Fourier transforms and spectra

Nice — let’s do these using the standard angular-frequency Fourier transform

∞
F{x(t)}(ω) = X(ω) = ∫ ​ x(t) e−iωt dt,
−∞

and where needed we interpret results in the sense of distributions / principal value. I’ll give the
transform and a short description of the frequency spectrum (magnitude/phase / key features).

(i) Impulse (Dirac) δ(t)

∞
x(t) = δ(t) ⇒ X(ω) = ∫ ​ δ(t)e−iωt dt = 1.
−∞

Spectrum: constant flat spectrum for all ω .

Magnitude ∣X(ω)∣ = 1 (constant), phase arg X(ω) = 0.

(ii) Gate (rect) function

Define the centred gate of width T :

T
1, ∣t∣ < 2,
rectT (t) = {
​

​ ​ ​

0, ∣t∣ > T
2
.
​

(At the boundaries t = ±T /2 value is usually taken 1/2 — this does not affect the FT.)
Fourier transform:

T /2
2 sin(ωT /2)
F{rectT (t)}(ω) = ∫
​ ​ e−iωt dt = = T sinc( ωT
2
​ ), ​

−T /2 ω
sin x
where sinc(x) = .
​

x
Spectrum: real, even, sinc-shaped.
Magnitude ∣X(ω)∣ = T sinc( ωT 2
) with main lobe around ω
​ ​ ​ = 0 and zeros at ω = 2πn/T for integer
n=
 0. Phase is 0 (since transform is real and nonnegative near ω = 0, sign changes at zeros).
(Special case: T = 1 gives X(ω) = 2 sin(ω/2)/ω = sinc(ω/2) up to the chosen normalization.)

(iii) Constant function

Let x(t) = A (constant). Then

∞
X(ω) = ∫ ​ A e−iωt dt = 2πA δ(ω)
−∞

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(in the distributional sense).
Spectrum: all energy concentrated at ω = 0: a Dirac impulse of weight 2πA. Magnitude is infinite at
ω = 0 (impulse), zero elsewhere. Phase of the impulse is the phase of A (if A real positive, phase 0).

(iv) Signum function sgn(t)

sgn(t) = {
+1, t > 0,
−1, t < 0.
​ ​

(Value at t = 0 is immaterial.)
1
Using sgn(t) = 2u(t) − 1 and the known transform F{u(t)} = πδ(ω) + (principal value for 1/ω ),
​

iω
we get

1 2
F{sgn(t)}(ω) = 2(πδ(ω) + ) − 2πδ(ω) =
​ ​
(in PV sense).
iω iω
2i
Equivalently X(ω) =− (with 1/ω understood as Cauchy principal value).
​

ω
2
Spectrum: purely imaginary, odd function. Magnitude ∣X(ω)∣ = (blows up as ∣ω∣ → 0); phase is
∣ω∣
​

− π2 for ω > 0 and + π2 for ω < 0. Note the transform is singular at ω = 0 and must be treated as a
​ ​

distribution (principal value).

If you prefer the transform in frequency f (Hz) rather than angular frequency ω , I can convert each
formula (they pick up 2π factors). Would you like small plots/sketches of the magnitude/phase spectra
for each?

Sure — let’s carefully derive the Fourier transform of a constant function step-by-step, not just quote
the result.

We’ll work in the angular frequency form of the continuous-time Fourier transform:
∞
X(ω) = ∫ ​ x(t) e−iωt dt
−∞

and take x(t) = A, a constant for all t.

Step 1. Set up the integral

∞ ∞
X(ω) = ∫ ​ A e−iωt dt = A ∫ ​ e−iωt dt
−∞ −∞

Step 2. Recognize that this integral does not converge normally

The exponential e−iωt has unit magnitude, so the integral from −∞ to ∞ does not converge in the
usual sense.

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However, in the generalized (distributional) sense, we can interpret it using the identity involving the
Dirac delta function.

Step 3. Recall a key Fourier identity

A standard result in Fourier analysis is:

∞
∫ ​ e−iωt dt = 2π δ(ω)
−∞

This means: the function that is identically 1 in time corresponds to a Dirac delta in frequency.
Intuitively, a signal with no variation in time contains only a zero frequency (DC) component.

Step 4. Substitute back the amplitude A

∞
X(ω) = A ⋅ ∫ ​
e−iωt dt = A ⋅ 2π δ(ω)
−∞

X(ω) = 2πA δ(ω) ​

Step 5. Verify using the inverse transform

Inverse FT formula:
∞
1
x(t) = ∫ X(ω)eiωt dω
2π −∞
​ ​

Substitute X(ω) = 2πAδ(ω):

∞
1
x(t) = ∫ 2πA δ(ω) eiωt dω = A ⋅ ei(0)t = A
2π −∞
​ ​

which correctly reconstructs x(t) = A. ✅

Step 6. Frequency Spectrum Interpretation

Magnitude Spectrum:
∣X(ω)∣ = 2π∣A∣ δ(ω)
→ All energy is concentrated at zero frequency (DC component).

Phase Spectrum:
Phase is the phase of A (zero if A > 0, otherwise constant).

✅ Final Answer:
x(t) = A ⟺ X(ω) = 2πA δ(ω) ​

Would you like me to also show the same derivation in frequency (Hz) form (using f and not ω )?

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Here are some good reference images showing the frequency spectrum of a constant (DC) signal:

🖼️ What the images show

A time-domain signal that is constant (i.e., x(t) = A for all t).
The corresponding frequency‐domain representation is a spike (a Dirac delta) at ω = 0 (or
frequency f = 0).
All the “energy” (in the spectral sense) is concentrated at zero frequency (DC), and there are no
spectral components at non-zero frequencies.

📚 Reference link
Here’s a good textbook-style table of transform pairs which lists this case explicitly:

The webpage “Unit 4.2: Fourier transforms of commonly occurring signals” lists: for the “DC signal”
1 → 2π δ(ω). Crispy Dev
Another resource: “Evaluating the continuous Fourier transform of a constant” shows a diagram
where the constant in time domain maps to an impulse in frequency domain.

If you like, I can pull one high-resolution image (PDF or image) specific to this transform so you can
include it in your notes.

Here are derivations (using Fourier-transform properties) and useful reference links for the two
functions you asked about:

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(i) F (t) = t e−at u(t) \quad (with a > 0)
Derivation outline using properties:

1. Recall the known transform:

∞
1
x1 (t) = e −at
u(t) ⟺ X1 (ω) = ∫ e−at e−iωt dt = ,
a + iω
​ ​ ​ ​

for ℜ(a) > 0.

2. Use the time-multiplication property:

d
t x1 (t) ⟺ i
​ X1 (ω) .
​ ​

dω
(See e.g. a discussion at MathStackExchange: “Fourier transform of t ⋅ f (t)” Mathematics Stack Exchange+1)

3. So apply:

1 1
( ) = i (− )=
d i
F (t) = t e−at u(t) ⟺ X(ω) = i 2
.
dω a + iω (a + iω) (a + iω)2
​ ​ ​ ​

If you’re using the engineering frequency variable f with ω = 2πf , then one writes
1
X(f ) = .
(a + j 2πf )2
​

Some sources may have a factor a in numerator depending on the exact integral limits or
a
normalization. For example: one source states the result is for that case. Cracku+1
(a + j2πf )2
​

Reference link:

“Fourier transform of t e−at u(t)” — Testbook solved example. Testbook

“Fourier transform of t e−at u(t)” — AskFilo posting. AskFilo

Summary:

1
F (t) = t e−at u(t) ⟺ X(ω) =
(a + iω)2
​ ​

(ii) f (t) = ∣t∣

Derivation sketch / comment:

The function ∣t∣ is even in t and unbounded as ∣t∣ → ∞. Its Fourier transform must be treated in
the sense of distributions (generalized functions).

One approach: note that ∣t∣ can be related to a derivative (in distribution sense) of a ramp or the
second derivative of something like ∣t∣ gives delta functions, etc.

From discussions on mathematics forums: for even powers n, the Fourier transform of ∣t∣n is
supported at zero (i.e., involves derivatives of delta). For odd/non-integer cases, it becomes an

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 expression involving 1/∣ω∣n+1 in the principal‐value/distribution sense. Mathematics Stack Exchange
Reference link:
MathStackExchange: “Fourier transform of ∣t∣n ” Mathematics Stack Exchange
Comment:
A full derivation is somewhat advanced because you need distribution theory. So many textbooks
state the result as something like

2
F{∣t∣}(ω) ∝ (in PV sense) + (a delta term).
ω2
​

I don’t have a simple concise formula here with all constants for the standard engineering convention,
but the reference above gives the nature of it.
Summary:

f (t) = ∣t∣ ⟺ a distribution involving 1/ω 2 (plus possible δ‐terms) ​

with details in the referenced link.

If you like, I can look up or derive full explicit formulae (with correct constants, delta‐terms, etc.) for
the ∣t∣ case (and provide a PDF or image of a table) and send you a clean write-up. Would you like me to
do that?

Here are reference links only:

Fourier transform of t e−at u(t): Testbook solution Testbook

Fourier transform of ∣t∣: MathStackExchange discussion math.stackexchange.com

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