7.

EVOLUTION

Evolution is an orderly change from one form to another.

Evolutionary Biology is the study of evolutionary history of life forms.

ORIGIN OF LIFE

- Big Bang Theory states that universe originated about 20 billion years ago by a singular
huge explosion. The earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago.
 There was no atmosphere on early earth. Water vapour, CH4, CO2 & NH3 released from
molten mass covered the surface.
 The UV rays from the sun broke up water into H2 and O2.
 Oxygen combined with NH3 & CH4 to form water, CO2 etc.
 The ozone layer was formed. As it cooled, the water vapour fell as rain to form oceans.
 Life appeared almost 4.5 billion years ago

Theories of origin of Life

1. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis):

It states that, life came out of decaying and rotting matter like straw, mud etc.
Louis Pasteur disproved this theory.
He demonstrated that life comes only from pre-existing life.
He showed that life did not come from killed yeast in a closed pre-sterilized flask. But in
an opened flask, life (microbes) appeared.
2. Theory of Biogenesis:
Proposed by Francisco Redi, Spallanzani & Louis Pasteur. It states that, life originates
from pre-existing life. But it does not explain origin of first life.
3. Theory of Cosmic theory (Theory of Panspermia) :
It states that, the units of life (spores) were transferred to different planets including earth.
4. Theory of special creation:
It states that, living things were created by some supernatural power (God).
5. Theory of chemical evolution: Proposed by Oparin & Haldane. It states that, the first
form of life was originated from non-living inorganic & organic molecules such as CH4,
NH3, H2O, sugars, proteins, nucleic acids etc. i.e. "Abiogenesis first, but biogenesis ever
since".
Harold Urey & Stanley Miller experimentally proved theory of chemical evolution. They
created a condition like that of primitive earth (i.e. high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing
atmosphere with CH4, NH3, H2O, H2 etc).

- They made electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, NH3, H2 and water vapour at
800° C. As a result, some amino acids are formed.

- In similar experiments, others observed formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment and fats.

First non-cellular forms of life originated 3 billion years ago. They were self-replicating
metabolic capsule containing RNA, proteins, Polysaccharides etc.
2. Evidences for evolution

1. Paleontological Evidences:

- Paleontology is the study of fossils.

- Fossils are remnants of life forms found in rocks (earth crust).
- They are written documents of evolution.

Significance of fossils:

a. To study phylogeny (evolutionary history or race history). E.g. Horse evolution.

b. To study the connecting link between two groups of organisms. E.g. Archaeopteryx.
c. To study about extinct animals. E.g. Dinosaurs.
d. To study about geological period by analysing fossils in different sedimentary rock
layers. The study showed that life forms varied over time and certain life forms are
restricted to certain geological time spans.

2. Morphological and anatomical Evidences:

Comparative anatomy and morphology shows that different forms of animals have some
common structural features.

This can be explained as follows:

a. Homologous organs :
Homologous organs are the organs having fundamentally similar structure and origin but
different functions. This phenomenon is called Homology.
E.g.
- Human hand, Whale's flippers, Bat's wing & Cheetah's foot. These forelimbs have
different functions but similar anatomical structures such as bones (e.g. humerus,
radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals & phalanges).
- Homology is also seen in heart, brain etc.
- Homology in plants: E.g. Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita
The origin of homologous organs is due to Divergent evolution. It is the evolution by
which related species become less similar to survive and adapt in different environmental
condition. Homology indicates common ancestry.

b. Analogous organs :
These are the organs having similar function but different structure & origin. This
phenomenon is called Analogy.
E.g.
• Wings of insects (formed of a thin flap of chitin) and wings of birds
(modified forelimbs).
 • Eyes of Octopus (retina from skin) and mammals (retina from embryonic
brain).
• Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins.
• Sweet potato (modified root) & Potato (modified stem).
• Trachea of insects (from ectoderm) and lungs of vertebrates (from
endoderm).
Origin of analogous organs is due to Convergent evolution. It is the evolution by which
unrelated species become more similar to survive and adapt in similar environmental
condition.

3. Adaptive radiations (Biogeographical Evidences):

 Adaptive radiation (evolution by adaptation) is the evolution of different species from

an ancestor in a geographical area starting from a point.
 It is a type of divergent evolution.

E.g.:

• Darwin's finches in Galapagos Islands.

• Australian marsupials (Marsupial radiation).
• Placental mammals in Australia.

When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in an isolated geographical area, it results
in convergent evolution.
E.g. Australian Marsupials and Placental mammals.

Placental Australian Marsupials

mammals
Mole Marsupial mole
Ant eater Numbat (Ant eater)
Mouse Marsupial mouse
Lemur Spotted cuscus
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger
Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat
Wolf Tasmanian wolf

4. Biochemical Evidences:

Organisms show similarities in proteins, genes, other biomolecules & metabolism. It

indicates common ancestry.

5. Embryological Evidences:

 Proposed by Ernst Haeckel.

 He observed that all vertebrate embryos have some common features that are absent
in adult.
 E.g. all vertebrate embryos (including human) develop vestigial gill slits just behind
the head. But it is functional only in fish and not found in other adult vertebrates.
 However, Karl Ernst von Baer rejected this proposal. He noted that embryos never
pass through the adult stages of other animals.

6. Evidences for evolution by natural selection:

Natural selection is the process in which organisms with better favourable & heritable
variation are survived and reproduced.
Some evidences are given below:

1. Industrial melanism:
In England, before industrialization (1850s), there were more white-winged moths
(Biston betularia) on trees than dark winged or melanised moths (Biston carbonaria).
After industrialization (1920), more dark-winged moths and less white winged moths
were developed.
Reason:
Before industrialization: There was white lichens covered the trees. In that background,
white winged moths survived but dark winged moths were picked out by predators.
 After industrialization: The tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and soot. No
growth of lichens. So white winged moths did not survive because the predators
identified them easily. Dark winged moth survived because of suitable dark background.

2. Development of resistant varieties in organisms against herbicides, pesticides,

antibiotics or drugs etc.

These are the examples for natural selection by anthropogenic action (evolution due to
human activities).

THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Lamarckism (Theory of Inheritance of Acquired characters):

 It is proposed by Lamarck.
 It states that evolution of life forms occurred by the inheritance of acquired characters.
 Acquired characters are developed by use & disuse of organs.
 Evolution by use of organs: E.g. Long neck of giraffe is due to continuous elongation to
forage leaves on trees. This acquired character was inherited to succeeding generations.
 Evolution by disuse: E.g. Disappearance of limbs in snakes.
 This theory was eliminated out because it is proved that the characters are inherited only
through genes.

Darwinism (Theory of Natural selection):

 Proposed by Charles Darwin

 It was based on observations during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle.
 Alfred Wallace (a naturalist worked in Malay Archepelago) had also come to similar
conclusions.
 Work of Thomas Malthus on populations influenced Darwin.
 Darwinism is based on 2 key concepts:
 Branching descent: It explains that all organisms are modified descendants of previous
life forms.
 Natural selection: Consider a bacterial colony A growing on a given medium. If the
medium composition is changed, only a part of the population can survive under new
condition. This variant population (B) outgrows the others and appears as new species,
i.e. B is better than A under new condition. Thus, nature selects for fitness.
Natural selection is based on the following facts:

 Heritable minor variations: It is either beneficial or harmful to the organisms.

Overproduction: Population size grows exponentially due to maximum reproduction (E.g.
bacterial population).
 Limited natural resources: Resources are not increased in accordance with the population
size.
 Struggle for existence: It is the competition among organisms for resources so that
population size is limited.
 Survival of the fittest: In struggle for existence, organisms with beneficial variations can
utilize resources better. Hence, they survive and reproduce. This is called Survival of the
fittest. It leads to a change in population characteristics and new forms appear.

Darwin ignored about origin of variation and mechanism of evolution or speciation.

MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION

 Hugo de Vries proposed Mutation Theory of evolution

 He conducted experiments on Oenothera lamarckiana (evening primrose) and believed
that evolution takes place through mutation and not by minor variation.
 Darwinian variation is minor, slow and directional. It results in gradual evolution.
 Mutational variation is sudden, random & directionless. Here, speciation is by saltation
(single step, large mutation).
 Mutation is the origin of variation for evolution.

HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE:

 It states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation
to generation in the absence of disturbing factors.
 The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is
called genetic equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium).
 Sum total of all the allelic frequencies = 1

E.g. Consider, in a diploid, p & q are the frequencies of alleles A & a respectively.
Frequency of AA = p2
Frequency of aa = q²
Frequency of Aa = 2pq
Hence p²+2pq + q2 = 1 [binomial expansion of (p+q)2]

Change of frequency of alleles in a population disturbs Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. This

change is due to evolution.
Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

a. Gene migration: Gene flow from one population to another. Here gene frequencies change in
both populations. Gene flow occurs if migration happens multiple times.

b. Genetic drift: The gene flow by chance causing change in frequency. Sometimes, the change
in frequency is so different in the new sample of population that they become a different species.
The original drifted population becomes founders and the effect is called founder effect.

c. Mutation: It results in formation of new phenotypes. Over few generations, this leads to
speciation.

d. Genetic recombination: Reshuffling of gene combinations during crossing over resulting in

genetic variation.

e. Natural selection: It is 3 types.

• Stabilizing selection: Here, more individuals acquire mean character value and variation
is reduced.

• Directional selection: Individuals of one extreme (value other than mean character
value) are more favoured.

• Disruptive selection: Individuals of both extremes (peripheral character value at both

ends of the distribution curve) are more favoured.
 Operation of natural selection on different traits. E.g. Body size

(a) Stabilizing selection

(b) Directional selection
(c) Disruptive selection

A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION

The geological time scale includes 4 eras: Proterozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic & Cenozoic.
1. Proterozoic era: 2500-541 million yrs ago (mya)
 2000 mya: First cellular forms of life appeared.
 Some of the cells had the ability to release O2 as the light reaction in
photosynthesis.
 Single celled organisms became multicellular organisms.

2. Palaeozoic era (540-252 mya):

It has 6 periods:
Cambrian (540-490 mya), Ordovician (490 - 443 mya),
Silurian (425 mya), Devonian (405 mya),
 Carboniferous (360 mya) & Permian (285 mya).
500 mya: Invertebrates were formed.
450 mya: First land organisms (plants) appeared
400 mya: Arthropods invaded the land.
350 mya: Jawless fishes were evolved.
 Lobefins (stout & strong finned fishes) could move on land and go back to water.
They evolved to first amphibians (ancestors of modern day frogs & salamanders).
 In 1938, a lobe-fin called coelacanth fish was caught in South Africa which was
thought to be extinct.
 320 mya: Sea weeds and few plants were existed.
 Amphibians evolved to reptiles. They lay thick-shelled eggs (do not dry up in
sun).
 Giant ferns (Pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits
slowly.
3. Mesozoic era (252-66 mya):
 Age of reptiles and gymnosperms.
 It has 3 periods: Triassic (230 mya), Jurassic (208 mya) & Cretaceous (144 mya).
 200 mya: Some of the land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish-like
reptiles (E.g. Ichthyosaurs).
 The land reptiles were dinosaurs (Tyrannosaurus rex, Triceratops, Stegosaurus,
Brachiosaurus etc.) T. rex was the largest dinosaur (20 feet in height, huge
fearsome dagger-like teeth).
 Toothed birds were emerged.

4. Cenozoic era (66 - 0 mya) :

 Age of Mammals & Angiosperms.
 It has 2 periods: Tertiary (66 mya) & Quaternary (2 mya - Age of man).
 65 mya: Dinosaurs suddenly disappeared. Some say climatic changes killed them.
Some say most of them evolved into birds.
 First mammals were shrew-like. Their fossils are small sized.
 In South America, there were mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear,
rabbit etc. Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America,
these animals were overridden by North American fauna.
 Due to continental drift, Australian marsupials survived because of lack of
competition from any other mammals.

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN:

 15 mya: Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus.
 Hairy. Walked like gorillas & chimpanzee.
 Dryopithecus: ape-like.
 Ramapithecus: man-like.
3-4 mya: Man-like primates walked up right in eastern
 Africa. Height up to 4 feet. This belief is based on fossils of man-like bones
found in Ethiopia & Tanzania.
2 mya: Australopithecus.
 Lived in East African grass lands. Hunted with stone weapons. Ate fruits.
Homo habilis: First human-like being (hominid).
 Brain capacity: 650-800 cc. Did not eat meat.
1.5 mya: Homo erectus (Java man).
 Large brain (900 cc). Ate meat.

1 lakh - 40,000 yrs ago: Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man):

 Brain capacity: 1400 cc. Lived in East & Central Asia. Used hides to protect
their body. Buried their dead.
75,000-10,000 yrs ago (ice age): Homo sapiens (Modern man).
 Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago. E.g. Cave paintings at
Bhimbetka rock shelter in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh. Agriculture &
settlements: 10,000 years ago.

Sequence of Human evolution:

Dryopithecus → Ramapithecus → Australopithecus →Homo habilis → Homo
erectus → Homo neanderthalensis → Homo sapiens