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NATO ASI Series
Advanced Science Institutes Series
A series presenting the results of activities sponsored by the NA TO Science
Committee, which aims at the dissemination of advanced scientific and
technological knowledge, with a view to strengthening links between
scientific communities.
The Series is published by an international board of publishers in
conjunction with the NATO Scientific Affairs Division

A Life Sciences Plenum Publishing Corporation

B Physics London and New York
C Mathematical and Kluwer Academic Publishers
Physical Sciences Dordrecht, Boston and London
o Behavioural and
Social Sciences
E Applied Sciences
F Computer and Springer-Verlag
Systems Sciences Berlin Heidelberg New York
G Ecological Sciences London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong
H Cell Biology Barcelona Budapest
I Global Environmental
Change

NATo-pea DATABASE

The electronic index to the NATO ASI Series provides full bibliographical
references (with keywords and/or abstracts) to more than 30000
contributions from international scientists published in all sections of the
NATO ASI Series. Access to the NATO-PCO DATABASE compiled by the
NATO Publication Coordination Office is possible in two ways:
- via online FILE 128 (NATO-PCO DATABASE) hosted by ESRIN,
Via Galileo Galilei, 1-00044 Frascati, Italy.
- via CD-ROM "NATO Science & Technology Disk" with user-friendly
retrieval software in English, French and German (© WTV GmbH and
DATAWARE Technologies Inc. 1992).
The CD-ROM can be ordered through any member of the Board of
Publishers or through NATO-peO, Overijse, Belgium.

Series F: Computer and Systems Sciences, Vol. 137

The ASI Series F Books Published as a Result of
Activities of the Special Programme on
ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

This book contains the proceedings of a NATO Advanced Research Workshop held
within the activities of the NATO Special Programme on Advanced Educational
Technology, running from 1988 to 1993 under the auspices of the NATO Science
Committee.
The volumes published so far in the Special Programme are as follows (further details
are given at the end of this volume):

67: Designing Hypermedia for Learning. 1990

76: Multimedia Interface Design in Education. 1992, 2nd corr. print 1994
78: Integrating Advanced Technology into Technology Education. 1991
80: Intelligent Tutoring Systems for Foreign Language Learning. 1992
81: Cognitive Tools for Learning. 1992
84: Computer-Based Learning Environments and Problem Solving. 1992
85: Adaptive Learning Environments: Foundations and Frontiers. 1992
86: Intelligent Learning Environments and Knowledge Acquisition in Physics. 1992
87: Cognitive Modelling and Interactive Environments in Language Learning. 1992
89: Mathematical Problem Solving and New Information Technologies. 1992
90: Collaborative Learning Through Computer Conferencing. 1992
91: New Directions for Intelligent Tutoring Systems. 1992
92: Hypermedia Courseware: Structures of Communication and Intelligent Help. 1992
93: Interactive Multimedia Learning Environments. 1992
95: Comprehensive System Design: A New Educational Technology. 1993
96: New Directions in Educational Technology. 1992
97: Advanced Models of Cognition for Medical Training and Practice. 1992
104: Instructional Models in Computer-Based Learning Environments. 1992
105: Designing Environments for Constructive Learning. 1993
107: Advanced Educational Technology for Mathematics and Science. 1993
109: Advanced Educational Technology in Technology Education. 1993
111: Cognitive Models and Intelligent Environments for Learning Programming. 1993
112: Item Banking: Interactive Testing and Self-Assessment. 1993
113: Interactive Learning Technology for the Deaf. 1993
115: Learning Electricity and Electronics with Advanced Educational Technology. 1993
116: Control Technology in Elementary Education. 1993
119: Automating Instructional Design, Development, and Delivery. 1993
121: Learning from Computers: Mathematics Education and Technology. 1993
122: Simulation-Based Experiential Learning. 1993
125: Student Modelling: The Key to Individualized Knowledge-Based Instruction. 1994
128: Computer Supported Collaborative Learning. 1995
129: Human-Machine Communication for Educational Systems Design. 1994
132: Design of Mathematical Modelling Courses for Engineering Education. 1994
133: Collaborative Dialogue Technologies in Distance Learning. 1994
135: Technology Education in School and Industry. 1994
137: Technology-Based Learning Environments. 1994
Technology-Based Learning
Environments
Psychological and Educational Foundations

Edited by

Stella Vosniadou
University of Athens
Department of Elementary Education
44 Ippokratus Street, Athens 10680, Greece

Erik De Corte
University of Leuven
Center for Instructional Psychology and Technology
Vesaliusstraat 2, B-30oo Leuven, Belgium

Heinz Mandl
Universitat MOnchen
Institut fOr Padagogische Psychologie und Empirische Padagogik
LeopoldstraBe 13, 0-80802 MOnchen, Germany

Springer
Published in cooperation with NATO Scientific Affairs Division
Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on Psychological and
Educational Foundations of Technology-Based Learning Environments, held in
the Orthodox Academy, Kolymbari, Crete, Greece, July 26-August 3, 1992

CR Subject Classification (1991): K.3.1, J.4, 1.6.0

ISBN-13: 978-3-642-79151-2 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-79149-9

DOI:10.1007/978-3-642-79149-9

CIP data applied for

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned. specifically the rights of translation. reprinting. reuse of illustrations. recitation. broadcast-
ing. reproduction on microfilms or in any other way. and storage in data banks. Duplication of this
publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of
September 9. 1965. in its current version. and permission for use must always be obtained from
Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law.
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1994
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1994
Typesetting: Camera-ready by authors/editors
SPIN: 10130807 45/3140 - 5 4 321 0 - Printed on acid-free paper
Preface
The present volume contains a large number of the papers contributed to the
Advanced Study Institute on the Psychological and Educational Foundations of
Technology-Based Learning Environments, which took place in Crete in the
summer of 1992. The purpose of the Advanced Study Institute was to bring
together a small number of senior lecturers and advanced graduate students to
investigate and discuss the psychological and educational foundations of
technology-based learning environments and to draw the implications of recent
research findings in the area of cognitive science for the development of
educational technology.
As is apparent from the diverse nature of the contributions included in this
volume, the participants at the ASI came from different backgrounds and looked
at the construction of technology -based learning environments from rather diverse
points of view. Despite the diversity, a surprising degree of overlap and
agreement was achieved. Most of the contributors agreed that the kinds of
technology-supported learning environments we should construct should stimulate
students to be active and constructive in their knowledge-building efforts, embed
learning in meaningful and authentic activities, encourage collaboration and social
interaction, and take into consideration students' prior knowledge and beliefs.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to all those who contributed to the
success of the Advanced Study Institute on the Psychological and Educational
Foundations of Technology-based Learning Environments and to the preparation
of the present volume. First and foremost, we would like to thank the Scientific
Mfairs Division of NATO for its generous support of the project. Additional
support for the Institute was provided by the University of Athens, the Institute of
Technology of the University of Crete, Apple Computers, and the Gutenberg
Publishing Company. Special thanks go to Prof. Philokyprou for his support of
the project and his help in ensuring that an adequate number of computers for the
running of the Institute was made available, to Prof. Exarchakos for providing the
necessary facilities at the University of Athens for the organization of the ASI,
and to George Dardanos for arranging for the publication of the program.
The Advanced Study Institute took place at the Orthodox Academy in
Kolymbari, Crete. The director of the Academy, Dr. Papaderos, and the entire staff
made every possible effort to ensure the smooth running of the Institute, and we
are particularly indebted to them.
 VI

The ASI would not be possible without hours of hard work from a group of
very special students - Anthi Archodidou, Chrystalla Maouri, Renia
Papanastasiou, Sakis Aidinis, Despina Desli, and Anna Parameriti. In addition,
Maira Spiliopoulou, Chrystos Ioannides, Fran Lehr, and particularly Angeliki
Oikonomou deserve our sincere thanks for their valuable help in producing the
camera-ready volume. Finally, Delores Plowman and especially Gail Carlson
provided expert secretarial support beyond all calls of duty, and we would like to
acknowledge our appreciation to them.

Stella Vosniadou, Erik De Corte, and Heinz Mandl

Athens, July 1994
Table of Contents
Editors' Introduction............................................................................... 1

Part I Design Principles for Learning

Environments
From cognitive theory to educational technology.... ............. ...................... 11
Stella Vosniadou

Toward the integration of computers in powerful learning

environment ....................................................................................... 19
Erik De Corte

Learning with computer-based exploratory environments

in science and mathematics ..... ... ... ........ ... ..... ... ........ ... ...... ..... ................ 26
Vitor Duarte Teodoro

Modelling, a means for expressing thinking: ESRC Tools

for exploratory learning research programme ............................................. 33
Joan Bliss

Knowledge application in complex systems .............................................. 40

Heinz Mandl, Hans Gruber, and Alexander Renkl

Internalization and Learning Environments ............................................... 48

Pierre Dillenbourg

Learning: From interactivity to cooperation .............................................. 55

Gellof Kanselaar and Gijsbert Erkens

Peer interactions among adolescents using computer networks in

an international role playing exercise ..... ..... ......... ..... ....... ....... ................. 67
Judith Torney-Purta
Implementing a model of cognitive development in an intelligent
learning environment ................................................................. ........... 72
Patrick Mendelson and Pierre Dillenbourg

Differences in patterns: Studying computer enhanced learning

environments ...................................................................................... 79
Gavriel Salomon
 VIII

Part II Using Educational Technology to

Promote Conceptual Change in the Physical
Sciences
Multimedia environments for enhancing science instruction ......................... 89
Susan R. Goldman, Anthony Petrosino, Robert D. Sherwood,
Steve Garrison, Daniel T. Hickey, John D. Bransford,
and James W. Pellegrino
The Mars Mission Challenge: A generative problem-solving
school science environment .................................................................. 97
Daniel T. Hickey, Anthony Petrosino, James W. Pellegrino,
Susan R. Goldman, John D. Bransford, Robert D. Sherwood,
and the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt

Studying and teaching model-based reasoning in science ............................ 104

Kalyani Raghavan and Robert Glaser

Promoting studies on conceptual change ................................................. 112

Sigmar-OlafTergan and Uwe Oestenneier
Diagnosing students' physics knowledge and remediating learning
difficulties: A computer-based approach .................................................. 119
G. Andaloro, L. Bellomonte, and R.M. Sperandeo-Mineo

Development of a learning environment for basic electricity ....................... 126

JoOO Loureiro
Development of an information system to help conceptual change
concerning the human nervous system ..... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .... 134
Teressa Bettencourt
Analysis of physics knowledge for learning environments ......................... 141
Andree Tiberghien

Integrating computer software tools in learning environments

for meaningful learning ....................................................................... 150
Alexandros Barbas, Panagiotis Koumaras , and Dimitris Psillos

Ecoland: A hypermedia prototype for environmental education .................... 157

Donatella Cesarini
 IX

Part III Technology-Based Learning

Environments for Knowledge Acquisition in
Mathematics and in Language
Multimedia environments for enhancing student learning in
mathematics .......................... ............................................................ 167
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt

Tutoring mathematical text problems: From cognitive task analysis

to didactic tools ................................................................................. 174
Kurt Reusser

Less can be more: Unintelligent tutoring based on psychological

theories and experimentation ................................................................ 183
Mitchell J. Nathan and Lauren B. Resnick

The use of an intermediate model for solving word problems ...................... 193
Baruch B. Schwarz and Lauren B. Resnick

Qualitative analysis of children's learning of programming

in the context of a developing culture of open-ended project work
in a primary school ........ ................... .............. ................................... 200
C. Kynigos, G. Gyjtodimos, and P. Georgiadis

Computer-assisted learning to read and write:

A three-year longitudinal study ............................................................. 208
Kenneth E. Sinclair

Computer facilitations of the writing process .......................................... 216

Alison Elliott
Flow driven English course ................................................................. 225
Ryszard Stocki
 x

Part IV Taking into Consideration the

Needs of the Learner
Investigating the use of knowledge proftles in a flexible learning
environment: Analyzing students' prior knowledge states ........................... 235
Filip J.R. C. Dochy

Knowledge and learning skill student model ............................................ 243

M. Panagiotou, M. Grigoriadou, and G. Philokiprou
Semantic networks of action .... ... ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ........... ..... ...... ..... ... ..... 250
Charles Albert Tijus and Sebastien Poitrenaud

Representation systems in mathematics and science:

The era of computers .... ...... ..... ....... ............. ........... ..... ...... ..... ............ 260
Haralambos Sakonidis

Use of grapbics in computer aided learning in chemistry ............................ 268

Josette Morinet Lambert

Effects of visible link-types on learning in hypertext systems ..................... 276

Zhengmai Zhao
Knowledge construction and acquisition in a hypermedia environment
customized for learning purposes ............. ..... .... .... .... ......... .... ......... .... ... 283
George Gyftodimos and Maira Spiliopoulou
Hypertext learning environments and epistemic beliefs:
A preliminary investigation ..... .... ....... ............. ............... ............. ........ 290
Michael J. Jacobson and Rand J. Spiro

Investigating motivation and cooperation in computer-assisted

learning: A pilot study... ....... ..... ..... ..... ... ....... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 296
Kim Issroff
Editors' Introduction
In organizing the chapters that rppear in this volume, we decided to divide them
into fone parts. The ftrst part includes chapters that deal with general theoretical
or methodological issues related to the design of teChnology-based learning
environments. The second and third parts consist of chapters that focus on the
problems of constructing technology-based learning environments in speciftc
subject-matter domains, such as the physical sciences, mathematics, and language.
The chapters included in the last part address a number of mther diverse questions
and problems, all of which relate to the important issue of how computer-
supported learning environments can be better adapted to the needs of the learner.

Part I Design Principles for Learning Environments

In the ftrst chapter, Vosniadou argues that it is important to create a new,
theoretically-based vision of the educational environment that technology should
support if we want recent advances in technology to change existing pmctices in
one schools rather than becoming an "add-on" to these pmctices. She outlines
some of the design principles suggested by recent advances in cognitive theory and
embodied in the chapters contributed to this volume. Particular attention is paid to
issues such as the relevance and authenticity of educational tasks, the
enconeagement and support of the learner's constructive activity at the zone of
proximal development, and the creation of awareness.
In the second chapter, De Corte discusses the importance of creating learning
environments that promote active and constructive learning. He argues that the
cognitive science community has focused thus far on the construction of highly
structured intelligent tutoring systems, which do not offer learners' many
opportunities for involvement and participation. He proposes, instead, that the
emphasis should be on the creation of tools that stimulate students to make
maximum use of their own knowledge and skills. De Corte goes on to describe a
LOGO-based tool-kit and computer coach that aims at the elicitation and
mediation of constructive learning processes in students as they develop planning,
programming and debugging skills.
Teodoro's contribution focuses on the chamcteristics of exploratory learning
environments. He points out that explomtion is necessary to produce the deeper
understanding of ideas that students often lack, remaining only at a superftcial
level of knowing. Explomtory learning environments allow learners to take
control of their learning and therefore encoumge the development of cognitive and
metacognitive skills. According to Teodoro, there are two additional featnees of
computer-based learning environments that have the potential to facilitate learning
in the sciences and in mathematics. One is the possibility they offer to make
abstract objects - like physical or mathematical constructs - concrete, in the sense
that they can be manipulated as real, and the other is their potential to help
students link multiple representations of the same thing.
 2

According to Bliss, an important feature of technology-based learning

environments is that they can provide students with modeling tools that help
them represent or explore their tdeas about a domain. The Tools for Exploratory
Learning that she and her colleagues developed allow students to create their own
models or to explore the models of an expert as they reason in a variety of topics
such as health and diet, shops and profits, and traffic and congestion.
Mandl, Gruber and Renkl raise the issue of the inertness and fragmentation of
acquired knowledge, i.e., that what is taught is often isolated facts that cannot be
easily applied to real life situations. The opposite of fragmented knowledge is
what Mandl and his associates call conditionalized knowledge: knowledge acquired
in a complex setting and indexed by salient conditions, goals and consequences
that make it easier to apply. The authors argue that computer simulations of real
situations create powerful learning environments for producing conditionalized
knowledge.
In the next contribution, Dillenbourg considers computer-based learning
environments from a socio-cultural perspective. The question he asks is the
following: Can the interaction between a human learner and a computerized agent
have the potential for internalization similar to that of a human-human
interaction? And, if so, can it produce some of the learning outcomes that the
process of internalization can produce? To answer these questions, the author
provides some examples of how the internalization mechanism can be
implemented in an interactive learning environment
The interaction between a human learner and a computer is also the focus of
the contribution by Kanselaar and Erkens in the seventh chapter. The authors
launch a new term, Intelligent Cooperative Systems, to describe a learning
environment where the student and the system are equal partners on a problem
solving task. This situation is dIfferent from an intelligent tutoring environment,
where the system is in control of the learning process and an open learning
environment where the control lies primarily in the hands of the student. The
authors describe their attempts to develop an Intelligent Cooperative System and
a research project designed to better understand the kind of communication that
occurs between two partners during cooperative problem solving.
The notion of cooperation is also central in the chapter contributed by Torney-
Porta. She describes an International Communications and Negotiations Project in
which adolescents role play diplomats from different parties communicating using
a computer network. The aim of the project is to determine whether this kind of
cooperative environment can increase the level of participation of the students and
can help them change their existing schemata regarding international issues.
In chapter 9, Mendelsohn and Dillenbourg describe a project which attempts to
implement a specific theory of cognitive development into the concrete elements
of a learning environment that teaches students how to conduct experiments on
human memory. The authors think that such systematic implementations make it
possible to create more efficient systems while contributing to educational
computing a new and interesting design methodology.
In the last chapter of this section, Salomon raises another important
methodological issue about the way in which the effects of a learning
environment are assessed. He argues that because the successful implementation
of computers in a classroom changes the whole learning environment, we should
 3

find ways to assess their effects by examining not only the performance of
individuals but by looking at the way individuals interact with the changed
learning environment. He goes on to present a systems approach that examines
the differences in the patterns of relations among the different factors that
constitute a learning environment.

Part II Using Educational Technology to Promote

Conceptual Change in the Physical Sciences
Students' difficulties in acquiring scientific concepts have been well documented.
The chapters included in this section address the question of how we can use
technology to improve learning in the physical sciences and avoid the creation of
misconceptions. In the first chapter, Goldman and her associates from the
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt describe two experiments that
tested a multi-media environment, the main purpose of which was to help
students become actively engaged in the learning of science by embedding science
instruction in meaningful, realistic and interesting problem-solving environments.
The fifth, and ninth, grade students who participated in these studies showed
significant increases in their understanding of how to deal with a chemical spill
and a more positive attitude towards studying science than did students who were
not exposed to this multi-media environment.
In the next chapter, Hickey and his colleagues, also from the Cognition and
Technology Group at Vanderbilt, describe a multi-media environment that is
based on the same anchored instruction approach, and that attempts to motivate
students to think about and solve scientific problems associated with sending
women and men to Mars.
A different approach is followed in the contribution by Raghavan and Glaser
who are developing a model-centered science curriculum designed to help middle-
school students to reason with the qUalitative, explanatory models that underlie
scientific phenomena. The specific learning environment they describe focuses on
a set of interrelated concepts important for understanding the phenomena of
sinking and floating.
Tergan and Oestermeier describe a computer-based learning environment the
purpose of which is to promote our understanding of the conceptual change that
happens when students reason about the phenomenon of the superposition of
motion. As in the case of Ragbavan and Glaser, Tergan and Oestermeier pay a lot
of attention to students' qualitative models as they reason about a physical
phenomenon and attempt to provide a variety of learning events to facilitate
students' construction of the appropriate representations.
Similar approaches are followed in the chapters by Andaloro and her colleagues,
by Loureiro and by Bettencourt, in their attempts to develop learning
environments that diagnose students' models and to promote conceptual change
when reasoning about average velocity, electricity, and the nervous system,
respectively.
The chapters by Tiberghien and by Barbas and his colleagues raise the issue of
the incompatibility that often exists between what the learner knows and the
 4

scientific information that needs to be communicated. These authors discuss the

kinds of learning environments that need to be constructed to bridge this gap.
In the last chapter of this section, Cesareni proposes a number of principles that
should guide the construction of hypermedia based learning environments--
principles such as the meaningfulness of tasks, the simplicity of the navigation
system, the structure of the application system, its ability to support
collaboration, etc. She describes a learning environment in which students
explore different solutions to a waste treatment problem that exemplifies these
principles.

Part III Technology-Based Learning Environments for

Knowledge and Skill Acquisition in Mathematics and
Language

This section of the book reports studies that focus on two major content domains
in the school curriculum, namely mathematics and language. The flfSt chapter of
this section is a contribution by the Cognition and Technology Group at
Vanderbilt that describes a multimedia environment for anchored instruction in the
case of mathematics. As was the case in the previous chapters on learning in the
physical sciences by Goldman and her colleagues and by Hickey and his
colleagues, the main emphasis of the work of this group is to create complex,
authentic and interesting multi-media environments that provide students with
opportunities to solve the kinds of problems they may have to deal with in
everyday life. The worlc on mathematical problem-solving presents an interesting
example of how cognitive theory can be applied to the design of powerful
technology-based learning environments that can become a "workbench" for
further research on fundamental issues such as knowledge representation, transfer
and alternative forms of assessment.
Starting from the view that understanding the linguistic and situational structure
of a mathematical word problem is the basic component of skilled problem-
solving, in the next chapter, Reusser derives a series of pedagogical principles for
the design of computer-based tools that support learning to solve mathematical
story problems. The subsequent brief description of HERON, an example of such
a tool for understanding and solving word problems, illustrates especially the
design principle of providing students with support to build a conceptual
representation of a problem in the format of a solution tree. This contribution
shows how work on modeling problem-solving processes, in combination with
research-based pedagogical design principles, can guide the development of
valuable computer-supported tools for collaborative learning and thinking that
constitute a rather radical departure from traditional intelligent tutoring systems
(ITS).
As suggested by its subtitle "Unintelligent tutoring based on psychological
theories and experimentation", the contribution by Nathan and Resnick is also
representative of the trend in educational computing to move away from ITS.
Indeed, ANIMATE, a computer-based tutor that supports learning to solve algebra
word problems, possesses no student model nor an expert module. The
 5

unintelligent tutoring approach questions the traditional viewpoint that the

knowledge should be built into the tutor, and, instead, capitalizes on stimulating
students to use and exploit their own knowledge and intelligence, and to be
reflective and self-evaluative. ANIMATE supports students' construction of a
schematic representation of the problem that drives a computer animation;
situation-based feedback is obtained by comparing the animation with the
expectations that derive from the problem statement.
In the chapter that follows, Schwarz and Resnick also describe a cognitive tool
for representing mathematical word problems, in this case simple problems with
an additive structure. This tool, called the PLANNER, is a simulation program
that provides a real world environment for learning to solve word problems. By
using objects as analogies for mathematical relations, it captures students'
informal knowledge about the real world, and is assumed to act as a scaffold that
facilitates their understanding of those abstract relations. Some exemplary data
show that fourth graders who worked with the PLANNER were very successful at
recalling word problems five days later; this is considered as an indication that the
PLANNER supports the construction of a rich problem representation.
In their contribution, Kynigos, Gyftodimos and Georgiadis report about a
rather unique application of Logo in a longitudinal project in a Greek primary
school. In the context of a centralized educational system characterized by direct
and decontextualized teaching, based more or less implicitly on the view of
learning as a process of information transmission, the project attempted to use
Logo as a vehicle for the introduction of an alternative instructional approach
guided by the conception that learning is a learner-controlled, collaborative, and
meaningful process of knowledge construction. A brief illustration is given of
how programming can be used by learners to express mathematical ideas and to
induce more abstract levels of thinking.
Moving from the subject-matter area of mathematics to that of language, we
start with a chapter by Sinclair that reports on a longitudinal study with the
WRITING TO READ program. This study yielded some evidence supporting
the idea that powerful computer-based learning environments are characterized by
an appropriate balance between discovery and exploration by the learner, on the
one hand, and direct instruction and guidance, on the other, or between self-
regulation and external regulation. This investigation shows that the appropriate
balance depends strongly on the nature of the learning task. Direct computer-
assisted teaching was more efficient with respect to the acquisition of phonic
skills, but exploration and discovery were more conducive to understanding the
processes of reading and writing.
In line with the conception Jf productive educational computing expressed
above with respect to mathematics, the next chapter by Elliott shows for the
domain of writing how a computer tool, THE WRITING PARTNER, can
successfully scaffold skilled narrative writing by providing procedural facilitations
in the form of prompts and cues. These facilitations seem to mobilize students'
cognitive potential; the small-scale study that is reported demonstrates that
especially the initially poor writers acquired a much better understanding of the
different component processes that constitute skilled writing, and that they also
became much more aware of the metacognitive strategies involved in it.
 6

In the last chapter, Stocki argues that foreign language courses--even those that
are well prepared--do not sufficiently exploit the potential of modern teclmology,
such as the computer and the video. In an attempt to bridge the existing gap
between course developers and designers of technology-based programs, the
chapter presents a plan for a so-called "flow driven English course" that should
facilitate the cooperation and interaction between both groups. Basic ideas
underlying the plan are: improving learner motivation, using authentic language
materials throughout the course, and taking into account individual differences
between the learners.

Part IV Taking into Consideration the Needs of the

Learner

Learning is a process of discovering and constructing meaning from information

and experience filtered through the learner's unique perceptions, thoughts and
feelings. Research on human cognition has shown that the learner's prior
knowledge and belief systems, existing learning skills, motives and interests exert
a strong influence on the learning process and learning results. The chapters
included in this section make different propositions about how technology-based
learning environments can take the needs of the learner into consideration and how
to support the learner in his or her learning activities.
Referring to the influence of prior knowledge on learning, Dochy presents a
new way for the assessment of prior knowledge by means of a profile analysis.
By using this profile analysis, the teacher can identify strengths and weaknesses in
the domain-specific knowledge of groups of students. The information derived
from this analysis can be used to develop instruction better suited to the needs of
these students.
Panagiotou, Grigoriadou and Philokiprou propose some principles for the
design of a student model module within an educational teaching program. The
model takes into consideration the knowledge state and the learning style of the
student so that the teaching strategies to be adopted can be designed to better meet
the student's needs. In the next chapter, Tijus and Pointrenaud model the user's
knowledge through semantic networks of action (S.N.O.A), that make explicit the
semantic structure of the objects included in the domain of interest.
Another aspect of computer-based learning environments which might be
important for adapting to lea..ners' needs are the representational systems.
Sakonidis studies the role of representation systems in school mathematics and in
science and attempts to identify those features of representation systems that are
essential to learning in general. The author argues that computational learning
tools can be of particular help to the student who needs to understand difficult
contents and that graphics playa central role in this process.
Lambert uses relational graphics to enhance students' reasoning and
remembering processes in chemistry. Particular attention is paid to students who
have difficulty understanding the concepts in question. Lambert argues that it is
possible to take the students' abilities into consideration and presents three
 7

strategies for graphic management--bound to different navigational approaches--

that give more or less freedom to the learner.
A new and promising area in computer-based learning environments are
hypertext and hypermedia. In hypertext and hypermedia systems the learner is
allowed to decide the pace and sequencing of navigation. Although this freedom is
an important advantage, learning with hypertext is confronted with the problem of
cognitive overload. Without sufficient guidance, learners, particularly novice
learners, facing a number of choices about which links to follow and which to be
ignored, experience definite distractions which degrade the effects of learning.
Recently, hypertext researchers and designers have been developing approaches to
mitigate the problem of cognitive overload. In his chapter, Zhao, proposes an
approach to ease this problem by examining the effects of labeling links
explicitly with the semantic relations in a hypertext system. His results showed
that visible link-types have a positive influence on learning outcomes.
In the next chapter, Gyftodimos and Spiliopoulou present a model for the
representation of information in a hypermedia network which focuses on the
semantics of the information pieces and the relationships among them. Through
this model, the teacher can adapt the information to the needs of the learner. In
addition, the model allows learners to interact with the information, to enhance it
or otherwise modify it according to their individual needs.
The rich internal world of beliefs, goals, expectations and feelings can enhance
or interfere with learners' thinking and reasoning. Jacobson and Spiro designed an
empirical study on knowledge and hypertext that explored the influence that basic
epistemic beliefs about the nature of learning and the structure of knowledge have
on learning. The authors examine a Thematic Criss-Crossing Hypertext treatment
that uses multiple cases and themes to highlight different aspects of the
instructional material. The results of the study showed that subjects with a more
complex set of epistemic beliefs were able to learn better with the hypermedia
treatment than those subjects with a simpler set of epistemic beliefs.
Learning is also facilitated by social interactions and communications with
others in flexible and adaptive instructional settings. In the last chapter, Issroff
discusses methods to investigate the motivation of students when they work
individually and cooperatively with computers. In a pilot study the author
examined quantitative and qualitative motivational indices and found that these
indices provide useful information about the learning process.
Part I

Design Principles for Learning Environments

From Cognitive Theory to Educational
Technology

Stella Vosniadou

University of Athens, Department of Elementary Education, 44 Ippokratus

Steet, Athens, 11560, Greece

Abstract. Tbe results of recent developments in cognitive theory are used as a

basis for proposing a set of principles for the design of alternative, tecbnology-
based learning environments. It is argued that we need to use tecbnology to
enhance students' own attempts to searcb after meaning, to promote conceptual
cbange, metaconceptual awareness, and cognitive flexibility, and to bridge the gap
that currently exists between scbool tasks and authentic, cultural activity.

Keywords. Learning environments, design principles, cognitive theory

1 Introduction
Until now, the design of educational tecbnology bas been driven mostly by
advances in tecbnology rather than by advances in our understanding of buman
learning and knowledge acquisition. The failure of instructional theory to guide
the construction of tecbnology-based learning environments may bave contributed
to the fact that computers have not become the force for changing existing
educational practices, as many of us had hoped that they would do (e.g., Becker
1991). It has become apparent that educational technology may have a better
chance to change the school environment if it is based on a new vision of what
this learning environment should be.
A number of researchers in the field are now attempting to use cognitive theory
to design new and innovative learning environments, as the contributions to the
present volume attest nicely. My purpose in this introductory chapter is to
highlight some of the implications of current cognitive science research for the
design of alternative technology-supported learning environments. Among the
issues to be discussed are the need to employ meaningful educational tasks that
support the constructive activity of the learner and contribute to the creation of
metaconceptual awareness and cognitive flexibility.
 12

2 The Need for Relevance and Authenticity in

Educational Tasks

Recent analyses of learning have challenged the traditional assumption that

knowledge is a substance consisting of decontextualized concepts that can be
transferred to the minds of individual students through instruction (e.g., Brown,
Collins and Duguid 1989, the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt
1990). It has been pointed out that "knowledge" cannot be separated from the "act
of knowing" and that "what is learned" is an integral part of "how it is learned and
used". These approaches, known as situated or anchored, emphasize the need to
construct learning environments that engage students in culturally meaningful,
purposeful and authentic activities that make deliberate use of the physical and
social context
Too often, the practices of contemporary schooling deny students the
chance to engage in relevant domain culture... Archetypal school
activity is very different from what we have in mind when we talk of
authentic activity, because it is very different from what authentic
practitioners do. Classroom activity takes place in the culture of
schools. This hybrid activity limits students' access to the important
structuring and supporting cues that arise from the context. What
students do tends to be ersatz activity (Brown et al. 1989, p. 34).
While it is almost impossible to completely replace school activities with what
Brown et al. (1989) call "authentic activities", much can be done to bridge the
presently existing gap. Technology can help in this process because it makes it
possible to create learning situations that mirror what is happening in the real
world in ways that are difficult to realize in a traditional classroom. For example,
by learning arithmetic in situations such as running a bank: or grocery shopping,
the student is more likely to relate the mathematics learned to a real context and
thus, more likely to apply this knowledge to similar situations in the real world.
Similarly, in science and economics, in history and in geography, isolated facts
and theories - which are likely to be forgotten as the school year is over - can be
replaced by multi-media learning environments that allow students to experience
the kinds of activities that experts are likely to engage in real life (see also
Collins, 1989).
The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (this volume) has been
systematic in its attempt to use multimedia environments to create the kind of
instruction that facilitates situated learning and reasoning. The essence of
anchored instruction is to use realistic problems in a video format to generate the
complex thinking and reasoning required to solve the kinds of problems experts
often have to deal with in the real world. The work of Mandl and his associates
(this volume) is of a similar nature. They argue that computer simulations
provide powerful methods for engaging students in complex reasoning and
problemsolving in authentic learning situations that have the potential to provide
students with 'the kind of knowledge that can be more easily applied to real-life
situations.
 13

The potential positive learning effects that such environments are likely to
produce is, of course, a hypothesis that needs to be tested. While these
environments avoid some of the problems of knowledge transfer that traditional
instruction presents, they are not free of problematic elements themselves.
Students must still realize the similarities and differences between the simulations
to which they have been exposed in the multi-media environments and the real life
tasks. In addition, they need to be trained in generalizing, from the specific cases
they study, the more abstract principles that are usually given at school, rather
than the other way around. The potential advantages and disadvantages of such
environments will become apparent only when these environments have been
constructed and tested on large numbers of students .

3 The Encouragement and Support of the Learner's

Constructive Activity in the Zone of Proximal
Development
Recent approaches to learning emphasize the active, constructive nature of the
knowledge acquisition process. The learner is not a passive recipient of
information but an active and constructive interpreter of meanings. The notion
that learning environments need to support students' efforts after meaning (see
also Kintsch 1991) is not consistent with the epistemological assumptions
underlying traditional computer-assisted instruction (CAl) or the more recent
Intelligent Tutoring System approaches (ITS), where a lot of the research and
development work of the educational software community has been focused. As
is noticed by De Corte (this volume), "intelligent tutoring systems that base their
decisions about instructional interventions on a detailed diagnosis of a student's
knowledge can lead to a preponderance of highly structured learning environments
that do not provide sufficient opportunity for active learner involvement and
participation" (p. 7).
While Intelligent Tutoring Systems may be too structured, exploratory learning
environments may be too open and not appropriate to use in situations where a
great deal of new information needs to be introduced. What exploratory
environments do best is to allow students to become more familiar with things
they already know at some superficial level, thus achieving a deeper level of
understanding and insight (see Teodoro this volume).
What seem to be needed are systems that allow students to have control over
their learning process but can also provide help and guidance when needed.
Researchers in the field are currently experimenting with such systems. These
experimentations range from wbat has come to be termed as Unintelligent
Tutoring Systems (see Chapters by Nathan and Resnick or Reusser this volume),
to Cooperative Tutoring Systems (e.g., Kanselaar and Erkens this volume, or
Dillenbourg this volume).
 14

An Unintelligent Tutoring System, such as the one proposed by Nathan and

Resnick, does not try to understand or model the student, as an ITS system does.
Rather, through an analysis of the task domain, it reflects the students'
performance back to the student in a meaningful way, so that the student can
assess it. Cooperative Tutoring Systems take more seriously the notion that the
computer is a partner and a co-learner in a human-machine interaction and
experiment with ways to better understand and model the mechanisms real partners
use to facilitate learning in a socially based communication.
It is important to note here the interaction between basic and applied research
that goes on in the development of these systems. The construction of innovative
learning environments sometimes requires that certain critical concepts that are
vague and inexact in our learning theories become more clear and precise. This
need becomes then the motivating force for new, basic research in cognitive
science to be undertaken. Furthermore, once developed, such systems have the
potential to provide the testing ground for the theoretical ideas that created them,
as well as to become the source for generating new and interesting insights on the
learning process itself.

3 The Experience of Conceptual Restructuring and the

Creation of Metaconceptual Awareness
Before being exposed to systematic instruction, students have already constructed
a rich and powerful knowledge system that is based on interpretations of everyday
experience in the physical and socio-cultural context in which they grow up.
Students' representations of this reality embody explanations that are often very
different from the kinds of explanations currently accepted by our culture and
taught in the schools.
For example, students construct an initial representation of the earth as a flat,
stationary and supported physical object located in the center of the universe.
Consistent with this representation is the explanation of the day/night cycle in
terms of the sun hiding behind mountains or clouds during the night (Vosniadou
and Brewer 1992, 1994). Other studies show that elementary school children
construct a concept of heat based on the felt distinction between hotness and
coldness. According to this view, physical objects have the property of being
more hot or less hot, and their hotness or coldness can be transferred to other
objects by direct contact (Vosniadou and Kempner 1993).
In designing instruction, it is important to take into consideration the kinds of
experience-based representations of the physical and social world that students
have constructed, because they are the point where new information is assimilated
into the knowledge system. A series of studies in our lab have shown that when
students are presented with information that is inconsistent with what already
exists in their knowledge base, they either become confused and internally
inconsistent or distort the new information in ways that make it consistent with
existing representations (see Vcsniadou 1994 for an extensive discussion of this
point).
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