This article was downloaded by: [University of Chicago Library]

On: 26 December 2014, At: 12:50

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office:
Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Occupational Science

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription
information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rocc20

Occupational identity: Engaging socio‐cultural

perspectives
a b
Shanon Phelan & Elizabeth Anne Kinsella
a
PhD Candidate, Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Field of Occupational
Science , The University of Western Ontario , London , Ontario , Canada E-mail:
b
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Occupational
Therapy , The University of Western Ontario , London , Ontario , Canada E-mail:
Published online: 26 Sep 2011.

To cite this article: Shanon Phelan & Elizabeth Anne Kinsella (2009) Occupational identity: Engaging socio‐cultural
perspectives, Journal of Occupational Science, 16:2, 85-91, DOI: 10.1080/14427591.2009.9686647

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2009.9686647

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”)
contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our
licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or
suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are
the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis.
The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with
primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever
caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the
Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial
or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or
distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can
be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 FEATURE ARTICLE

Occupational Identity: Engaging Socio-Cultural

Perspectives

Shanon Phelan & Occupational identity has been conceptualized with the individual at the core of the construct and
Elizabeth Anne assuming that autonomy and free choice are universally applicable constructs. While occupational
Kinsella therapists acknowledge social and cultural dimensions of identity formation and occupational
scientists have advocated greater inclusion of socio-cultural perspectives in theory generation, the
relevance of these constructs has yet to be examined. This article focuses on current assumptions
informing conceptualisations of occupational identity. The individual, productivity, choice, and
conceptions of the social are considered in light of emergent theories of identity drawn from
anthropology, sociology, cultural theory and philosophy. The authors propose that socio-cultural
theoretical perspectives offer generative insights for advancing conceptualizations of occupational
identity, and draw attention to a dialectically oriented understanding about how social and cultural
Downloaded by [University of Chicago Library] at 12:51 26 December 2014

dimensions shape occupational identities.

Key Words: Occupational identity, Social constructionism, Socio-cultural perspectives, Theory

Occupational identity is an emerging construct shapes and is shaped by our relationships with
in occupational science. It is in the early stages others, (b) That identities are closely tied to
of conceptualization, and is frequently what we do and our interpretations of those
presented without explication of its underlying actions in the context of our relationships with
assumptions. The purpose of this article is to others, (c) Identities provide an important
critically examine the construct in order to (1) central figure in a self-narrative or life story that
explicate the theoretical assumptions provides coherence and meaning for everyday
embedded in current conceptualizations of events and life itself, and (d) Because life
occupational identity in occupational science, meaning is derived in the context of identity, it
(2) examine socially and culturally oriented is an essential element in promoting well-being
perspectives on identity theory in light of the and life-satisfaction. This seminal work has
assumptions underpinning occupational served as an important foundation for
identity, (3) demonstrate how socio-cultural advancing conceptualizations of occupational
theoretical perspectives enrich conceptuali- identity in occupation-based disciplines.
zations of occupational identity and (4)
advance the scholarly dialogue concerning the
Shanon Phelan, MScOT,
Occupational Identity
construct of occupational identity in
OTReg(Ont.), PhD Candidate,
occupational science.
Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Kielhofner (2002) advanced the scholarship
Field of Occupational Science, The linking occupation and identity, coining the
University of Western Ontario,
Occupation as Identity term occupational identity. He subsequently
London, Ontario, Canada.
defined occupational identity as “a composite
Elizabeth Anne Kinsella, PhD, Christiansen (1999, 2000, 2004) was the first sense of who one is and wishes to become as an
MAdEd, BSc(OT), OTReg(Ont.), scholar to make an explicit connection between occupational being generated from one’s history
Assistant Professor, Faculty of occupation and individuals’ personal and social of occupational participation. One’s volition,
Health Sciences, School of
identity in the occupation-based literature. He habituation, and experience as a lived body are
Occupational Therapy, The
University of Western Ontario, suggested that participation in occupation all integrated into occupational identity”
London, Ontario, Canada. contributes to one’s construction of identity and (2008a, p. 106). In his model of human
is the primary means to communicate one’s occupation (2008a), occupational identity and
Correspondence to: identity, concluding that “when we build our occupational competence are interrelated and
[email protected]
identities through occupations, we provide influence the success of occupational
[email protected]
ourselves with the contexts necessary for adaptation. In this sense, occupational
creating meaningful lives, and life meaning competence is defined as “the degree to which
© 2009 Association for the
Journal of Occupational Science
helps us to be well” (1999, p. 547). one sustains a pattern of occupational
Christiansen (1999) advanced four central participation that reflects one’s occupational
Journal of Occupational Science propositions about occupation and identity: (a) identity” and occupational adaptation is
2009, 16(2), pp 85-91. That identity is an overarching concept that defined as “the construction of a positive

J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E V O L 1 6 ( 2 ) , J U LY 2 0 0 9 85
 SHANON PHELAN & ELIZABETH ANNE KINSELLA

occupational identity and achieving occupational competence poststructuralists go so far as to argue that the notion of a
over time in the context of one’s environment” (Kielhofner, unitary self is a myth (Weedon, 1987), and that such a
2008b, p. 107). conception presupposes a self who experiences the world
independently of the social world, and outside of the language
Unruh and colleagues have also contributed to the and discourses in which statements about the world are made
conceptualization of occupational identity, proposing that: (Smith, 1999). In addition, as Sandywell (1999) pointed out,
occupational identity could be conceptualized as the the focus on the individual self is distinct from older dialogic
expression of the physical, affective, cognitive, and views of existence.
spiritual aspects of human nature, in an interaction
with the institutional, social, cultural and political Postmodern and poststructuralist views posit a conception of
dimensions of the environment, across the time and a fragmented, decentred self (Sorrell & Montgomery, 2001).
space of a person’s lifespan, through the occupations of Postmodern writers question whether the self is unified,
self-care, productivity and leisure. (Unruh, Versnel, & singular, and self determining, highlighting that each self
Kerr, 2002, p. 12) exists in a fabric of relations (Lyotard, 1979). Post-
Like Christiansen (1999), Unruh (2004) made the point that structuralism proposes a self that is precarious, contradictory,
in social settings, people are often defined by what they do. and in process, constantly being reconstituted in discourse
She illustrated her argument using a common question asked each time we think or speak (Weedon, 1987). For Foucault,
in social venues, “so…what do you do?” (p. 290). Moreover, for instance, subjects are constituted in discourse. He argued
Downloaded by [University of Chicago Library] at 12:51 26 December 2014

Unruh (2004) illuminated an important distinction between that there is no single position from which subjects can be
people’s public identities (based on work, productive empowered, only particular discursive positions within
occupations, and acknowledgement of the social value power/knowledge formations. From a postmodern/
attached to work) and private identities (based on solitary, poststructuralist point of view, conceptions of identity that fail
creative, and leisure occupations, acknowledging the personal to problematize the modern notion of an individuated, self
investment attached to such occupations). Unique to Unruh transparent consciousness, fully in control of itself, are
and her co-authors, is the emphasis on spirituality and its problematic (Kinsella, 2005). Postmodern and post-
potential to influence occupational identity (Unruh, 2004; structuralist thinkers contend that the self is more than
Unruh et al., 2002). cognitive and rational minds ruling bodies; the self is also
constituted and reconstituted in relationship and language
(Kinsella).
Occupational Identity: Theoretical Assumptions and
Emerging Perspectives
As constructs such as occupational identity are
conceptualised, it is important to recognize that, in general,
Close examination of the occupational identity literature
occupational science research has focused more on
reveals four major theoretical assumptions embedded within
individually oriented determinants of occupation. Expressing
the construct of occupational identity. These are:
concern about that, Dickie, Cutchin, and Humphry (2006)
(a) Individual at the core of identity formation, (b) Choice,
advocated for approaches to understanding occupation that
(c) Productivity, and (d) Social dimensions. The following
value collective understandings, stating that “occupation is
discussion examines these assumptions in light of emerging
rarely, if ever individual in nature” (p. 83), and “occupation is
socio-cultural theoretical perspectives from within
larger than what an individual experiences” (p. 84). Similarly,
occupational science and beyond.
Laliberte Rudman and Dennhardt (2008) recently highlighted
the emphasis on the individual self in current conceptions of
Individual at the core of identity formation
occupational identity as a limitation to theory development.
Occupational identity theory emphasizes the individual self as Others have suggested that this individual orientation may be
having control over its identity. The dominant discourse attributed to the history of occupational therapy and to the
focuses on self-efficacy, self-confidence, self-esteem, personal dominant Western focus on the individual versus socially
success, personal motivators, personal goals/achievements, oriented concerns about what best serves the collective, a
and personality traits with respect to how they contribute to concern which appears to be more prevalent in a number of
occupational identity (Christiansen, 1999, 2004; Kielhofner, nonwestern cultures (Molineux & Whiteford, 2006).
2008a, 2008b; Unruh, 2004; Unruh et al., 2002). There
appears to be little reference to broader social or collective For instance, Iwama (2003) argued that the individualistic
notions of identity, except to link the impact of social worlds understandings of human agency prevalent in occupation-
on the developing “self”. focused paradigms arise from European and Western values,
and may be viewed as problematically ethnocentric. In
While a focus on the individual self and the agency of the self contrast, in collectivist social contexts, social dimensions
is essential, it is also important to draw attention to emerging rather than the individual often wield greater power in
tensions within theories of identity in contemporary times. In influencing perceptions of what is right and proper. Who is
the context of growing recognition of social, cultural, present in a given situation and the status bestowed on the
relational, and discursive elements, the limitations of an individual by the greater collective, can exert a profound
individualized approach to understanding identity have begun influence on what is considered to be true, worth knowing
to garner attention. Indeed, many postmodernists and and worth doing. The self is oriented toward adjusting and

86 J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E V O L 1 6 ( 2 ) , J U LY 2 0 0 9
 SHANON PHELAN & ELIZABETH ANNE KINSELLA

adapting to the social environment, rather than controlling Choice

and altering environments to suit one’s self (Iwama), and this
has profound implications for human agency and identity. Choice is another recurring theme in the occupational identity
literature. The emphasis on choice comes from the
These perspectives raise questions about the ways the
assumption that identity is achieved and described, rather
collective dimensions of occupational engagement influence
than ascribed and prescribed (Cote & Levine, 2002). The
identity formation, and how social and cultural discourses
notion of individual choice coincides with the assumption
shape people’s expectations and actions with respect to
that individuals have choices in terms of which occupations
occupation and the implications for identity.
shape occupational identity. For example, Christiansen
(1999) asserted that occupations contributing to identity are
An additional consideration is that depictions of occupational
chosen, controlled, and goal-directed: “When we create, when
identity focus on future and possible selves (Christiansen,
we control, when we exercise choice, we are expressing our
1999, 2004; Kielhofner, 2008a), which again emphasizes self
selfhood and unique identities” (p. 550). He later claimed that
identity rather than the self as part of or as shaped by
goals are “external influences that shape the creation of self”
the collective identity of the culture of which one is part.
(2004, p. 121), further expanding that notion by suggesting
The persistent focus on the individual in occupational
that the occupations individuals participate in throughout
scholarship has been criticized for its limited forms of
their lives are influenced by internal drives and conscious
knowing, and for the potential alienation of diverse cultures
decisions. While Christiansen (2004) mentioned genetics,
Downloaded by [University of Chicago Library] at 12:51 26 December 2014

(Iwama, 2003; Molineux & Whiteford, 2006; Laliberte

experience, culture, regulatory/legal obligations, and values as
Rudman & Dennhardt, 2008; Hammell, 2009). In summary,
factors that may impact choice, those factors were not
individualistic conceptions of identity may limit
explored in depth.
understanding of occupational identity, and create barriers to
utilizing this construct in cross-cultural contexts. Iwama’s call
Kielhofner (2008a) and Unruh (2004) have also proposed that
for culturally relevant epistemologies for the study
occupational identity is shaped by individuals’
of occupation demands a rethinking of the study of choices/volition and cultural context, as occupational identity
occupation, and consequently, of conceptualizations of reflects who they are in context. Leisure choice is identified as
occupational identity. particularly influential in how identities are constructed and
shaped. For instance, Christiansen (2004) suggested that
In response to these and other concerns, Dickie et al. (2006) leisure occupations are chosen more freely, allowing
suggested that theories developed by occupational scientists individuals a release from the obligations of paid work.
have neglected to highlight the relationship between the Similarly, Unruh (2004) described how productive
person, occupation and context. Rather, the focus has been on occupations may be balanced or offset by leisure occupations
each component as a separate entity. They proposed, instead, in the construction of an individual’s occupational identity.
that occupational scientists draw upon theorists such as
Dewey and Bentley to adopt a transactional perspective of These assumptions draw heavily on American cultural values,
occupation: emphasizing occupations as freely chosen rather than arising
A relational perspective of transactionalism means that out of duty or obligation (Cote & Levine, 2002).
occupation is no longer seen as a thing or as a type of Acknowledging the possibility of restricted or lack of choice,
self-action. It is an important mode through which Kronenberg and Pollard (2005) defined occupational apartheid
human beings, as organisms-in-environment-as-a- as “the segregation of groups of people through the restriction
whole function in their complex totality. The holistic or denial of access to dignified and meaningful participation
view also means that occupation transforms the in occupations of daily life on the basis of race, color,
situation as well as the person in an ongoing and disability, national origin, age, gender, sexual preference,
emergent way. (Dickie et al., p. 91) religion, political beliefs, status in society, or other
In asserting the need to consider occupation beyond the characteristics” (p. 67). From this perspective, the
individual’s understanding, taking account of the relationship assumptions of “free choice” that underpin conceptions of
between social, physical and cultural contexts, Dickie et al. occupational identity appear culturally bound, neglecting
further problematized the individualistic view of the self. instances where opportunities for free choice may not exist.
As Sorell and Montgomery (2001) revealed, unlike lives
In summary, there are a number of critiques emerging within composed in relative isolation, under dictatorships or in
identity theory and occupational science that might generate circumstances where survival demands adherence to a limited
avenues for further scholarship exploring socially, range of roles, activities and beliefs, identity theories
discursively, collectively, culturally, and relationally oriented frequently portray an array of possibilities for choice. This
conceptions of the self, and the implications of those tendency, they suggest, is indicative of the extent to which
perspectives for occupational identity. Further scholarship in such theory is culturally bound within white, middle class,
this area would constitute a rich location for advancing a American and European culture.
dialectically oriented socio-cultural view of occupational
identity; one that considers the individual, as well as socio- Contrary to theories that posit unlimited free choice,
cultural perspectives, with respect to the ways occupational philosopher Susan Sherwin (1998) employed a feminist
identities are shaped. perspective to examine the social factors that limit

J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E V O L 1 6 ( 2 ) , J U LY 2 0 0 9 87
 SHANON PHELAN & ELIZABETH ANNE KINSELLA

possibilities for autonomy and free choice in everyday life. She to troubling questions. An exploration of occupational choice
drew attention to the complex ways in which power across gender, race, socioeconomic conditions, and culture, is
differentials exist and influence individuals’ capacity to make a further avenue for exploration and for advancing more
autonomous choices. Sherwin challenged the authenticity of relational conceptions of occupational identity.
autonomous choice in the presence of both social and political
realms, proposing instead a rubric of relational autonomy that Productivity
recognizes the importance of the social world in shaping
Notions of productivity, industry and working towards a
people’s choices and identity. Accordingly, Sherwin argued
future are fore-fronted throughout occupational identity
that the choices available to individuals are socially informed
theory. This is evident in Christiansen’s (1999, 2004),
and highly relational, and advocated for an approach that:
Kielhofner’s (2008) and Unruh’s (2004) work. Consistent with
acknowledges that the presence or absence of a degree
the social value attributed to work, Unruh (2004) claimed that
of autonomy is not just a matter of being offered a
“much of development and maturation during adolescence
choice. It also requires that the person have had the
and early adulthood is about constructing an occupational
opportunity to develop the skills necessary for making
identity based on achieving meaningful work” (p. 293), and
the type of choice in question, the experience of being
the social recognition that comes through this achievement.
respected in her decisions, and encouragement to
However, as Darnell (2002) explained, such values are “a
reflect on her own values. The society, not just the
product of a particular social, political, and economic system
agent, is subject to critical scrutiny under the rubric of
Downloaded by [University of Chicago Library] at 12:51 26 December 2014

deriving from Western European modernity” (p. 5). Building

relational autonomy. (p. 37)
on that argument, Darnell questioned whether the concept of
Sherwin asserted that critical scrutiny of the ways in which
occupation in itself might be ethnocentric, applying only to
social relations and society impact choice is an exercise in
the cultural context from which it is formed. Advancing
social justice, as it moves away from socially privileged ideals
conceptualizations of occupational identity solely from this
in order to decrease the perpetuation of oppression. The
perspective risks alienating people of “different cultural or
notion of relational autonomy problematizes the assumptions
class backgrounds” who do not prioritize productivity and
about free choice that are at the heart of individually oriented
who “access work and its relation to personal identity in
perspectives on identity, and offers a generative pathway for
commensurable ways” (p. 7). Accordingly, Darnell called for
future scholarship with respect to occupational identity.
occupational scientists to engage in learning more about the
cultural construction of work in order to gain a better
The degree to which individuals can exercise free choice, and
understanding of diverse worldviews and how other people
the implications of free choice for the construction of identity,
enact occupation.
are particularly salient questions in relation to occupational
identity. Those questions may be even more significant for
Darnell’s work raises a flag about the importance of
people with disabilities because the social discourse around
incorporating what Iwama (2003) has referred to as ‘culturally
disability has the potential to limit people’s choices (Wyness,
relevant epistemologies’ within occupational constructs such
2006) and thus their opportunities to engage in occupation
as occupational identity. This is not to dismiss the significance
(Heah, Case, McGuire, & Law, 2007). Compounding those
of productivity, but rather to recognize that its relationship to
limitations, the built environment also shapes opportunities
identity might vary in different cultures. Jean Vanier’s l’arche
for persons with disabilities to choose occupations, as its
communities for people with disabilities offer an example. In
structures inherently enable or disable individuals (Marks,
these communities, the cultural emphasis is on belonging
1999; Wendell, 1996). Vigilance also plays a role in
rather than productivity, and the process of becoming
occupational opportunities, as caregivers and loved ones may
(identity formation) is seen through a relational lens (Vanier,
feel the need to be more guarded about the occupations of
1998, 2001). Occupation in this context is seen first and
people with disabilities (Baker & Donnelly, 2001; Heah at al.).
foremost as an avenue for cultivating belonging, with explicit
In addition, potential safety risks, lack of supportive social
recognition that identities are shaped through engagement in
structures, and a history of unaccommodating and
community.
discriminatory experiences influence the occupational choices
of persons with disabilities (Baker & Donnelly, 2001; Heah et
Social dimensions
al.). Thus theoretical perspectives that problematize
assumptions about free choice and recognize that Occupational identity also highlights society’s influence on
occupational choice is often determined by social, cultural individual identity formation. Society becomes significant in
and discursive dimensions, what Kemmis (2005) called shaping what occupations are accepted. Social influences on
“extra-individual features”, may have important implications identity formation are revealed in the occupational identity
for advancing conceptions of occupational identity, literature through the emphasis given to the way identities are
particularly with respect to people living with disabilities. formed through social approval. For instance, key
occupational identity theorists have pointed out that children
The value placed on choice in relation to the formation of seek approval from parents, peers, and society (Christiansen,
occupational identity is also rooted in Western cultural ideals 2004; Kielhofner, 2008b; Unruh, 2004), and that positive
of autonomy, choice and independence which, as Held (1993) identities are fostered when individuals perceive that their
pointed out, privilege “autonomy” over “relationship”. Yet, chosen occupations win approval from the greater society
the extent to which autonomous choice actually exists is open (Christiansen, 2004). At the same time, a number of social

88 J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E V O L 1 6 ( 2 ) , J U LY 2 0 0 9
 SHANON PHELAN & ELIZABETH ANNE KINSELLA

theorists from diverse fields have begun to point to the ways us comes to harbour a vast population of hidden
in which social dimensions and relationships are not just a potentials—to be a blues singer, a gypsy, an aristocrat,
means of social approval with respect to occupations; rather, a criminal. All the selves lie latent, and under the right
they may form, shape or even produce identities. conditions may spring to life. (p. 71)
Gergen’s third notion is of a relational self “in which the self is
Social constructionism, for instance, seeks to illuminate how replaced by the reality of relatedness—or the transformation
people see and understand the world in which they live, of ‘you’ and ‘I’ to ‘us’” (p. 156). It is the idea that, as
proposing that knowledge is constructed through individuals become socially saturated, they begin to realize
relationships between individuals and the world around them that the notion of an autonomous self does not exist. Instead,
(Gergen, 2003). Because knowledge is culturally and they become conscious of their interdependence with others,
historically situated, it influences perceptions of reality understanding that relationships are central to constructing
beyond what is interpreted at a conscious level (Berger & the self (Gergen, 1994, 2000). In this light:
Luckman, 1966; Burr, 2003; Gergen, 2003; Mallon, 2007). One’s potentials are only realized because there are
Accordingly, identity is formed, shaped, and reshaped through others to support and sustain them; one has an identity
social processes and interactions, emerging “from the dialectic only because it is permitted by the social rituals of
between individual and society” (Berger & Luckman, 1996, p. which one is part; one is allowed to be a certain kind
174). According to Berger and Luckman, this dialectic of person because this sort of person is essential to the
continues throughout one’s lifetime, in its particular socio- broader games of society. (Gergen, 2000, p. 157)
Downloaded by [University of Chicago Library] at 12:51 26 December 2014

historical context, with society setting limits on the organism

(seen as the individual in its biological entirety) and the Similarly, philosopher Charles Taylor proposed that the
organism in turn, setting limits on society. This results in an formation of identity is fundamentally relational and crucially
identity that is socially produced (Berger & Luckman) depends on one’s dialogical relations with others. He wrote
through discourses that exist within the culture and that that “my discovering my identity doesn’t mean that I work it
people engage with through language and interactions with out in isolation but that I negotiate it through dialogue, partly
others (Burr, 2003). From this perspective, identity can be overtly, partly internalised, with others” (1992, pp. 47-48).
portrayed as a fabric constructed with many different Taylor suggested that people become full human agents,
historically and culturally situated threads (age, gender, capable of understanding themselves, and hence of defining
ethnicity, occupation, sexuality, to name a few). Within a an identity, through acquisition of rich human languages of
particular context, there are “a limited number of discourses expression. These include not only words but languages of art,
on offer out of which we may fashion ourselves” (Burr, p. gesture, love, and the like. These symbolic cultural symbols
107), implying that people fashion their identity from the implicitly shape identities. People do not, according to Taylor,
representations available within present discourses. Burr acquire the languages needed for self definition on their own;
argued that “for each of us, then, a multitude of discourses is rather they are introduced to them through exchanges with
constantly at work constructing and producing our identity. others who matter to them. The genesis of the human mind is
Our identity therefore originates not from inside the person, in this sense not ‘‘monological’’, not something each person
but from the social realm” (p. 108). Burr also asserted that accomplishes on his or her own, but dialogical (Taylor, p. 33).
although identities are socially constructed, they are not The dialogue invokes both agreement and struggle, as “our
“accidental”. Human agency plays a role, and identity identities are formed in dialogue with others, in agreement or
formation can be political, in that it may entail promotion of struggle with their recognition of us” (Taylor, pp. 45-46). In
or resistance to available discourses. In Burr’s view, this is a this conception of identity, relationships carry immense
struggle we all face. weight in people’s constructions of self as they “are all aware
how identity can be formed or malformed in [their] contact
Another major contribution to discussions about the social with significant others” (Taylor, pp. 49-50).
construction of identity is Gergen’s (1994, 2000) notion of the
saturated self, the populated self, and the relational self, as Such conceptions extend the idea of identity formation
dimensions of identity that are products of the social world. By beyond that of participation in occupations that are socially
the saturated self, Gergen (2000) alluded to aspects of self that valued within a society, as described in occupational identity
are the product of technological advancements, with the literature, and point to the ways in which involvement in
variety, frequency, intensity, and duration of such relationships society, culture, and social relationships may actually shape,
increasing to the point of social saturation. The results of form, or even produce occupational identity. Thus, it is
saturation have significant (often unrecognized) influence on proposed that a generative area for exploration within
identity formation. The populated self, refers to “the occupational identity theory parallels an area of concern in
acquisition of multiple and disparate potentials for being” (p. broader discussions of identity theory, and includes the ways
69). As people become more socially saturated, they become in which society, social relations, intersubjectivity and diverse
pastiches; “imitative assemblages of each other” (p. 69) cultural languages of human expression also come to shape,
whereby memories of experiences and interactions can be form or produce identities. Such a perspective moves beyond
drawn upon when representing the self in social situations. recognition of the social value and acceptance of occupations,
Gergen (2000) explained that: to a deeper appreciation of the relationship between society
We appear to each other as single identities, unified, of and identity, and the ways social power might contribute to
whole cloth. However, with social saturation, each of the malformation or limitation of identities.

J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E V O L 1 6 ( 2 ) , J U LY 2 0 0 9 89
 SHANON PHELAN & ELIZABETH ANNE KINSELLA

Deeper consideration of the ways in which occupational relationally, discursively, and culturally oriented dimensions
identities may be socially constructed raises immense moral and their importance in identity formation and conceptions of
and practical concerns about how societies are organized and the self. Attention to such frameworks has the potential to
develop. The significance of occupations that are socially advance a conception of occupational identity that more
valued and that people are enabled to participate in, reflect the overtly recognizes the dialectic between individual and
moral commitments of communities and societies, socially oriented dimensions in how identities are shaped.
underlining people’s collective responsibility for the future
identities that are potentially shaped, formed and produced. An excerpt from Sorell and Montgomery (2001) illustrates the
complexity of identity formation, and articulates the impetus
Conclusion for increasingly socially oriented frames:
We must remember that not everyone has the
In their attempts to further conceptualize occupational opportunity to compose a personal sense of identity.
identity, occupational scientists must ask how emerging Many groups and individuals, even in this new century,
socially and culturally oriented perspectives on identity might spend entire lifetimes in regions of extreme political
influence the construct and extend beyond the current chaos, severe personal restriction, or dire economic
emphasis on individualistic frameworks. This examination of circumstances where survival demands adherence to a
occupational identity has revealed four theoretical limited range of roles, activities and beliefs. For these
Downloaded by [University of Chicago Library] at 12:51 26 December 2014

assumptions that permeate current conceptualizations.

people the story of ideal personal and social identity,
Although attention to the assumptions embedded in the
composed in a society that is itself trustworthy,
concept of occupational identity provides important
autonomous and generative—may be a bitter parody of
conceptual insights with respect to how identity is shaped
their lived experience. (p. 123)
through occupation, the construct of occupational identity
has much room to grow. Recent scholarship in anthropology, Occupational science prides itself on its interdisciplinary
sociology, cultural theory and philosophy, have rightly roots. We propose that it is time to consider diverse theoretical
introduced socially and culturally oriented frameworks to the perspectives in order to conceptualize occupational identity in
study of identity. Occupational scientists have also called for a manner that is responsive to contemporary theoretical
greater attention to socially and culturally oriented developments. Such action begins by explicating the
perspectives (Molineux & Whiteford, 2006; Hammell, 2009). assumptions within the current conceptual frames in order to
These frameworks point to generative possibilities for deepen understandings, and to use this as a starting place to
conceptual elaboration, and draw attention to socially, advance scholarship about occupational identity.

REFERENCES

Baker, K., & Donnelly, M. (2001). The social experiences of Dickie, V., Cutchin, M. P., & Humphry, R. (2006). Occupation
children with disability and the influence of environment: A as a transactional experience: A critique of individualism in
framework for intervention. Disability & Society, 16, 71-85. occupational science. Journal of Occupational Science, 13,
Berger, P. L., & Luckman, T. (1966). The social construction of 83-93.
reality. A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. New York: Gergen, K. J. (1994). Realities and relationships. Soundings in
Anchor Books. social construction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Burr, V. (2003). Social constructionism (2nd ed.). New York: Press.
Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Gergen, K. J. (2000). The saturated self: Dilemmas of identity in
Christiansen, C. H. (1999). Defining lives: Occupation as contemporary life. New York: Basic Books.
identity: An essay on competence, coherence and the Gergen, K. J. (2003). Knowledge as socially constructed. In M.
creation of meaning. American Journal of Occupational Gergen & K. J. Gergen (Eds.), Social construction: A reader
Therapy, 53, 547-558. (pp. 15-17). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Christiansen, C. (2000). Identity, personal projects and Hammell, K. W. (2009). Sacred texts: A skeptical exploration
happiness: Self construction in everyday action. Journal of of the assumptions underpinning theories of occupation.
Occupational Science, 7, 98-107. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 76, 6-13.
Christiansen, C. (2004). Occupation and identity: Becoming Heah, T., Case, T., McGuire, B., & Law, M. (2007). Successful
who we are through what we do. In C. H. Christiansen & E. participation: The lived experience among children with
A. Townsend (Eds.), Introduction to occupation. The art and disabilities. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 74,
science of living (pp. 121-139). Upper Saddle River, NJ: 38-47.
Prentice Hall. Held, V. (1993). Feminist morality: Transforming culture, society
Cote, J. E., & Levine, C. G. (2002). Identity formation, agency, and politics. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
and culture. A social psychological synthesis. Mahwah, NJ: Iwama, M. (2003). Toward culturally relevant epistemologies
Lawrence Erlbaum. in occupational therapy. American Journal of Occupational
Darnell, R. (2002). Occupation is not a cross-cultural Therapy, 57, 582-588.
universal: Some reflections from an ethnographer. Journal of Kemmis, S. (2005). Knowing practice: Searching for saliences.
Occupational Science, 9, 5-11. Pedagogy, Culture and Society, 13, 391-426.

90 J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E V O L 1 6 ( 2 ) , J U LY 2 0 0 9
 SHANON PHELAN & ELIZABETH ANNE KINSELLA

Kielhofner, G. (2002). Model of human occupation: Theory and Sandywell, B. (1999). Specular grammar: The visual rhetoric
application (3rd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & of modernity. In L. Heywood & B. Sandywell (Eds.),
Wilkins. Interpreting visual culture: Explorations in the hermeneutics of
Kielhofner, G. (2008a). Dimensions of doing. In G. Kielhofner the visual (pp. 30-35). London: Routledge.
(Ed.), Model of human occupation: Theory and application Sherwin, S. (1998). A relational approach to autonomy in
(4th ed., pp. 101-109). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams
health care. In S. Sherwin (Ed.), The politics of women’s
& Wilkins.
health: Exploring agency and autonomy (pp. 19-47).
Kielhofner, G. (2008b). Doing and becoming: Occupational
change and development. In G. Kielhofner (Ed.), Model of Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
human occupation. Theory and application (4th ed., pp. 126- Sorrell, G. T., & Montgomery, M. J. (2001). Feminist
140). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. perspectives on Erikson’s theory: Their relevance for
Kinsella, E. A. (2005). Constructions of self: Ethical overtones contemporary identity development research. Identity: An
in surprising locations. Journal of Medical Ethics: Medical International Journal of Theory and Research, 1, 91-128.
Humanities, 31, 67-71. Smith, D. (1999). Writing the social. Toronto, Canada:
Kronenberg, F., & Pollard, N. (2005). Overcoming University of Toronto Press.
occupational apartheid. A preliminary exploration of the Taylor, C. (1992). The ethics of authenticity. Cambridge, MA:
political nature of occupational therapy. In F. Kronenberg, S. Harvard University Press.
S. Algado, & N. Pollard (Eds.), Occupational therapy without
Downloaded by [University of Chicago Library] at 12:51 26 December 2014

Unruh, A. M. (2004). Reflections on: “So…what do you do?”

borders. Learning from the spirit of survivors (pp. 58-86).
Occupation and the construction of identity. Canadian
Edinburgh, UK: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone.
Laliberte Rudman, D., & Dennhardt, S. (2008). Shaping Journal of Occupational Therapy, 71, 290-295.
knowledge regarding occupation: Examining the cultural Unruh, A. M., Versnel, J., & Kerr, N. (2002). Spirituality
underpinnings of the evolving concept of occupational unplugged: A review of commonalities and contentions, and
identity. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 55, a resolution. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 69,
153-162. 5-19.
Lyotard, J. F. (1979). The postmodern condition: A report on Vanier, J. (1998). Becoming human. Toronto, Canada: Anansi
knowledge (G. Bennington & B. Massumi Trans]. Press.
Manchester: Manchester University Press. Vanier, J. (2001). Made for happiness: Discovering the meaning
Mallon, R. (2007). A field guide to social construction. of life with Aristotle. Toronto, Canada: Anansi Press.
Philosophy Compass, 2(1), 93-108.
Weedon C. (1987). Feminist practice and poststructural theory.
Marks, D. (1999). Disability. Controversial debates and
Oxford: Blackwell.
psychosocial perspectives. New York, NY: Routledge Taylor &
Francis. Wendell, S. (1996). The rejected body. Feminist philosophical
Molineux, M., & Whiteford, G. (2006). Occupational science: reflections on disability. New York, NY: Routledge Taylor &
Genesis, evolution and future contributions. In E. Duncan Francis.
(Ed.), Foundations for practice in occupational therapy (pp. Wyness, M. (2006). Childhood and society. An introduction to
297-313). London: Elsevier. the sociology of childhood. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E V O L 1 6 ( 2 ) , J U LY 2 0 0 9 91