Chameleon

Chameleons or chamaeleons (family

Chamaeleonidae) are a distinctive and highly Chameleons
specialized clade of Old World lizards with 200 species Temporal range: Early Miocene –
described as of June 2015.[1] The members of this family present, Middle Paleocene origins
are best known for their distinct range of colours, being
capable of colour-shifting camouflage. The large number of
species in the family exhibit considerable variability in
their capacity to change colour. For some, it is more of a
shift of brightness (shades of brown); for others, a plethora
of colour-combinations (reds, yellows, greens, blues) can
be seen.

Chameleons are also distinguished by their zygodactylous

feet, their prehensile tail, their laterally compressed
bodies, their head casques, their projectile tongues used
for catching prey, their swaying gait,[2] and in some
species crests or horns on their brow and snout. Clockwise from top right: Chamaeleo
Chameleons' eyes are independently mobile, and because chamaeleon, Calumma parsonii,
of this the chameleon's brain is constantly analyzing two Chamaeleo namaquensis, Trioceros
separate, individual images of its environment. When
jacksonii, Furcifer pardalis and
hunting prey, the eyes focus forward in coordination,
Brookesia micra
affording stereoscopic vision.
Scientific classification
Chameleons are diurnal and adapted for visual hunting of
Kingdom: Animalia
invertebrates, mostly insects, although the large species
also can catch small vertebrates. Chameleons typically are Phylum: Chordata
arboreal, but there are also many species that live on the Class: Reptilia
ground. The arboreal species use their prehensile tail as an
Order: Squamata
extra anchor point when they are moving or resting in
trees or bushes; because of this, their tail is often referred Suborder: Iguania
to as a "fifth limb". Depending on species, they range from Infraorder: Acrodonta
rainforest to desert conditions and from lowlands to
highlands, with the vast majority occurring in Africa Family: Chamaeleonidae
(about half of the species are restricted to Madagascar), Rafinesque, 1815
but with a single species in southern Europe, and a few Genera
across southern Asia as far east as India and Sri Lanka.
They have been introduced to Hawaii and Florida.[1][3] Brookesiinae

Brookesia
Palleon
Chamaeleoninae

Archaius
 Bradypodion
Etymology Calumma
Chamaeleo
The English word chameleon (/kəˈmiːliən/ kuh-MEEL-ee-
un, /kəˈmil.jən/ kuh-MEEL-yuhn) is a simplified spelling Furcifer
of Latin chamaeleōn,[4] a borrowing of the Greek Kinyongia
χαμαιλέων (khamailéōn),[5] a compound of χαμαί
Nadzikambia
(khamaí) "on the ground"[6] and λέων (léōn) "lion".[7][8][9]
Rieppeleon
Rhampholeon
Classification Trioceros
In 1986, the family Chamaeleonidae was divided into two
subfamilies, Brookesiinae and Chamaeleoninae.[10] Under
this classification, Brookesiinae included the genera
Brookesia and Rhampholeon, as well as the genera later
split off from them (Palleon and Rieppeleon), while
Chamaeleoninae included the genera Bradypodion,
Calumma, Chamaeleo, Furcifer and Trioceros, as well as
the genera later split off from them (Archaius,
Nadzikambia and Kinyongia). Since that time, however,
the validity of this subfamily designation has been the
subject of much debate,[11] although most phylogenetic
studies support the notion that the pygmy chameleons of Native range of Chamaeleonidae
the subfamily Brookesiinae
are not a monophyletic
group.[12][13][14][15]

While some authorities

have previously preferred
to use this subfamilial
classification on the basis of
the absence of evidence Chameleons' eye coordination
Mughal era painting of a principle,[11] these
chameleon by Ustad Mansur.
authorities later abandoned
this subfamilial division, no longer recognizing any subfamilies
with the family Chamaeleonidae.[16]

In 2015, however, Glaw reworked the subfamilial division by placing only the genera Brookesia
and Palleon within the Brookesiinae subfamily, with all other genera being placed in
Chamaeleoninae.[1]

Change of colour
Some chameleon species are able to change their skin coloration. Different chameleon species are
able to vary their colouration and pattern through combinations of pink, blue, red, orange, green,
black, brown, light blue, yellow, turquoise, and purple.[17] Chameleon skin has a superficial layer
which contains pigments, and under the layer are cells with very small (nanoscale) guanine
crystals. Chameleons change colour by "actively tuning the photonic response of a lattice of small
guanine nanocrystals in the s-iridophores".[18] This tuning, by an unknown molecular mechanism,
changes the wavelength of light reflected off the crystals, which changes the colour of the skin. The
colour change was duplicated ex vivo by modifying the osmolarity of pieces of white skin.[18]

Colour change and iridophore types in panther chameleons:

(a) Reversible colour change is shown for two males (m1 and m2): during excitation
(white arrows), background skin shifts from the baseline state (green) to
yellow/orange, and both vertical bars and horizontal mid-body stripe shift from blue to
whitish (m1). Some animals (m2) have their blue vertical bars covered by red pigment
cells.
(b) Red dots: time evolution in the CIE chromaticity chart of a third male with green
skin in a high-resolution video; dashed white line: optical response in numerical
simulations using a face-centred cubic (FCC) lattice of guanine crystals with lattice
parameter indicated with black arrows.
(c) Haematoxylin and eosin staining of a cross-section of white skin showing the
epidermis (ep) and the two thick layers of iridophores.
(d) TEM images of guanine nanocrystals in S-iridophores in the excited state and
three-dimensional model of an FCC lattice (shown in two orientations).
(e) TEM image of guanine nanocrystals in D-iridophores.
Scale bars, 20 mm (c); 200 nm (d, e).[18]
Colour change in chameleons has functions in camouflage, but most commonly in social signalling
and reactions to temperature and other conditions. The relative importance of these functions
varies with the circumstances, as well as the species. Colour change signals a chameleon's
physiological condition and intentions to other chameleons.[19][20] Because chameleons are
ectothermic, another reason why they change colour is to regulate their body temperatures, either
to a darker colour to absorb light and heat to raise their temperature, or to a lighter colour to
reflect light and heat, thereby either stabilizing or lowering their body temperature.[21][22]
Chameleons tend to show brighter colours when displaying aggression to other chameleons,[23]
and darker colours when they submit or "give up".[24] Most chameleon genera (exceptions are
Chamaeleo, Rhampholeon and Rieppeleon) have blue fluorescence in a species-specific pattern in
their skull tubercles, and in Brookesia there is also some in tubercles on the body. The fluorescence
is derived from bones that only are covered in very thin skin and possibly serves a signaling role,
especially in shaded habitats.[25]

Some species, such as Smith's dwarf chameleon and several others in the genus Bradypodion,
adjust their colours for camouflage depending on the vision of the specific predator species (for
example, bird or snake) by which they are being threatened.[26][27] In the introduced Hawaiian
population of Jackson's chameleon, conspicuous colour changes that are used for communication
between chameleons have increased, whereas anti-predator camouflage colour changes have
decreased relative to the native source population in Kenya, where there are more predators.[28]

Chameleons have two superimposed layers within their skin that control their colour and
thermoregulation. The top layer contains a lattice of guanine nanocrystals, and by exciting this
lattice the spacing between the nanocrystals can be manipulated, which in turn affects which
wavelengths of light are reflected and which are absorbed. Exciting the lattice increases the
distance between the nanocrystals, and the skin reflects longer wavelengths of light. Thus, in a
relaxed state the crystals reflect blue and green, but in an excited state the longer wavelengths such
as yellow, orange, green, and red are reflected.[29]

The skin of a chameleon also contains some yellow pigments, which combined with the blue
reflected by a relaxed crystal lattice results in the characteristic green colour, which is common for
many chameleons in their relaxed state. Chameleon colour palettes have evolved through evolution
and the environment. Chameleons living in the forest have a more defined and colourful palette
compared to those living in the desert or savanna, which have more of a basic, brown, and charred
palette.[30]

Evolution
The oldest described chameleon is Anqingosaurus
brevicephalus from the Middle Paleocene (about 58.7–61.7
mya) of China.[31] Other chameleon fossils include
Chamaeleo caroliquarti from the Lower Miocene (about
13–23 mya) of the Czech Republic and Germany, and
Chamaeleo intermedius from the Upper Miocene (about
5–13 mya) of Kenya.[31] Skeleton of common chameleon

The chameleons are probably far older than that, perhaps

sharing a common ancestor with iguanids and agamids more than 100 mya (agamids being more
closely related). Since fossils have been found in Africa, Europe, and Asia, chameleons were
certainly once more widespread than they are today.

Although nearly half of all chameleon species today live in Madagascar, this offers no basis for
speculation that chameleons might originate from there.[32] In fact, it has recently been shown that
chameleons most likely originated in mainland Africa.[15] It appears there were two distinct
oceanic migrations from the mainland to Madagascar. The diverse speciation of chameleons has
been theorized to have directly reflected the increase in open habitats (savannah, grassland, and
heathland) that accompanied the Oligocene period. Monophyly of the family is supported by
several studies.[33]

Daza et al. (2016) described a small (10.6 mm in snout-vent length), probably neonatal lizard
preserved in the Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian boundary) amber from Myanmar. The authors
noted that the lizard has "short and wide skull, large orbits, elongated and robust lingual process,
frontal with parallel margins, incipient prefrontal boss, reduced vomers, absent retroarticular
process, low presacral vertebral count (between 15 and 17) and extremely short, curled tail"; the
authors considered these traits to be indicative of the lizard's affiliation with Chamaeleonidae. The
phylogenetic analysis conducted by the authors indicated that the lizard was a stem-
chamaeleonid.[34] However, Matsumoto & Evans (2018) reinterpreted this specimen as an
albanerpetontid amphibian.[35] This specimen was given the name Yaksha perettii in 2020, and
was noted to have several convergently chameleon-like features, including adaptations for ballistic
feeding.[36]

While the exact evolutionary history of colour

change in chameleons is still unknown, there is
one aspect of the evolutionary history of
chameleon colour change that has already been
conclusively studied: the effects of signal efficacy.
Signal efficacy, or how well the signal can be seen
against its background, has been shown to
correlate directly to the spectral qualities of
chameleon displays.[37] Dwarf chameleons, the
chameleon of study, occupy a wide variety of
habitats from forests to grasslands to shrubbery.
Chameleon in Ghana
It was demonstrated that chameleons in brighter
areas tended to present brighter signals, but
chameleons in darker areas tended to present relatively more contrasting signals to their
backgrounds. This finding suggests that signal efficacy (and thus habitat) has affected the
evolution of chameleon signaling. Stuart-Fox et al. note that it makes sense that selection for
crypsis is not seen to be as important as selection for signal efficacy, because the signals are only
shown briefly; chameleons are almost always muted cryptic colours.[37]

Description
Chameleons vary greatly in size and body structure, with maximum total lengths varying from
22 mm (0.87 in) in male Brookesia nana (one of the world's smallest reptiles) to 68.5 cm (27.0 in)
in the male Furcifer oustaleti.[38][39] Many have head or facial ornamentation, such as nasal
protrusions, or horn-like projections in the case of
Trioceros jacksonii, or large crests on top of their heads,
like Chamaeleo calyptratus. Many species are sexually
dimorphic, and males are typically much more ornamented
than the female chameleons.

Typical sizes of species of chameleon commonly kept in

captivity or as pets are:

Nearly all species of chameleon have

prehensile tails, but they most often grip
with the tail when they cannot use all four
feet at once, such as when passing from
one twig to another.

Scientific Length Length

Common name Colour Lifespan (years)
name (male) (female)

Chamaeleo Green and

Veiled chameleon 35–60 cm 25–33 cm about 5
calyptratus light colours

Jackson's Green and

Trioceros jacksonii 23–33 cm 25–33 cm 5–10
chameleon light colours
about 5 (2–3 for
Furcifer pardalis Panther chameleon 38–53 cm 23–33 cm Darker colours
birthing females)

Rieppeleon Bearded pygmy Brown, beige,

5–8 cm 5–8 cm about 3–5
brevicaudatus chameleon green

Rhampholeon Spectral pygmy

8–10 cm 5–10 cm Tan and gray 3–5
spectrum chameleon
Rhampholeon Usambara pitted Gray and
6–10 cm 5–9 cm 5–11
temporalis pygmy chameleon brown

The feet of chameleons are highly adapted to arboreal locomotion, and species such as Chamaeleo
namaquensis that have secondarily adopted a terrestrial habit have retained the same foot
morphology with little modification. On each foot, the five distinguished toes are grouped into two
fascicles. The toes in each fascicle are bound into a flattened group of either two or three, giving
each foot a tongs-like appearance. On the front feet, the outer, lateral, group contains two toes,
whereas the inner, medial, group contains three. On the rear feet, this arrangement is reversed, the
medial group containing two toes, and the lateral group three. These specialized feet allow
chameleons to grip tightly onto narrow or rough branches. Furthermore, each toe is equipped with
a sharp claw to afford a grip on surfaces such as bark when climbing. It is common to refer to the
feet of chameleons as didactyl or zygodactyl, though neither term is fully satisfactory, both being
used in describing different feet, such as the zygodactyl feet of parrots or didactyl feet of sloths or
ostriches, none of which is significantly like chameleon feet. Although "zygodactyl" is reasonably
descriptive of chameleon foot anatomy, their foot structure does not resemble that of parrots, to
which the term was first applied. As for didactyly, chameleons visibly have five toes on each foot,
not two.

Some chameleons have a crest of small spikes extending along the spine from the proximal part of
the tail to the neck; both the extent and size of the spikes vary between species and individuals.
These spikes help break up the definitive outline of the chameleon, which aids it when trying to
blend into a background.

Senses
Chameleon upper and lower eyelids are joined, with only a pinhole large enough for the pupil to
see through. Each eye can pivot and focus independently, allowing the chameleon to observe two
different objects simultaneously. This gives them a full 360-degree arc of vision around their
bodies. Prey is located using monocular depth perception, not stereopsis.[40] Chameleons have the
highest magnification (per size) of any vertebrate,[41] with the highest density of cones in the
retina.[42]

Like snakes, chameleons do not have an outer or a middle ear, so there is neither an ear-opening
nor an eardrum. However, chameleons are not deaf: they can detect sound frequencies in the range
of 200–600 Hz.[43]

Chameleons can see in both visible and ultraviolet light.[44] Chameleons exposed to ultraviolet
light show increased social behavior and activity levels, are more inclined to bask, feed, and
reproduce as it has a positive effect on the pineal gland.

Feeding
All chameleons are primarily insectivores that feed by ballistically projecting their long tongues
from their mouths to capture prey located some distance away.[45] While the chameleons' tongues
are typically thought to be one and a half to two times the length of their bodies (their length
excluding the tail), smaller chameleons (both smaller species and smaller individuals of the same
species) have recently been found to have proportionately larger tongue apparatuses than their
larger counterparts.[46] Thus, smaller chameleons are able to project their tongues greater
distances than the larger chameleons that are the subject of most studies and tongue length
estimates, and can project their tongues more than twice their body length.[47]

The tongue apparatus consists of highly modified hyoid bones, tongue muscles, and collagenous
elements.[48][49][46][50] The hyoid bone has an elongated, parallel-sided projection, called the
entoglossal process, over which a tubular muscle, the accelerator muscle, sits.[46][50][48][49] The
accelerator muscle contracts around the entoglossal process and is responsible for creating the
work to power tongue projection, both directly and through the loading of collagenous elements
located between the entoglossal process and the accelerator muscle.[45][46][48][49] The tongue
retractor muscle, the hyoglossus, connects the hyoid and accelerator muscle, and is responsible for
drawing the tongue back into the mouth following tongue projection.[45][46][50][48]

Tongue projection occurs at extremely high performance, reaching the prey in as little as 0.07
seconds,[48][49][51] having been launched at accelerations exceeding 41 g.[51] The power with which
the tongue is launched, known to exceed 3000 W kg−1, exceeds that which muscle is able to
produce, indicating the presence of an elastic power amplifier to power tongue projection.[49] The
recoil of elastic elements in the tongue apparatus is thus responsible for large percentages of the
overall tongue projection performance.

One consequence of the incorporation of an elastic recoil mechanism to the tongue projection
mechanism is relative thermal insensitivity of tongue projection relative to tongue retraction,
which is powered by muscle contraction alone, and is heavily thermally sensitive.[51][52] While
other ectothermic animals become sluggish as their body temperatures decline, due to a reduction
in the contractile velocity of their muscles, chameleons are able to project their tongues at high
performance even at low body temperatures.[51][52] The thermal sensitivity of tongue retraction in
chameleons, however, is not a problem, as chameleons have a very effective mechanism of holding
onto their prey once the tongue has come into contact with it, including surface phenomena, such
as wet adhesion and interlocking, and suction.[53] The thermal insensitivity of tongue projection
thus enables chameleons to feed effectively on cold mornings prior to being able to behaviorally
elevate their body temperatures through thermoregulation, when other sympatric lizards species
are still inactive, likely temporarily expanding their thermal niche as a result.[51]

Use of tongue in feeding

Tongue structure, with cup-like end Tongue begins strike

Capturing prey Bringing prey to the mouth

Bones
Certain species of chameleons have bones that glow when under ultraviolet light, also known as
biogenic fluorescence.[25] Some 31 different species of Calumma chameleons, all native to
Madagascar, displayed this fluorescence in CT scans.[54] The bones emitted a bright blue glow and
could even shine through the chameleon's four layers of skin.[54] The face was found to have a
different glow, appearing as dots otherwise known as tubercles on facial bones.[25] The glow results
from proteins, pigments, chitin, and other materials that make up a chameleon's skeleton,[25]
possibly giving chameleons a secondary signaling system that does not interfere with their colour-
changing ability, and may have evolved from sexual selection.[25]

Distribution and habitat

Chameleons primarily live in the mainland of sub-Saharan Africa and on the island of Madagascar,
although a few species live in northern Africa, southern Europe (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece,
Cyprus and Malta), the Middle East, southeast Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, and several smaller
islands in the western Indian Ocean. Introduced, non-native populations are found in Hawaii and
Florida.[1]
Chameleons are found only in tropical and subtropical
regions and inhabit all kinds of lowland and mountain
forests, woodlands, shrublands, savannas, and sometimes
deserts, but each species tends to be a restricted to only
one of a few different habitat types. The typical chameleons
from the subfamily Chamaeleoninae are arboreal, usually
living in trees or bushes, although a few (notably the
Namaqua chameleon) are partially or largely terrestrial.
The genus Brookesia, which comprises the majority of the
Brookesia minima, Lokobe Strict
species in the subfamily Brookesiinae, live low in Reserve. The 30 species of chameleons
vegetation or on the ground among leaf litter. Many in the genus Brookesia are tiny, usually
chameleon species have small distributions and are brown-colored and mainly terrestrial.
considered threatened. Declining chameleon numbers are
mostly due to habitat loss.[55]

Reproduction
Most chameleons are oviparous, but all Bradypodion species and many Trioceros species are
ovoviviparous (although some biologists prefer to avoid the term ovoviviparous because of
inconsistencies with its use in some animal groups, instead just using viviparous).[56]

The oviparous species lay eggs three to six weeks after copulation. The female will dig a hole—from
10–30 cm (4–12 in), deep depending on the species—and deposit her eggs. Clutch sizes vary
greatly with species. Small Brookesia species may only lay two to four eggs, while large veiled
chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus) have been known to lay clutches of 20–200 (veiled
chameleons) and 10–40 (panther chameleons) eggs. Clutch sizes can also vary greatly among the
same species. Eggs generally hatch after four to 12 months, again depending on the species. The
eggs of Parson's chameleon (Calumma parsoni) typically take 400 to 660 days to hatch.[57]

Chameleons lay flexible-shelled eggs which are affected by environmental characteristics during
incubation. The egg mass is the most important in differentiating survivors of Chameleon during
incubation. An increase in egg mass will depend on temperature and water potential.[58] To
understand the dynamics of water potential in Chameleon eggs, the consideration of exerted
pressure on eggshells will be essential because the pressure of eggshells play an important role in
the water relation of eggs during entire incubation period [59]

The ovoviviparous species, such as the Jackson's chameleon (Trioceros jacksonii) have a five- to
seven-month gestation period. Each young chameleon is born within the sticky transparent
membrane of its yolk sac. The mother presses each egg onto a branch, where it sticks. The
membrane bursts and the newly hatched chameleon frees itself and climbs away to hunt for itself
and hide from predators. The female can have up to 30 live young from one gestation.[60]

Diet
Chameleons generally eat insects, but larger species, such as the common chameleon, may also
take other lizards and young birds.[61]: 5 The range of diets can be seen from the following
examples:
 The veiled chameleon, Chamaeleo calyptratus from Arabia, is insectivorous, but eats leaves
when other sources of water are not available. It can be maintained on a diet of crickets.[62]
They can eat as many as 15–50 large crickets a day.
Jackson's chameleon (Trioceros jacksonii) from Kenya and northern Tanzania eat a wide
variety of small animals including ants, butterflies, caterpillars, snails, worms, lizards, geckos,
amphibians, and other chameleons, as well as plant material, such as leaves, tender shoots,
and berries. It can be maintained on a mixed diet including kale, dandelion leaves, lettuce,
bananas, tomatoes, apples, crickets, and waxworms.[60]
The common chameleon of Europe, North Africa, and the Near East, Chamaeleo chamaeleon,
mainly eats wasps and mantises; such arthropods form over three-quarters of its diet.[61]: 5
Some experts advise that the common chameleon should not be fed exclusively on crickets;
these should make up no more than half the diet, with the rest a mixture of waxworms,
earthworms, grasshoppers, flies, and plant materials such as green leaves, oats, and
fruit.[61]: 5–6
Some chameleons like the panther chameleon of Madagascar regulate their vitamin D3 levels,
of which their insect diet is a poor source, by exposing themselves to sunlight since its UV
component increases internal production.[63]

Anti-predator adaptations
Chameleons are preyed upon by a variety of other animals. Birds and snakes are the most
important predators of adult chameleons. Invertebrates, especially ants, put a high predation
pressure on chameleon eggs and juveniles.[64] Chameleons are unlikely to be able to flee from
predators and rely on crypsis as their primary defense.[65] Chameleons can change both their
colours and their patterns (to varying extents) to resemble their surroundings or disrupt the body
outline and remain hidden from a potential enemy's sight. Only when detected do chameleons
actively defend themselves. They adopt a defensive body posture, present an attacker with a
laterally flattened body to appear larger, warn with an open mouth, and, if needed, utilize feet and
jaws to fight back.[66] Vocalization is sometimes incorporated into threat displays.[64]
 (video) Chameleon in Chameleon found in Mysore, A frightened common
Malawi Southern India chameleon (Chamaeleo
chamaeleon) turned black.

A flap-necked chameleon, Chamaeleo dilepis, Namaqua chameleon in threat display,

attacked by a boomslang while crossing a road Namib-Naukluft National Park, turned
in Namibia adopts a threatening defense black and opened its mouth when an
posture. attempt was made to move it off a
busy road.

Parasites
Chameleons are parasitized by nematode worms, including threadworms (Filarioidea).
Threadworms can be transmitted by biting insects such as ticks and mosquitoes. Other
roundworms are transmitted through food contaminated with roundworm eggs; the larvae burrow
through the wall of the intestine into the bloodstream.[67]

Chameleons are subject to several protozoan parasites, such as Plasmodium, which causes malaria,
Trypanosoma, which causes sleeping sickness, and Leishmania, which causes leishmaniasis.[68]

Chameleons are subject to parasitism by coccidia,[68] including species of the genera

Choleoeimeria, Eimeria, and Isospora.[69]

As pets
Chameleons are popular reptile pets, mostly imported from African countries like Madagascar,
Tanzania, and Togo.[70] The most common in the trade are the Senegal chameleon (Chamaeleo
senegalensis), the Yemen or veiled chameleon (Chamaeleo calyptratus), the panther chameleon
(Furcifer pardalis), and Jackson's chameleon (Trioceros jacksonii).[70] Other chameleons seen in
captivity (albeit on an irregular basis) include such species as the carpet chameleon (Furcifer
lateralis), Meller's chameleon (Trioceros melleri), Parson's chameleon (Calumma parsonii), and
several species of pygmy and leaf-tailed chameleons, mostly of the genera Brookesia,
Rhampholeon, or Rieppeleon. These are among the most sensitive reptiles one can own, requiring
specialized attention and care.

The U.S. has been the main importer of chameleons since the early 1980s accounting for 69% of
African reptile exports.[70] However, there have been large declines due to tougher regulations to
protect species from being taken from the wild and due to many becoming invasive in places like
Florida.[70] They have remained popular though which may be due to the captive-breeding in the
U.S. which has increased to the point that the U.S. can fulfill its demand, and has now even become
a major exporter as well.[70] In the U.S. they are so popular, that despite Florida having six invasive
chameleon species due to the pet trade, reptile hobbyists in these areas search for chameleons to
keep as pets or to breed and sell them, with some selling for up to a thousand dollars.[3]

Historical understandings
Aristotle (4th century BC) describes chameleons in his History of
Animals.[71] Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) also discusses
chameleons in his Natural History,[72] noting their ability to change
colour for camouflage.

The chameleon was featured in Conrad Gessner's Historia

animalium (1563), copied from De aquatilibus (1553) by Pierre
Belon.[73]

In Shakespeare's Hamlet, the eponymous Prince says "Excellent, i'

faith, of the chameleon's dish. I eat the air, promise-crammed."
This refers to the Elizabethan belief that chameleons lived on
nothing but the air.

Chameleon in a German
translation of Gessner's book
(1563).

References
1. Glaw, F. (2015). "Taxonomic checklist of chameleons (Squamata: Chamaeleonidae)" ([Link]
[Link]/10.3897%2Fvz.65.e31518). Vertebrate Zoology. 65 (2): 167–246.
doi:10.3897/vz.65.e31518 ([Link]
2. Edmonds, Patricia (September 2015). "True colours". National Geographic: 98.
3. Daly, Natasha (2017). "Inside the Secretive World of Florida's Chameleon Catchers" ([Link]
[Link]/web/20201109092322/[Link]
leons-ranching-florida-invasives-pets/). National Geographic. Archived from the original (https://
[Link]/news/2017/06/chameleons-ranching-florida-invasives-pets/) on
November 9, 2020.
4. chamaeleon ([Link]
chamaeleon). Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
 5. χαμαιλέων ([Link]
amaile/wn). Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus
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General bibliography
Le Berre, François; Bartlett, Richard D. (2009). The Chameleon Handbook. Barron's
Educational Series. 3rd Edition. ISBN 0764141422.

Further reading
"Scientists find Madagascar chameleon last seen 100 years ago" ([Link]
news/technology/scientists-find-madagascar-chameleon-last-seen-100-years-ago/ar-BB1axLh
H?ocid=spartan-ntp-feeds). Associated Press. 30 Oct 2020.
Anderson, C. V.; Deban, S. M. (2010). "Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains
high performance at low temperature" ([Link]
4). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107
(12): 5495–5499. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.5495A ([Link]
S..107.5495A). doi:10.1073/pnas.0910778107 ([Link]
PMC 2851764 ([Link] PMID 20212130 (http
s://[Link]/20212130).
Anderson, C. V.; Deban, S. M. (2012). "Thermal effects on motor control and in vitro muscle
dynamics of the ballistic tongue apparatus in chameleons" ([Link]
881). Journal of Experimental Biology. 215 (24): 4345–4357. doi:10.1242/jeb.078881 ([Link]
[Link]/10.1242%2Fjeb.078881). PMID 23125336 ([Link]
Anderson, C. V.; Sheridan, T.; Deban, S. M. (2012). "Scaling of the ballistic tongue apparatus in
chameleons". Journal of Morphology. 273 (11): 1214–1226. doi:10.1002/jmor.20053 ([Link]
[Link]/10.1002%2Fjmor.20053). PMID 22730103 ([Link]
S2CID 21033176 ([Link]
Davison, Linda J. Chameleons: Their Care and Breeding. Hancock House Publishers, 1997.
de Groot, J. H.; van Leeuwen, J. L. (2004). "Evidence for an elastic projection mechanism in
the chameleon tongue. " ([Link]
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 271 (1540): 761–770.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2637 ([Link] PMC 1691657 (http
 s://[Link]/pmc/articles/PMC1691657). PMID 15209111 ([Link]
[Link]/15209111).
de Vosjoli, Philippe. Essential Care of Chameleons. Advanced Vivarium Systems, 2004.
Herrel, A.; Meyers, J. J.; Nishikawa, K. C.; De Vree, F. (2001). "Morphology and histochemistry
of the hyolingual apparatus in chameleons". Journal of Morphology. 249 (2): 154–170.
doi:10.1002/jmor.1047 ([Link] PMID 11466743 ([Link]
[Link]/11466743). S2CID 3246256 ([Link]
256).

External links
Media related to Chamaeleonidae at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Chamaeleonidae at Wikispecies

Retrieved from "[Link]