Physics 1
BS-PH 101
Module 3
Electromagnetism and
Dielectric Magnetic
Properties of Materials
PART 1
Electromagnetism
Prepared by Dr. Ramnayan Mukherjee
Electromagnetism
Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell's Equations are a set of four equations that describe the world of electromagnetism.
These equations describe how electric and magnetic fields propagate, interact, and how they are
influenced by medium or objects.
James Clerk Maxwell [1831-1879] was an Einstein/Newton-level genius who took a set of
known experimental laws (Gauss’s Law, Faraday's Law, Ampere's Law) and unified them into a
symmetric coherent set of Equations known as Maxwell's Equations. Maxwell was one of the
first to determine the speed of propagation of electromagnetic (EM) waves was the same as the
speed of light - and hence to conclude that EM waves and visible light was really the same thing.
Maxwell's Equations are critical in understanding Antennas and Electromagnetic waves.
Maxwell’s Equations in Differential Form
1. D = or , E =
o
Differential form of Gauss’s law of electrostatics
2. B = 0 or , H = 0
Differential form of Gauss’s law of magnetostatics
B
3. E = −
t
Differential form of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
D
4. H = J +
t
Differential form of Maxwell’s modification of Ampere’s law
Prepared by Dr. Ramnayan Mukherjee
Here, D = Electric displacement vector or electric flux density (Coulomb/m2)
ρ = Volume charge density (Coulomb/m3); εo = Permittivity of free space (8.85 × 10-12 F/m)
B = Magnetic flux density or magnetic induction vector (Wb/m2 or Tesla)
E = Electric field intensity (Volt/m); H = Magnetic field intensity (A/m)
J = Conduction current density (A/m2)
Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form
1st equation:
D =
Taking volume integration on both sides
( )
D dV = dV
Applying Gauss divergence theorem
Q
D d S = Q or, E d S =
o
Since D = εo E
2nd equation:
B =0
Taking volume integration on both sides
( )
B dV = 0
Applying Gauss divergence theorem
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d S = 0
B
3rd equation:
B
E =−
t
Taking surface integration on both sides
( )
B
E dS = − dS
t
Applying Stoke’s theorem
E d l = −
t
dS
B
4th equation:
D
H = J +
t
Taking surface integration on both sides
( )
D
H d S = d S +
J t d S
Applying Stoke’s theorem
H d l = J d S + t D d S
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Derivation of four equations
Maxwell's First Equation
ρ
D = ρ or, E =
o
Maxwell's first equation, which describes the electrostatic field, is derived immediately from
Gauss's theorem, which in turn is a consequence of Coulomb's inverse square law. Gauss's
theorem states that the net electric flux through a closed surface equals 1/ε0 times the net charge
enclosed by the closed surface. Electric flux is the measure of the electric field through a given
surface and is defined as the number of electric lines of force passing through an area normally.
Fig:1
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φ= E d S
Q
E d S =
o
( o E ) d S = Q
D d S = Q
( )
D dV = dV
D =
Maxwell's Second Equation
Unlike the electrostatic field, magnetic fields have no sources or sinks, and the magnetic lines of
force are closed curves. Consequently the surface integral of the magnetic field over a closed
surface is zero, and therefore
Div B = 0 or B=0
This is the second of Maxwell's equations.
Maxwell's Third Equation
This is derived from the laws of electromagnetic induction. Whenever the magnetic flux linked
with a closed coil changes, an induced emf is set up in the circuit whose magnitude at any instant
is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit and the direction of
induced emf is such that it opposes the change in flux that produces it.
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d φm
=− and = E d l
dt
Where, ɛ is the induced emf, φm is the magnetic flux and E is the electric field
Magnetic flux is given by φ m = B d S
Thus,
d φm
E d l = −
dt
d
E d l = − B d S
dt
( E ) d S = − B d S
t
B
( E ) d S = − d S
t
B
E = −
t
Maxwell's Fourth Equation
This is the Maxwell modification of Ampere's law. Ampere’s circuit law states that the line
integral of H around a closed path is the same as the net current Ienc enclosed by the path
H d l = I enc
B d l = o I enc
Applying Stoke’s law
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( )
B d S = o I enc
( )
B d S = o J d S
B = o J
Since, B = μo H
B = o J H = J
This is the differential form of Ampere’s law. Now taking divergence on both sides we have,
( )
H = 0 = J
J =0
Now from equation of continuity we have,
J + =0
t
Thus, =0
t
ρ = constant with time i.e. steady state. So, Ampere’s law is valid for steady state only and not
valid for time varying state.
So, to make the Ampere’s law valid for both time dependent and time independent state,
Maxwell modified the Ampere’s law.
H = J + JD
The term JD added by Maxwell. Now taking divergence on both sides we have,
Prepared by Dr. Ramnayan Mukherjee
( )
H = 0 = J + JD
J = − JD
Now from equation of continuity we have,
J + =0
t
Thus J D =
t
( )
JD = D
t
D
JD =
t
D
JD =
t
Since, D = ρ from 1st equation
D
Therefore H = J +
t
Here, J is conduction current density and JD is displacement current density.
Prepared by Dr. Ramnayan Mukherjee
Significance of displacement Current
i) Displacement current is entirety different from conduction current. Displacement current is a
current only in the sense that it produces a magnetic field. It has none of the properties of the
current as it is not related to motion of charge particles.
ii) The magnitude of displacement current is equal to the time rate of change of electric
displacement vector D. When the field does not vary with time, the displacement current is
zero.
iii) Displacement current serves to make the total current continuous across discontinuities in the
conduction current i.e. Jtotal = J + JD
iv) Displacement current may have a certain value in vacuum, where J = 0 due to absence of
charge.
Difference between conduction current density and displacement current density
Conduction current density Displacement current density
1. It is due to the actual flow of charges in a 1. It is due to the time varying electric field in a
conductor dielectric.
2. Conduction current density is given by J = 2. Displacement current density is given by JD
σE, where J is current density, σ is = (δD/δt) = ε (δE/δt), where ε is the
conductivity and E is the electric field permittivity of the material.
3. It obeys ohm’s law 3. It does not obeys ohm’s law
4. In a good conductor JD << J 4. In a dielectric JD >> J
5. J represents the power of conduction of a 5. JD represents the permittivity power of
conductor. dielectric.
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Maxwell's Equations in different media
The four Maxwell's Equations are
1. D = or , E =
o
2. B = 0 or , H = 0
B
3. E = −
t
D
4. H = J +
t
In free space / vacuum ε = εo ; μ = μo ; ρ = 0 and J = 0. Thus, B = μo H and D = εo E.
So, the equations for free space are:
1. D = 0 or , E = 0
2. B = 0 or , H = 0
H
3. E = − o
t
E
4. H = o
t
Similar for other media such
b) Charge free good conductor
ρ=0
c) Bad conductor
ρ = 0 and σ = 0
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d) Static field
dB dD
=0 and =0
dt dt
Physical significance of Maxwell's equations
Maxwell's 1st Equation
According to this total electric flux through any closed surface is 1/ 0 times the total charge
enclosed by the closed surfaces, representing Gauss's law of electrostatics, As this does not
depend on time, it is a steady state equation. Here for positive , divergence of electric field is
positive and for negative divergence is negative. It indicates that is scalar quantity.
Maxwell's 2nd equation
It represents Gauss’ law of magnetostatics. As ·B = 0 resulting that isolated magnetic poles or
magnetic monopoles cannot exist as they appear only in pairs and there is no source or sink for
magnetic lines of forces. It is also independent of time i.e. steady state equation
Maxwell's 3rd equation
It shows that with time varying magnetic field acts as a source of electric field. It relates the
spatial variation of electric field with time varying magnetic field. This is a time dependent
equation.
Maxwell's 4th equation
This is a time dependent equation which represents the modified differential form of
Ampere's circuital law according to which magnetic field is produced due to combined effect of
conduction current density and displacement current density.
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Electromagnetic wave equation in free space
We know Maxwell’s equation in free space
1. D = 0 or , E = 0
2. B = 0 or , H = 0
H
3. E = − o
t
E
4. H = o
t
Taking curl of third equation on both sides
( )
H
E = − o
t
( ) ( )
E − 2 E = − o H
t
E
Since E = 0 (1st equation) and H = o (4th equation)
t
E
2 E = o o
t t
2 E
E = o o 2
2
……….(i)
t
Now, taking curl of fourth equation on both sides
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( )
E
H = o
t
( ) ( )
H −2 H = o E
t
H
Since H = 0 (2nd equation) and E = − o (3rd equation)
t
H
2 H = o o
t t
2 H
H = o o 2
2
…………….(ii)
t
Now, the equation (i) and (ii) are in the form
1 2 ψ
ψ = 2 2
2
…………(iii)
v t
This is the equation of a wave travelling in a medium with velocity v without any damping. Thus
comparing equation (i) and (ii) with (iii) we can say
1 2
E 1 2
H
2 E = 2 2 or 2 H = 2 2
c t c t
This is the electric and magnetic field equation in free space. Thus in free space there is no damping for
both fields.
1
Here, = o o c is the velocity of light in free space = 3 × 108 m/s
c2
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1 1
c= =
o o 8.8510 −12 4 10 −7
= 3108 m/s
Fig.2: Electromagnetic wave propagation in free space.
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