Concrete Technology & Masonry Structures

Bibek Subedi (PUL078BCE035)

Chapter 2
Structure of Concrete

2.1 Definition
Concrete structures are integral to modern construction
due to their versatility, durability, and relatively low cost.
Concrete structures form the backbone of modern
infrastructure, embodying a blend of engineering
principles and architectural aesthetics. Their design and
construction require meticulous planning, precise
execution, and ongoing maintenance to ensure longevity
and performance.

2.2 Concrete as three phase system

Concrete is often described as a three-phase system, consisting of the following
components:
1. Aggregates Phase
2. Binding Medium Phase
3. Transition Phase

2.2.1 Aggregates Phase :

❖ Description: The aggregate phase comprises inert materials added to concrete to
provide strength, volume, and dimensional stability. It occupies the majority of the
concrete volume.
❖ Components/Elements:
• Coarse Aggregates: Larger particles like gravel and crushed stone that
contribute bulk and strength.
• Fine Aggregates: Smaller particles such as sand that fill voids and improve
workability.
• Gradation: The distribution of particle sizes within aggregates influences
concrete properties.

2.2.2 Binding Medium Phase :

❖ Description: The binding medium phase is the paste that binds the aggregate
particles together in concrete. It includes cementitious materials, water, and various
additives.
❖ Components/Elements:
• Cementitious Materials: Typically Portland cement, finely ground clinker
particles mixed with gypsum to control setting.
• Water: Essential for the hydration of cement particles and formation of
hydrated cementitious compounds.

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• Admixtures: Enhance properties such as workability, strength, and durability

(e.g., plasticizers, superplasticizers).
• Supplementary Cementitious Materials: Include fly ash, slag, etc., which can
replace part of the cement to improve sustainability and performance.

2.2.3 Transition Phase :

❖ Description: The transition phase is the interface region between the binding
medium and aggregate phases. It exhibits unique properties compared to the bulk
binding medium and influences concrete behavior.
❖ Components/Elements:
• Capillary Pores: Small voids or pores within the transition zone formed due
to hydration rate differences.
• Interfacial Bonding: Quality of bonding between the binding medium and
aggregate surfaces, impacting load transfer and mechanical properties.
• Microcracks and Defects: Potential discontinuities that can affect the
transition zone's strength and durability.
• Properties: Porosity, permeability, and strength properties of the transition
zone play a crucial role in concrete performance.

Phase Description Components/Elements

Inert materials providing Coarse aggregates (e.g., gravel, crushed stone),
strength and volume in fine aggregates (e.g., sand, crushed stone fines),
Aggregate concrete gradation
Cementitious materials (e.g., Portland cement,
additives), water, admixtures (e.g., plasticizers,
Binding The paste that binds the superplasticizers), fibers, supplementary
Medium aggregates together cementitious materials (e.g., fly ash, slag)
Interface between the Capillary pores, interfacial bonding, microcracks,
binding medium and defects, properties (e.g., porosity, permeability,
Transition aggregates strength)

2.2.4 Interactions Between Phases

❖ Hydration Process:
• Water reacts with cement to form calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and other
compounds, binding the aggregates together.
• Proper hydration is crucial for developing the desired mechanical properties
of concrete.
❖ Porosity and Permeability:
• The interconnectedness of voids affects the permeability of concrete. Lower
permeability enhances durability by reducing the ingress of harmful
substances.
❖ Thermal and Moisture Movements:

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•Differential thermal expansion and moisture movement between the solid,

liquid, and gaseous phases can cause internal stresses and cracking.
❖ Microstructure Development:
• The arrangement and distribution of the three phases at the microstructural
level significantly influence the overall performance of the concrete.

2.2.5 Practical Implications

❖ Mix Design: Achieving an optimal balance between the three phases is essential for
producing concrete with the desired properties. This involves selecting appropriate
types and proportions of aggregates, maintaining a suitable water-cement ratio, and
controlling air content.
❖ Quality Control: Ensuring uniform distribution of phases through proper mixing,
placing, and curing techniques is vital for consistent concrete quality.
❖ Durability Considerations: Designing concrete to minimize the connectivity of
pore structures and protect against environmental exposure is key to enhancing its
lifespan.

2.3 Structure of Aggregate Phase

The aggregate phase of concrete consists of various sized particles that form the bulk of the
concrete mix. The structure of this phase is crucial for the mechanical properties, durability,
and overall performance of the concrete. Here's a detailed look at the structure of the
aggregate phase:

2.3.1 Types of Aggregates

❖ Coarse Aggregates:
• Size: Typically larger than 4.75 mm (0.19 inches) and can range up to several
inches.
• Materials: Crushed stone, gravel, recycled concrete.
• Shape: Angular, sub-angular, or rounded, depending on the source and
method of production.
❖ Fine Aggregates:
• Size: Smaller than 4.75 mm and typically above 0.075 mm (0.003 inches).
• Materials: Natural sand, manufactured sand, crushed stone dust.
• Shape: Generally more rounded compared to coarse aggregates.

2.3.2 Characteristics of the Aggregate Phase

❖ Gradation:
• Well-Graded Aggregates: A mix of different sizes of particles that fill voids
effectively, leading to higher density and reduced void content.
• Gap-Graded Aggregates: Missing certain size fractions, which can lead to
increased voids and potential weaknesses.
❖ Particle Shape and Texture:
• Angular Aggregates: Provide better interlocking and higher strength but
may reduce workability.

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•Rounded Aggregates: Improve workability but offer less interlocking and

strength.
• Surface Texture: Rough textures enhance the bond with the cement paste,
while smooth textures reduce the bond strength.
❖ Aggregate Distribution:
• Uniform Distribution: Ensures consistent properties throughout the
concrete.
• Segregation: Separation of coarse and fine aggregates can lead to weak
zones and reduced performance.

2.3.3 Impact on Concrete Properties

❖ Mechanical Strength:
• Compression Strength: Heavily influenced by the quality, size, and gradation
of aggregates.
• Tensile and Flexural Strength: Improved by well-graded, angular
aggregates with good bonding properties.
❖ Durability:
• Resistance to Abrasion and Wear: High-quality, hard aggregates improve
the surface wear resistance.
• Freeze-Thaw Resistance: Aggregates with low absorption and high density
improve freeze-thaw durability.
❖ Workability:
• Ease of Mixing and Placing: Rounded and well-graded aggregates enhance
workability and ease of placement.
• Segregation and Bleeding: Proper grading reduces segregation and
bleeding, leading to more uniform and cohesive concrete.

2.3.4 Influence on Concrete Microstructure

❖ Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ):
• The region around the aggregate particles where the cement paste and
aggregate interact.
• Typically weaker and more porous than the bulk cement paste, influencing
the overall strength and durability.
• The quality of the ITZ is improved by using supplementary cementitious
materials (SCMs) like fly ash, silica fume, and slag.

2.3.5 Aggregate Properties Affecting Concrete Performance

❖ Density:
• High-density aggregates contribute to the overall density and strength of the
concrete.
• Lightweight aggregates are used to reduce the overall weight of the concrete,
useful in specific applications like high-rise buildings and long-span bridges.
❖ Absorption and Moisture Content:
• Aggregates should be saturated surface dry (SSD) to avoid altering the water-
cement ratio.

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High absorption aggregates may require additional water, affecting the mix
•
design and final properties.
❖ Chemical Stability:
• Aggregates must be inert and not react with the cement paste or
environment to avoid detrimental reactions like alkali-aggregate reactions
(AAR).

2.3.6 Practical Considerations in Aggregate Selection

❖ Source and Quality: Consistent quality and grading from reliable sources.
❖ Economic Factors: Availability and cost-effectiveness.
❖ Specific Project Requirements: Tailoring aggregate selection to meet specific
strength, workability, and durability criteria.

2.4 Structure of hydrated cement paste (HCP) / binding medium phase

The hydrated cement paste (HCP) or binding medium phase is a crucial component of
concrete, responsible for binding the aggregates together and giving the concrete its
strength and durability. The structure and composition of HCP are complex and can
significantly influence the performance of the concrete.

2.4.1 Solids in HCP

The solids in hydrated cement paste (HCP) consist of several phases that result from the
hydration of cement. These phases include various crystalline and amorphous compounds
that collectively contribute to the structural integrity and properties of the concrete. Here’s
a detailed breakdown of the key solid phases in HCP:

Key Solid Phases in Hydrated Cement Paste

❖ Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H)
• Composition: Primarily made of calcium, silicon, oxygen, and hydrogen.
• Structure: Amorphous or poorly crystalline, resembling a gel.
• Function: The primary binding phase in concrete, providing most of its
strength and cohesion.
• Properties: High surface area and ability to fill voids between other
particles, contributing to the overall density and mechanical properties.
❖ Calcium Hydroxide (CH) or Portlandite
• Chemical Formula: Ca(OH)₂.
• Structure: Crystalline with a hexagonal plate-like morphology.
• Function: Contributes to the alkalinity of the paste, which protects
embedded steel reinforcement from corrosion.
• Properties: High solubility in water compared to other hydration products,
making it more prone to leaching.
❖ Ettringite
• Chemical Formula: Ca6Al2(SO4)3(OH)12⋅26H2O
• Structure: Needle-like crystals.
• Function: Forms during the early stages of hydration from the reaction of
calcium aluminate compounds with gypsum.

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•Properties: Provides some early strength but can convert to monosulfate

over time.
❖ Monosulfate
• Chemical Formula: Ca4Al2(SO4)(OH)12⋅6H2O
• Structure: Plate-like crystals.
• Function: Forms from the transformation of ettringite at later stages of
hydration when sulfate is depleted.
• Properties: Stable at lower sulfate concentrations and contributes to long-
term strength.
❖ Unreacted Cement Particles
• Composition: Includes clinker minerals like alite (C₃S), belite (C₂S),
aluminate (C₃A), and ferrite (C₄AF).
• Structure: Remain as original crystalline structures.
• Function: Can continue to hydrate over time, contributing to long-term
strength development.
• Properties: Acts as a potential reserve for further hydration reactions.
❖ Calcium Aluminosilicate Hydrate (C-A-S-H)
• Composition: Similar to C-S-H but with aluminum incorporated.
• Structure: Amorphous to poorly crystalline.
• Function: Forms in the presence of supplementary cementitious materials
(SCMs) like fly ash and slag.
• Properties: Enhances the durability and chemical resistance of the paste.

Microstructure and Distribution

❖ Porosity:
• Capillary Pores: Large voids remaining from the initial mix water not used
in hydration.
• Gel Pores: Smaller voids within the C-S-H structure.
• Impact: Lower porosity generally means higher strength and durability.
❖ Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ):
• Description: The region around aggregate particles where the paste is less
dense and more porous.
• Structure: Characterized by larger crystals of CH and fewer C-S-H phases
compared to the bulk paste.
• Impact: Often the weakest link in concrete, affecting mechanical properties
and durability.

Chemical Reactions and Hydration Process

❖ Initial Hydrolysis:
• Compounds: Alite (C₃S) and belite (C₂S) start to dissolve and react with
water.
• Products: Formation of C-S-H and CH.
❖ Formation of Early Hydrates:
• Compounds: Tricalcium aluminate (C₃A) reacts with gypsum to form
ettringite.

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• Products: Needle-like ettringite crystals that provide early strength.

❖ Later Stage Hydration:
• Compounds: Depletion of gypsum leads to the conversion of ettringite to
monosulfate.
• Products: Formation of monosulfate and continued growth of C-S-H and CH.

Factors Affecting the Solid Phase Composition

❖ Water-Cement Ratio (w/c):
• Impact: Influences the amount of capillary porosity and the degree of
hydration.
• Optimal Range: Lower w/c ratios reduce porosity and increase the
proportion of solid phases.
❖ Curing Conditions:
• Temperature: Higher temperatures accelerate hydration but can lead to
non-uniform microstructures.
• Humidity: Adequate moisture is necessary to sustain hydration and avoid
premature drying.
❖ Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs):
• Types: Fly ash, silica fume, slag, and others.
• Impact: Enhance the formation of C-A-S-H and reduce the amount of CH,
improving overall durability and chemical resistance.
❖ Admixtures:
• Types: Superplasticizers, retarders, accelerators, air-entraining agents.
• Impact: Modify the hydration kinetics and the microstructure of the paste,
tailoring properties for specific applications.

2.4.2 Voids in HCP

Voids in hydrated cement paste (HCP) significantly influence the performance of concrete,
as they affect its mechanical properties, durability, and permeability. Among these voids,
the interlayer spacing within the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) structure plays a crucial
role. Here’s an in-depth look at the different types of voids in HCP, with a focus on the
interlayer spacing of C-S-H:

Types of Voids in Hydrated Cement Paste

❖ Capillary Pores
• Size: Typically range from 10 nm to 10 µm.
• Formation: These pores are formed from the space originally occupied by
the mixing water that is not consumed during the hydration process.
• Impact: High capillary porosity leads to lower strength and higher
permeability, making concrete more vulnerable to the ingress of harmful
substances such as chlorides, sulfates, and carbon dioxide.
❖ Gel Pores
• Size: Generally less than 10 nm.
• Formation: These are tiny pores within the C-S-H structure.

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• Impact: Although they contribute to the overall porosity, gel pores are much
smaller and do not significantly affect permeability. They influence the
microstructural properties of the paste, such as creep and shrinkage.
❖ Interlayer Spacing of C-S-H
• Size: Approximately 0.97 nm.
• Formation: C-S-H, the primary binding phase in concrete, has a layered
structure with interlayer spaces that can contain water and ions.
• Impact: The interlayer spacing is crucial for the mechanical properties of C-
S-H. It affects the flexibility and the ability of C-S-H to accommodate
shrinkage and creep. Water within these layers can influence the paste's
stability and its response to environmental changes (humidity and
temperature).
❖ Air Voids
• Size: Typically larger than 1 mm, but can range from a few micrometers to
several millimeters.
• Formation: These can be either entrapped during mixing or intentionally
entrained using air-entraining agents.
• Impact: Entrained air voids improve freeze-thaw resistance by providing
space for water to expand upon freezing. However, excessive air content can
reduce the compressive strength of concrete.
❖ Macropores
• Size: Larger than 50 nm.
• Formation: Can result from incomplete compaction or the presence of large
air voids and bleed water channels.
• Impact: Macropores significantly affect strength and durability by increasing
permeability and reducing mechanical strength.

Influence of Interlayer Spacing of C-S-H

The interlayer spacing of C-S-H plays a critical role in the properties and behavior of
hydrated cement paste:
❖ Hydration Process
• During hydration, calcium silicate minerals react with water to form C-S-H,
which has a layered, gel-like structure. Water and ions can occupy the
interlayer spaces within C-S-H.
❖ Water Retention and Transport
• Water within the interlayer spaces is not easily lost to evaporation and can
contribute to continued hydration over time. This water retention helps to
maintain the long-term strength development of the concrete.
❖ Mechanical Properties
• The interlayer spacing affects the stiffness and strength of C-S-H. Smaller
interlayer spacings can lead to stronger but more brittle C-S-H structures,
while larger spacings can enhance flexibility but reduce overall strength.
❖ Shrinkage and Creep
• Water movement within the interlayer spaces is closely linked to shrinkage
and creep phenomena. As water migrates out of the interlayer spaces during

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drying, shrinkage occurs. Creep is influenced by the long-term redistribution

of water within these spaces under sustained load.
❖ Durability
• The ability of C-S-H to accommodate ions within its interlayer spaces can
influence the durability of the concrete. For example, the ingress of chloride
ions can be slowed down by their interaction with C-S-H, thus enhancing the
concrete's resistance to corrosion of reinforcement.

Mitigating the Impact of Voids

❖ Optimizing Water-Cement Ratio (w/c)
• A lower w/c ratio reduces capillary porosity, leading to denser and stronger
concrete with lower permeability.
❖ Use of Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs)
• SCMs like fly ash, silica fume, and slag can fill voids and refine the pore
structure, reducing permeability and enhancing strength.
❖ Proper Curing
• Adequate curing ensures continued hydration, reducing the risk of high
porosity and improving mechanical properties.
❖ Air-Entraining Agents
• Controlled air content ensures a balance between improving freeze-thaw
resistance and maintaining strength.
❖ Chemical Admixtures
• Plasticizers and superplasticizers improve workability without increasing
water content, helping to reduce voids.

2.4.3 Water in HCP

Water in hydrated cement paste is a critical factor that influences the properties,
workability, strength, durability, and overall performance of concrete. Proper water
management, including controlling the water-cement ratio, optimizing curing practices, and
using appropriate admixtures, is essential for achieving high-quality and durable concrete
structures. Balancing water content to ensure adequate hydration without compromising
strength or durability is key to successful concrete construction.
1. Capillary Water
❖ Definition: Capillary water refers to the water that occupies the capillary pores
within the HCP.
❖ Characteristics:
• Size: Capillary pores are typically in the range of 10 nanometers to 10
micrometers.
• Behavior: Capillary water moves through the capillary network due to
capillary action, influenced by surface tension and pore size.

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❖ Significance:
• Hydration: Capillary water facilitates the hydration process by providing the
water necessary for chemical reactions between cement particles.
• Workability: During mixing, capillary water helps in achieving the desired
consistency and workability of the concrete mix.
• Permeability: Excessive capillary water can increase the permeability of
concrete, making it more susceptible to the ingress of harmful substances.
2. Absorbed Water
❖ Definition: Absorbed water refers to water molecules that are physically adsorbed
onto the surface of cement particles and other solid phases within the HCP.
❖ Characteristics:
• Surface Interaction: Absorbed water is held by physical forces such as Van
der Waals forces and hydrogen bonding.
• Availability: This water is readily available for hydration reactions and
contributes to the overall water content of the paste.
❖ Significance:
• Hydration: Absorbed water participates in the hydration reactions,
contributing to the formation of hydrated cementitious products.
• Strength Development: The presence of absorbed water ensures adequate
moisture for the ongoing hydration process, leading to strength development.
3. Interlayer Water
❖ Definition: Interlayer water refers to water molecules that occupy the interlayer
spaces within the crystal lattice of hydrated phases like calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-
H).
❖ Characteristics:
• Location: Found within the layered structure of C-S-H and other hydrated
phases.
• Retention: Interlayer water is relatively immobile and can be retained within
the structure even under drying conditions.
❖ Significance:
• Stability: Interlayer water contributes to the stability and structural integrity
of hydrated phases, influencing their mechanical properties.

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• Shrinkage Control: The presence of interlayer water helps control drying

shrinkage by maintaining internal moisture content.
4. Chemically Combined Water
❖ Definition: Chemically combined water refers to water molecules that are
chemically bound within the crystal structure of hydrated cementitious phases.
❖ Characteristics:
• Chemical Bonds: Chemically combined water forms part of the chemical
composition of hydrated phases, such as C-S-H and calcium hydroxide (CH).
• Stability: This water is tightly bound and does not readily evaporate or
migrate under normal conditions.
❖ Significance:
• Strength and Durability: Chemically combined water contributes to the
strength and durability of concrete by stabilizing the structure of hydrated
phases.
• Long-Term Performance: It plays a role in the long-term performance of
concrete by influencing its resistance to shrinkage, cracking, and degradation.
Overall Significance of Water in HCP
❖ Hydration: Water is essential for the hydration reactions that lead to the formation
of hydrated cementitious products, providing strength and stability to concrete.
❖ Workability: The proper amount of water is crucial for achieving the desired
workability and consistency during mixing, placing, and finishing of concrete.
❖ Strength and Durability: Water content influences the strength, durability, and
long-term performance of concrete by affecting its porosity, permeability, and
internal moisture content.
❖ Water-Cement Ratio (w/c): The w/c ratio is carefully controlled to optimize the
balance between workability, strength, and durability by ensuring sufficient water
for hydration without causing excessive porosity or permeability.
2.5 Strength, Stability and Durability of HCP
Strength, stability, and durability of hydrated cement paste (HCP) are critical aspects that
determine the overall performance and longevity of concrete structures. Let's explore each
of these factors in detail:
2.5.1 Strength of HCP

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❖ Composition: The primary binding phase in HCP is calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H),
formed during the hydration of cement particles. The amount, structure, and quality
of C-S-H directly impact the strength of the paste.
❖ Water-Cement Ratio (w/c): A lower w/c ratio typically results in higher strength
due to reduced porosity and a denser microstructure. Excess water can weaken the
paste by increasing porosity and decreasing the overall strength.
❖ Curing Conditions: Proper curing methods, such as moist curing or steam curing,
help maintain adequate moisture levels within the paste during the early stages of
hydration. This ensures optimal strength development.
❖ Age: The strength of HCP increases over time as hydration continues and C-S-H
structures mature. Early-age strength is influenced by factors like curing conditions
and the rate of hydration.
2.5.2 Stability of HCP
❖ Chemical Stability: Hydrated cementitious phases, including C-S-H and calcium
hydroxide (CH), provide stability to the paste. Properly hydrated C-S-H contributes
to the long-term stability of concrete.
❖ Microstructural Stability: The microstructure of HCP, including the distribution of
hydration products and voids, influences its stability. A well-structured paste with
adequate hydration is more stable over time.
❖ Temperature and Moisture: Extreme temperature variations and moisture
fluctuations can affect the stability of HCP. Thermal expansion and contraction, as
well as freeze-thaw cycles, can lead to microcracking and reduced stability.
2.5.3 Durability of HCP
❖ Permeability: The porosity and pore structure of HCP affect its permeability. Lower
porosity and finer pore sizes contribute to reduced permeability, enhancing
durability by reducing the ingress of harmful substances like chlorides, sulfates, and
aggressive chemicals.
❖ Chemical Resistance: Properly hydrated HCP exhibits good resistance to chemical
attacks, such as sulfate attack and alkali-silica reaction (ASR). The formation of
stable hydration products and the densification of the paste contribute to this
resistance.
❖ Freeze-Thaw Resistance: A well-designed and properly cured HCP with controlled
air voids exhibits improved resistance to freeze-thaw cycles. Entrapped air voids
accommodate the expansion of freezing water, reducing the risk of damage.

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❖ Abrasion Resistance: The strength and abrasion resistance of HCP are closely
related. A denser and stronger paste with lower porosity tends to have better
resistance to abrasion and wear.
2.5.4 Factors Influencing Strength, Stability, and Durability
• Mix Design: Optimal proportions of cement, water, aggregates, and admixtures are
crucial for achieving the desired properties and performance of HCP.
• Curing Practices: Proper curing methods, duration, and environmental conditions
(temperature, humidity) play a significant role in strength development, stability,
and durability.
• Water-Cement Ratio (w/c): Controlling the w/c ratio to achieve a balance between
workability and strength is essential for the long-term performance of HCP.
• Admixtures: Various admixtures, such as plasticizers, superplasticizers, air-
entraining agents, and pozzolanic materials, can enhance the properties and
durability of HCP.
• Aggregate Properties: The type, size, shape, and gradation of aggregates influence
the strength, stability, and durability of concrete when combined with HCP.
• Environmental Conditions: Exposure to harsh environmental conditions, such as
high temperatures, freeze-thaw cycles, chemical exposure, and abrasion, can affect
the performance of HCP. Proper design and maintenance are necessary to mitigate
these effects.
2.6 Transition Zone in Concrete
The transition zone in concrete holds significant importance due to its direct influence on
the overall performance, durability, and strength of concrete structures. Understanding its
structure and strength is crucial for designing durable and long-lasting concrete.
2.6.1 Significance of Transition Zone:
I. Bonding between Aggregate and Cement Paste:
• The transition zone acts as a bonding interface between the aggregate
particles and the surrounding cement paste. A strong and durable transition
zone enhances the load transfer between aggregates and cement paste,
contributing to the overall mechanical strength of concrete.
II. Effect on Durability:
• A well-designed transition zone with good bonding and reduced porosity
helps in reducing the ingress of harmful substances such as water, chlorides,
sulfates, and aggressive chemicals. This enhances the durability and

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resistance of concrete to deterioration mechanisms like freeze-thaw cycles,

chemical attacks, and alkali-silica reaction (ASR).
III. Influence on Cracking and Microcracks:
• The transition zone plays a role in controlling cracking and the propagation
of microcracks within concrete. A weaker or compromised transition zone
may lead to the development of microcracks, which can affect the overall
structural integrity and durability of concrete.
IV. Impact on Mechanical Properties:
• The properties of the transition zone directly impact the mechanical
properties of concrete, including compressive strength, tensile strength,
modulus of elasticity, and flexural strength. A strong and well-bonded
transition zone contributes to higher mechanical strengths and better load-
bearing capacity.
V. Long-Term Performance:
• The quality and condition of the transition zone significantly influence the
long-term performance and service life of concrete structures. A durable
transition zone contributes to the sustainability and longevity of concrete
infrastructure.
2.6.2 Structure of Transition Zone:
I. Aggregate-Cement Paste Interface:
• The transition zone is the region where the cement paste surrounds and
interacts with the aggregate particles. It typically extends several millimeters
inward from the surface of the aggregate.
II. Porosity and Microstructure:
• The transition zone exhibits higher porosity compared to the bulk cement
paste due to factors like incomplete hydration, voids, and interfacial gaps.
This higher porosity may result in a less dense microstructure with potential
defects such as microcracks.
III. Interfacial Bonding:
• The quality of bonding between the aggregate surface and the cement paste
in the transition zone is critical. Adequate interfacial bonding improves load
transfer and enhances the mechanical properties of concrete.
IV. Aggregate Gradation and Size:

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• The size and gradation of aggregates influence the structure of the transition
zone. Coarser aggregates may have a more pronounced transition zone
compared to finer aggregates due to differences in surface area and
interaction with the cement paste.
2.6.3 Strength of Transition Zone:
I. Mechanical Strength:
• The strength of the transition zone is influenced by factors such as interfacial
bonding, aggregate properties, cement paste composition, and curing
conditions.
• A stronger transition zone contributes to higher mechanical strengths in
concrete, especially in terms of compressive strength and tensile strength.
II. Load Transfer:
• A robust transition zone facilitates effective load transfer between the
aggregate and cement paste, ensuring efficient stress distribution and
enhancing the overall structural integrity of concrete.
III. Impact on Cracking Resistance:
• A well-bonded and strong transition zone helps in controlling the
development and propagation of cracks, improving the resistance of concrete
to cracking under various loading and environmental conditions.
IV. Durability Enhancement:
• A strong transition zone with reduced porosity and good bonding enhances
the durability of concrete by reducing the permeability to water and
aggressive substances, thus mitigating potential deterioration mechanisms.

Summary Table

Aspect Description

Concrete structures are versatile, durable, and cost-effective,

Structure of forming the backbone of modern infrastructure. They consist of
Concrete three phases: Aggregates, Binding Medium, and Transition.

Concrete as
Consists of Aggregates Phase (Coarse and Fine Aggregates),
Three-Phase
Binding Medium Phase (Cementitious Materials, Water,
System
Admixtures, Supplementary Cementitious Materials), and

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Concrete Technology & Masonry Structures
Bibek Subedi (PUL078BCE035)

Aspect Description

Transition Phase (Capillary Pores, Interfacial Bonding,

Microcracks, Defects).

Aggregates include Coarse (e.g., gravel) and Fine (e.g., sand)

particles, influencing mechanical strength, durability, and
Structure of performance. Factors like gradation, shape, and distribution affect
Aggregate Phase properties.

Structure of HCP includes Solid Phases (C-S-H, CH, Ettringite, Monosulfate,

Hydrated Unreacted Cement Particles, C-A-S-H), Microstructure, and
Cement Paste Distribution. Factors like w/c ratio, curing, SCMs, and admixtures
(HCP) influence its composition and properties.

Types include Capillary Pores, Gel Pores, Interlayer Spacing of C-S-

H, Air Voids, and Macropores, impacting properties like
permeability, stability, shrinkage, and mechanical strength.
Mitigating strategies include w/c optimization, SCMs, proper
Voids in HCP curing, and admixtures.

Water exists as Capillary, Absorbed, Interlayer, and Chemically

Combined Water, influencing hydration, workability, strength, and
durability. Management strategies include w/c control, curing, and
Water in HCP admixture use.

Strength, Influenced by composition, w/c ratio, curing, and environmental

Stability, and conditions. Strength increases with proper hydration and curing,
Durability of while stability and durability depend on chemical stability,
HCP microstructural stability, and resistance to external factors.

Significance includes bonding, durability, crack control, mechanical

properties, and long-term performance. Its structure involves the
interface, porosity, microstructure, and interfacial bonding. Factors
Transition Zone affecting strength include interfacial bonding, load transfer, and
in Concrete cracking resistance.

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