temperature and total pressure of gas is after the combustion entering the turbine are
7500 C and 3 bar so we will write on the figure itself. So this is temperature and entropy
diagram for jet propulsion. This is this place takes place in diffuser, 1, 2, 2' then 3, 3' sorry,
diffuser is there or not?
(Refer Slide Time 17:07)

482
Diffuser, they have not taken into account so we will not take diffuser into account. So
simply compression is taking place, 1 to 2, 2' right. Now 2 to 3, heat addition constant
pressure heat addition this is P2 and then expansion in a turbine, 4, 4' and then expansion in a
nozzle 5, 5 '. So the temperature is 7500 C.

So T3 is 750 + 273 and that is going to be 1023 k and pressure is P 3 is 3 bar. So P2 or P3 is 3

bar so compression is taking place from this .6 bar to 3 bar. The isentropic efficiency of
compressor and turbine are 85% and 80% isentropic efficiency of compressor and turbine.

So compressor is 85% efficiency of the turbine is 80%. The static back pressure of propulsive
propulsion nozzle is .5 bar and the efficiency of the nozzle based on total pressure available is
90%. So efficiency of the nozzle is 90%.

And back pressure of the nozzle is .5 bar this back pressure is .5 bar. Determine power
consumed by compressor per kg of air. So let us assume that 1 kg per second of air is
circulated in the system. So first of all in order to find the compressor power, we will
calculate the value of T2, T2 = T1 (P2/P1 )(γ-1)/γ.

So here it is fixed, 1.4 gamma = 1.4. So T 2 is 273 (3/ 0.6).286 and this will give T2 as 432.6 K
right. Now we have to find the value of T2’ , T2’.

So T2 dash is so in order to find T2 dash we will use the efficiency. Now the efficiency of the
compressor is 85 %. So 0.85 = (T 2 - T1 )/( T2’ - T1) . So T2’ = T1 + (T2 - T1 ) / 0.85. So here we

483
will get the value of T because T1 and T2 are known to us now. So we will get the value of
T2’ = 457.2 K.

Now we have the value of temperature two and 2 ’ as well. We have the temperature at state 3
also which is 1023 K right. Now with the help of these we can find how much mass of fuel
has been added, because we have the calorific value of the fuel also, it is 42 MJ/kg. So we
can find how much fuel has been added or has been burned with the help of one kg of air
right.
(Refer Slide Time 21:08)

So (1 +mf) Cpg T3 -Cpa T2’ . So CP air T2’, because mass of the air is one kg here. Now we will
take (1 + mf) 1.296× 1023 – 1.005 ×457.2.

Now if you solve this and this is equal to mass of the fuel multiplied by calorific value of the
fuel that is 42000 kJ/kg because here we are dealing with the kilojoules. Now from this
equation we will get the mass of the fuel and mass of the fuel is 0.017 kg /kg of air right.
(Refer Slide Time 22:39)

484
Or we can say that for burning one kg of fuel the air required is one by m f and that is equal to
58.7 kg. So for burning one kg of fuel we need 58.7 kg of air per kg of fuel, fine. Now here
power of the turbine the output of this turbine is used for running this compressor.
(Refer Slide Time 23:19)

So CP (T2’ - T1), this is the work consumed by the compressor is equal to C pg (T3 -T4’)( 1 +
mf). Mass of the fuel we have already calculated, T 3 is with us and what about T 4’ ? T2’is with
us, T1 with us. We can from here we can get the value of T 4’. Mass of fuel we have already
calculated. We will put here, mass of the fuel, CP of air is known to us.

The CP of the air is 1.005 kJ/ kg, T 2’ is 457.2 K. T1 is 273 K, Cpg is also there. Which is
1.1296, T3 1023. T4’ is not known to us, mf is 0.017 right. So from here we will get the value
of T4’ this T4’ and this T4’ is 861.9 K.

485
And once we have the value of T 4’ and we know the isentropic efficiency of turbine, it is 80
percent.
(Refer Slide Time 25:17)

So isentropic efficiency of the turbine is ƞ= (T3 - T4’ ) /( T3 - T4). Or we can say T4 = T3 – (T3 -
T4’) /ƞt ok. Now here again T3 is 1023, T4’ we have just calculated 861.9 kelvin this is 0.8.

Now out these we will get the value of T 4 as 821.6 kelvin. We have efficiency of this nozzle
also that is 90% right. And efficiency of the nozzle is ƞ n = (T4’- T5’)/( T4 - T5 )ok. And here
also sorry T4’ it is not T4 - T5, T4’ because expansion is taking place from here. So T4 – T5’)/(T4
- T5).

Now here also this is 90%, 0.9, T4’ 861.9. T5’ we have to find yes T5’ is not with us right now
T4’ is 861.9 and T5 is T5. We have calculated T5 or not? T5 we have not calculated yet T 5 also
we have not calculated yet. But T5 we can always calculate as T5 / T4’ = (P5 / P4’ ) (n-1)/n ok.
From here we will calculate the value of T5. And this T5 value because T4’ is with us, P5 is
with us, P4’ is with us right and from here we will get the value of T 5 right. And from once we
have the value of T5 we can calculate the value of T5’.
(Refer Slide Time 28:45)

486
And now T5’ can be calculated and T5’ is 635 . No T 5 682 K right. Now after calculating T 5’ ,
we can calculate ∆ h, enthalpy drop. Now this is a nozzle related problem so enthalpy drop in
the nozzle will be ∆h = CP (T4’ - T5’).

Once we have ∆h in the nozzle, we can calculate the velocity of jet Vj= √(2×1000×∆h). Now
we have jet velocity. Once we have the jet velocity we can calculate what? Thrust total
pressure of gas leaving the turbine thrust per kg of thrust per kg. So thrust we have to
calculate thrust right. So in order to calculate thrust T= ( Vj – Va) This is thrust per kg, per kg
of air right. And VJ we have taken from here and Va is already given, 190 m/s .
We can calculate the thrust. This you can do by yourself in this question part C, total pressure
of gas leaving the turbine. So I missed that part, actually I have taken the value from the
solution that is 1.44 bar right.
I that I have taken from the solution that is P 4 = 1.44 bar. But we can easily calculate here
because we know the value of P3. So P4 / P3 = (T4 / T3 )n / (n-1) right. From here because we have
all other values, we can always calculate the value of P4 and it is coming 1.44 right. And now
subsequent solution, I have directly used this value, P4 = 1.44 bar.
(Refer Slide Time 31:34)

487
There is one thing I missed here I have directly calculated the taken the value of T 4. So T4 is
T3 – (T3 - T4’ )/ 0.8. From here we can get the value of T 4 because T4’ is already with us.
Efficiency of turbine it is 80%. It is given here, T3 is also available with us and this will give
the value of T4 as 821.6 K.
(Refer Slide Time 32:18)

Now once we have the value of T4, then we have to find the pressure ratio so the P 4 / P3 = (T4
/ T3) n/(n-1) right. From here, we will get the pressure P4. And P4 we have calculated as 1.44 bar
which is also used in subsequent solution. And this 1.44 bar is the solution for total pressure
of gas leaving the turbine that is part C of this problem right.

That that is all for today in the next class we will solve some more work example on this
steam and gas power systems. Thank you very much

488
 Steam and Gas Power Systems
Prof. Ravi Kumar
Department Of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Roorkee

Module No # 08
Lecture No # 40
Problem Solving

I welcome you all in this course on steam and gas power systems, in this session we will
solve few problems based on this course starting from steam power systems.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:32)

So the first problem is related with the steam power system based on modified rankine cycle
in the steam power plant working on rankine cycle steam enters the HP turbine at the 30 bar
and pressure 4000 C.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:56)

489
So there is a steam power plant in this power plant we will draw the processes on temperature
entropy diagram which is quality zero this is quality one the steam enters the HP turbine at
330 bar pressure 4000 C temperature. So 30 bar 4000 C the steam enters the turbine right.

So P1 is 30 bar then T1 is 4000 C the steam expands in HP turbine up to 6 bar pressure and
then it is reheated to 4000 C again. So that temperature is restored in the re-heater from the re-
heater the steam enters the low pressure turbine and expands to 0.1 bar pressure the isotropic
efficiencies of both the turbine is 0.8.

Isotropic efficiency of both the turbine is 0.8 now the issue is definitely first of all let us find
out the state of steam at 30 bar pressure and 4000 C temperature. If we look at this steam table
this is 30 bar is 3 MPa. So 3 MPa the saturation temperature is 233.840 C
(Refer Slide Time: 02:31)

490
It means the steam is super heated now super heated steam at 400 0 C the enthalpy of steam is
2933.5 this is enthalpy is 3200 and 31.7 kJ/kg right. So h 1 is 3231.7 kJ/kg and T1 is already
given. So it is a super heated steam now entropy because the expand is expansion is isotropic
posses.

So the entropy at this stage is 400 and 6.9234 kJ/kg-K right. So we have state fix now
isotropic expansion is taking place up to 6 bar state2 6 bar so at 6 bar entropy is going to
remain constant. So let us look at the properties at 6 bar that is 6 kPa the entropy constant
entropy. So when the entropy is remaining constant it is saturation saturated from the entropy
6.7592.

It means at 6 bar the steam is still super heated right and through cross interpretation because
at 4000C. It is 7.7 so 6.92 will lie between these two 200 0C and 1580C. So linear
interpretation will be done and then we will get the value of S 2. S2 = 6.9233 = Sf + X Sfg right
similar time of numerical.

We have solved similar type of numerical with the respective lecture related with the vapour
power cycles from here we will get the value of X right. Now h 2 I have done the cross
interpretation. Now h2 is 2830.3 kJ/kg right and X we cannot calculate for because this is
already super heated. So this is this cannot be done. So vapour is super-heated at state 1it is
expanded to state 2.

491
Right at state 2 it appears to be super heated and it is super heated because the entropy is
6.7592 and here entropy is 6.9232. So it is super heated and to linear interpretation we have
calculated the value of h2 . So h1 is 323.7 and h2 is 2830.3 kJ/kg.

But this is not an isotropic process in action. It is processing like this is 2 ’ right and this

falling on this line. So h2’ then again (h2’ - h1) /( h2 –h1) sorry (h1 - h2 )/( h1 – h2’ ) = ƞi isotropic
efficiency of turbine it is already given. So it is isotopic efficiency is already given we have
the values of h1 and h2 as well.

So h2 dash can be calculated from here and h 2 dash is 2910.9 kJ/Kg now this super heated
vapour is reheated up to stage three and that is again at 400 0 C. So T3 is 400 0C. So from here
the properties of super-heated vapor at 4000 C we can get the value of enthalpy.

So h3 is 3270.8 kJ/kg this is enthalpy at state 3 now again steam is expanding and it is going
up to 0.1 bar now entropy at state 3 S3 is it is 600 kPa 400 it is 7.7097 kJ/kg now entropy of at
.1 bar this is 10 kPa the entropy is 8.1488.

It means the vapour is the quality of vapour is less than one so you will take S 3 is equal to this
is let us say this is 4 Sf4 + X Sfg4 now entropy starting from here entropy at state 3 = entropy at
state 4 because saturated vapour the entropy or saturated vapour at state 4 is higher than that
entropy at state 3 that is why it the vapour available at state 4 is does not have quality is equal
to 1 it is quality less than 1.

So I am repeating the steps first of all we have taken the steam super heated steam at state 1
properties are taken from the steam table at 400 0 C temperature and 30 bar steam is expanded
to 6 bar we have compared the properties and we have found that at 6 bar also or 600 kilo
Pascal also or the steam is superheated right by linear interpolation from the steam.

We have calculated the enthalpy at state 2 efficiencies given we have calculated the enthalpy

at state 2’ because efficiency is .9 then again it is reheated to state three which is at 400
degree centigrade. So those properties are also taken from the steam table for the super heated

492
vapour at 600 kilo Pascal then steam is expanded in the low pressure turbine and at the exit
the pressure is .1 bar.

And now we have compared the entropies and we have found that the quality is less than one
so we have we are going to use this equation now S 3 we have taken from here S f4 and Sfg4 ,S4
and Sfg4 shall be taken from the steam table and after manipulation the value of quality is 0.94.
So X = 0.94 that is the quality of vapour at this state. Once we have the quality of vapour at
this state.

Then we can find the h4 = hf4 + X hfg4 right and using this equation when we calculate the
value of h4 then we get the value of h4 as 2440.4 kJ/kg but this passes is also not isotropic
right so we get another state 4’ this is 4 right and for 4’again isotropic efficiency is

ƞi =(h3 - h4’ ) /( h3 - h4 ) now from here we get the enthalpy at 4’.

So h4’ is 2606.5 kJ/ kg. Right now we have enthalpies at all the points now this vapour is then
available at the exit of the turbine .It is condensed fully condensed then we get 5 then
pressurised and then it goes to the boiler and then like this so it is 5, 6, 7 and then 1 this is 8
and then 1.

So feed water goes to the boiler at pressure six at state 6 heat is added here up to state 1
expansion in high pressure turbine then again reheat then again expansion at low pressure
turbine and then condensation in condenser. Now work of a pump is Wp= v 5 (P6 – P5 ), P5 is
0.1 bar P6 is 30 bar.

So it is 101 × 10 -5
×(30 – 0.1) ×102 then is that is in kJ/ kg input given by the pump that is
vdp. So this is given in bar we have converted into the kJ sorry kPa this pressure in bar is
converted into the pressure in kPa and then we have calculated the work of the pump.

Now work of the turbine = (h1 – h2’ )+( h3 – h4’ ) this is because we are getting work output
from here and work output from here net output is because this part of the energy is used for
running the pump. So this will be minus work of the pump will be the net output of from this
is system from the cycle output of the turbines minus energy consumed by the pump.

493
Now heat supplied during this process is equal to now we do not know the enthalpy at state 6
but we have a enthalpy of state 5 that is enthalpy of saturated liquid at 0.5 bar that is h f
191.81 so if in this enthalpy. We had the pump work we will get enthalpy of a state 6 or what
we can do h1 - h5 that is enthalpy difference between this and this and we will add the pump
work.

Then we will get enthalpy at state 6 because now after calculating the net output we have to
calculate how much heat is given in the system. So the heat is given in the cycle is h 1 - h6 but
we do not have the enthalpy at h6 because h6 fluid is compressed liquid right. But we have
enthalpy at state 5 this enthalpy at state 5 is nothing but the enthalpy of the liquid h f =191.81
ok.

So heat added during this process h6 to h1 we can take h1 – h5 this is enthalpy this minus
enthalpy this plus sorry minus work consumed by the pump because this is not this heat
energy is not added in the boiler so minus work of the pump. So that is the net heat added
from state 1 to state 6 plus heat added during state 3 to state 2 ’ because it is a reheat cycle +

h3- h2’ this is the net amount of heat added in the cycle.

So here in this question we have to find the net output per kg of a steam mass flow rate. So
net output we are getting from here from this equation all the values are known to us right
thermal efficiency of the cycle will take the ratio net output divided by the heat supplied will
give the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Now third one is the steam rate the steam rate is
3600 divided by W the output and this will be in kg/ kWh right and next is Carnot efficiency
for the temperature limits of the reheat cycle.

So Carnot efficiency the minimum temperature is this maximum temperature is this so we

can always calculate the Carnot efficiency of the cycle right. Now after this we will take
another numerical on gas turbines. Now we will quickly we will go through the steps to solve
this numerical now this numerical has two state compression it is the gas turbine is equipped
with intercooling regeneration and reheat arrangements ok.

494
So a gas turbine is equipped with intercooling regeneration and reheats arrangement the HP
turbine is used to drive the compressor and LB turbine gives the output. So there are two
turbines one is driving the compressor and another is giving the output the exhaust pressure
of LP turbine is 1bar and the turbine inlet temperature for both the turbine is 1020 K
(Refer Slide Time: 19:41)

The isotropic efficiency of turbine in compressors is 0.85 the compression takes place in two
stages. So there are two compressors and two turbines right. The atmospheric pressure sorry
atmospheric temperature and pressure are 300 K and 1bar respectively the effectiveness of
regeneration is 75% consider the air as a working fluid throughout the cycle.

Find the following output of the cycle thermal efficiency is specific air consumption in
kg/kWh.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:20)

495
So it is a cycle which is drawn on temperature entropy diagram it has two stage compression
it is so 1 to 2 and it has certain isotropic efficiency 2 ’ then cooling after cooling again it is 3
and then this is 3’. So first compression and then intetrcooling and then again compression
then in the compression chamber the two turbines.

T6 and then expension is high pressure turbine then we get T 6 to 7, state7 to then again state
temperature at 6 is equal to temperature at 8 then again expansion and we get state 9 and this
is 9’. So compression then cooling because there is a perfect intercooling when T 1 = T3 and
then heat addition expansion in turbine and then again reheating and T6 = T8.

It is given in the problem statement then expansion in high pressure turbine and low pressure
turbine this is the arrangement. Now here again first of all we will calculate the value of T 2 =
(γ-1)/γ
T1 (P2 / P1) now T1 is 300 and P2 is 2.5 pressure in each temperature is 2.5 raise to
power .286 and this will give 389.8 K.

So T2 is 389.8 K right now similarly we will calculate the T 2’ sorry T2’ and in order to
calculate T2’ again the efficiency ƞ= T2 – T1 / ( T2’ - T1 )here we have the value of T2 and T1 as
well and efficiency is also with us right we are using these values. We will get the T 2’ as
405.6 K.

Now we need not calculate the value of T 3 and T3’ because T2’ is going to be because
polytropic efficiency is same. So T2 dash is going to T3’ and T1 = T3. So T 3’ is also =T2’ ok

496
sorry this is not 3 this is 3 this is 4. 4 is not 3 this is 4 this is 4 ’ so T4’. So we need not
calculate the value of 4 or 4’.

So T4 =T2 and T4’ = T2’ now work of the compressor is equal to first the C P( T2’- T1 ) because
there is a perfect intercooling work in both the work consumed by the both the compressor is
same. So we can always multiply it by 2 T 2’ and T1 when we are putting the values we are
getting the work of the compressor as 212.3 kJ/ kg. Now the work of the compressor with us.

Now these compressors are run with the high pressure turbine as per the statement of the
problem. The HP turbine is used to drive compressors and LP turbine gives the output it
means CP (T6 –T7) = 212.3. Right and T2 we have with us 1020 Kelvin .So T 6 is where as we
can calculate the value of T7 and T7 is sorry here there is a correction instead of T6 it is T7 dash
because the power is developed in this process.

So it is going to be T7 dash right. So CP (T6 – T7’ ) now from here we will get the value of T 7
dash once and that is equal to 808.8 K now once we have the value of T 7’ we can calculate the

value of T7 it is ƞ= (T6 – T7’)/( T6 – T7 )= 0.85 T6 is we have already given in the problem

statement T7’.

We have calculated right Now we can calculate the value of T 7 now the T7 is 771.1 K sorry
this is 771.5 K. we have already we are having now we are having the value of T 7 now we are
having the value of T6 we are also having the value of P 6 now we can get the value of T 7 so
T6 /T7 = (P6/ P7 ) (γ-1)/γ.

From here we will get the value of P 7 now the P7 is 2.35 bar right now P 7 is same as P8 it is
the constant pressure process now we have the value of T8 and P8 now we can find the value
of T9 = T8 (P9 / P8 )(γ-1)/γ.

So this is 1 bar and T8 is 1020, 1 by P8 is 2.35, 0.286 and this will give the value of
temperature at state 9 and this is 799.1 K. again we have the efficiency of this .85 and we can
calculate the value of T9’ and T9’ is 872.2 K right now we have temperatures at all salient
states or salient points.

497
Now work of the turbineW = C P (T8 – T9’) during this process CP for air we know that is
1.005(1020 – 832.2) and this W = 188.7 kJ/kg right now with the exhaust of this heating of
the gas which is coming from the compressor is done.

Right the gas available is at T9’ and compressor outlet is T4’ and suppose it is heated up to T5
right. So actually transfer is (T5 - T4’) × CP /[( T9’ - T4’ )×CP] and that is equal to how much
effectiveness is 75%, 0.75 now from here we will get the value of T 5 because T4’ is with us
T9.

We have already calculated T4’ CP will be cancelled .75 is given. So from here we will get the
value of T5 and T5 is 725.5 Kelvin right now heat added in the cycle now heat added is Q now

heat added is enthalpy at 6 - enthalpy at 5. So Q is C P (T6 – T5 )+ CP (T8 – T7’). We have

temperatures at all these points CP.

We can take for air and now we get the value of Q = 508.1 kJ/kg because in the entire cycle
heat is added at two places here and here and this much heat is coming from the exhaust
gases right. Now we have the value of Q thermal efficiency is going to be the output of this
turbine divided by Q because this output of the turbine is used to run the compressor.

So it is going to be (188.7 /508.1) ×100 and this is going to be 37.1% and the specific air
consumption is nothing but 3600 divided by work of the turbine 188.7 and that is going to be
equal to 19.08 kg/ kWh now after this we will quickly go for this numerical.

This is very interesting numerical on the leakage in or losses in steam turbines in this
numerical it is stated that the calculate the leakage loss through diaphragm packing in a
turbine under the following conditions steam pressure before nozzle a steam so we have to
calculate the leakage through the diaphragm in the diaphragm the nozzles are fixed the steam
pressure before nozzle.

14 bar a steam super heat 550 C steam pressure after nozzle is given shaft diameter is given
radial clearance.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:11)

498
So the leakage will take place through radial clearance right and there are constrictions I will
draw in larger figure there constrictions provided here and number of constrictions is four so
four constrictions are provided. So it means dwell spaces are three this side pressure is 14 bar
now we have to calculate how much a steam will leak through constrictions clearance is also
given here.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:58)

Radial clearance is 0.04 centimetres around 400 microns right .So first of all from the steam
table ts corresponding saturation temperature corresponding to 14 bar. So tS = 195.040 C this is
the saturation temperature from the steam table but the steam is super heated by 550 C.

So degree of super heat this is 550 C is degree of super heat. So we will add 55 here so
temperature of the steam is 250.040 C. Now area of constriction Ag. Now Ag = CcπDε and

499
this is clearance right this is constriction coefficient because when there is a flow in sudden
obstruction or sudden construction contraction or enlargement vena contracta is formed.

Ag = 0.75 ×.25×0.04×10-2 and that is the area right and this is Ag is we will write here. Ag is
-4
2.355 ×10 m2 second thing we have to see on the tailing side the pressure is greater than
critical pressure or less than critical pressure because in both the cases the analysis will be
different.

So on this side tailing side the critical pressure Pcr= 0.85 P1 /√( ZC + 1.5) here ZC is number
of constriction they are four and P1 is 14 bar right and now from here we get the P critical as
5.074 bar.

Now this critical pressure is less than the pressure at that side this is 12.5 bar it means on the
other side the pressure is not less than the critical pressure it is above the critical pressure
once on the other side the pressure is above the critical pressure the leakage through the
constriction will be mleake = Ag √[(P12– P22 )/ ZP1V1] now we have the value of P1 14 bar P2.

How much 12.5 bar will convert them into kilo pascal right and then Z P 1 this is P1 same Z P1
and is specific volume so specific volume of a steam super heated steam we have taken from
the steam table as 0.1635 m3/ kg. So initially we had a steam which is super-heated by 55 0 C.

So we have taken the specific volume of that steam right from the steam table that is this
specific volume initial pressure is known that is 14 bar and pressure on the other side is 12.5
bar and this will give the leakage as mass of a leakage as 0.155 kg /s so this is the leakage
this is the amount of leakage taking place through these constrictions.

Now it has three dwells and dwell spaces number of dwell spaces is three and m= Ag √[(P12–
P22 )/ ZP1V1] ok now here leakage is because it is moving in this direction. So the leakage is
same 0.155 P1 is 14 bar this is 14 bar right now ZC we have to see now P1 is again 14 bar PX.

We have to calculate I think also calculate the pressures in dwell spaces so dwell space
pressure dwell space one pressure dwell space two pressure in dwell space three so this we
have to calculate rest of the information is with us and if we put the values we get the value

500
for PX =√( 196 - 9.915 ZC ) when you put ZC = 1 we get the value of PX I will write here when
ZC = 1 then or we can P1 = 13.64.

When we put this = 2 then we get P 2 = 13.27 and when we put this is = 3 we get P 3 as 12.98
bar they are all bar right and beyond that there is a pressure of 12.5 bar. So this is how we can
calculate for this information have designing the seals for steam turbines. Ok this was the last
lecture I wish all of you best of luck for the coming examination of this course thank you
very much.

501
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