Fiber Optics

Dr. N. V Suresh Kumar

Assistant Professor of Physics

VNR Vignana Jyothi Institute of Engineering and Technology - Hyderabad
sureshkumar nv@[Link]

October 18, 2025

Dr. N. V Suresh Kumar (VNRVJIET) Fiber Optics October 18, 2025 1 / 13

Overview

1 Fiber Optics - Introduction

2 Total internal reflection: Principle of light transmission through optical

fiber

3 Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture (NA)

4 Classification of optical fibers

5 Losses in optical fibers

6 Applications of Optical Fibers

7 Model Questions

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Fiber Optics - Introduction

Fiber optics is the study of transmission of light through thin optical

fiber, made of either glass or plastic.
Optical fiber is a cylindrical shaped dielectric medium, that guides
path for propagation of light waves, using the principle of Total
Internal Reflection.

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Advantages of optical fibers in communication

Data transmission capacity of optical fibers is very high, due to the

use of high frequency light wave as carrier of information (High
frequency wave allows to pack more data in to the signal).
Speed of optical fiber communication is high as light is the
information carrier.
Optical fiber cables are less susceptible to electromagnetic
interference compared to metal cables.
The optical fiber cables are thinner and lighter than the metal cables.
Signal attenuation in optical fiber is low (Attenuation coefficient is as
low as 0.2 dB/km).

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Construction of optical fiber

Geometry of optical fiber consists of three regions: 1. core, 2.

cladding, and 3. a protecting layer called sheath.

Refractive index of core (n1 ) is greater than the refractive index of

cladding (n2 ).
Light travels in the core region by total internal reflection at
core-cladding interface.
Types of optical fibers, based on fiber materials: 1. Glass core - Glass
cladding fiber, 2. Glass core - Plastic cladding fiber, 3. Plastic core -
plastic cladding fiber.

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Total Internal Reflection: Principle of light transmission
through optical fiber

Signal propagation through optical fiber uses the principle of total internal reflection.
Let a ray of light passing in denser medium (refractive index = n1 ) falls on a rarer medium (refractive index = n2 ) with
θ1 and θ2 as angle of incidence and angle refraction respectively.
According to Snell’s law,
sinθ1 n2
= (1)
sinθ2 n1

If angle of incidence, θ1 is equal to critical angle, θc of both the media, then θ2 = 90◦ .

n2
sinθc = (2)
n1

Light travels through the core by constantly reflecting from the cladding by total internal reflection, if angle of incidence
at core-cladding surface is always greater than the critical angle.

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Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture
Acceptance Angle: The maximum angle of incidence of light ray falling at center of optical fiber core, undergoes
refraction into core and strikes the core-cladding interface, with angle of incidence, equal to critical angle of the fiber
media, core and cladding, is called acceptance angle of the optical fiber.
Expression for acceptance angle is obtained
as follows: Consider the light ray falling at ϕa angle of incidence at point, O of fiber core. Let the fiber is surrounded by air.

At the point O n0 sinϕa = n1 sin r

At the point B n1 sinθc = n2 sin90
n2
since θc = 90 - r, n1 sin(90 − r ) = n2 ⇒ cos r =
n1
2 2 1/2 2 2 1/2
n0 sinϕa = n1 (1 − n2 /n1 ) = (n1 − n2 )

−1 2 2 1/2
For air, n0 = 1, then Acceptance angle ϕa = sin (n1 − n2 ) (3)

Numerical aperture (NA): The sin of acceptance angle is called numerical aperture. It is measure for light gathering
capacity of the optical fiber.
2 2 1/2
NA = sin ϕa = (n1 − n2 ) (4)
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Classification of optical fibers
Based on refractive index profile of core:
1 Step index optical fiber: The refractive index is constant all over the volume of core and
decreases abruptly at core-cladding interface.
2 Graded index optical fiber: The refractive index is maximum along the axis of the optical
fiber and decreases radially up to the core-cladding interface. ‘:
Based on signal transmission process:
1 Single mode optical fiber: The fiber allows only one mode for propagation of light signal.
The core size of the optical fiber is about 10 µ m.
2 Multi mode optical fiber:The fiber allows more than one mode for propagation of light
signal. The core size of the optical fiber is about 50 µ m.
The three types of optical fibers are: 1. Single mode step index fiber 2. Multi mode step index
fiber 3. Multi mode graded index fiber.

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Differences between single mode and multi mode optical
fibers

Single mode optical fiber:

Light travels in only one mode through the optical fiber.
The core diameter is smaller (about 10µm) and difference between refractive index of core and cladding is very small.
There is no dispersion during light signal transmission. Thus suitable for long distance communication.
Launching the light into the fiber is difficult.
Multi mode optical fiber:
Light travels in more than one mode through the optical fiber.
The core diameter is large and difference between refractive index of core and cladding is larger than that of single mode
optical fiber.
Light signals suffers dispersion during transmission. Thus suitable for short distance communication.
Launching the light into the fiber is easy.

Dr. N. V Suresh Kumar (VNRVJIET) Fiber Optics October 18, 2025 9 / 13

Differences between step index and graded optical fibers

Step index optical fiber

Refractive index of core decease abruptly from n1 to n2 , at core-cladding interface.
Core diameter of multi mode step index fiber is 50 - 200 µm and single mode step-index fiber is 10 µm.
Light travels in the form of Meridional rays (intersect with axis of optical fiber).
Signal distortion in multi mode fibers is large. Hence signal attenuation is high.
Numerical aperture for multi mode step index fiber is large and single mode step-index fiber is small.
Graded index optical fiber
Refractive index of core undergoes a gradual decrease from axis of core to core-cladding interface.
Core diameter of multi mode graded index fiber is 50 µm.
Light travels in the form of skew rays (helical path about the axis of the fiber).
Signal distortion in multi mode fibers is small. Hence signal attenuation is low.
Numerical aperture of multi mode graded index fiber is large .

Dr. N. V Suresh Kumar (VNRVJIET) Fiber Optics October 18, 2025 10 / 13

Signal losses in optical fibers
A gradual decay in amplitude of light wave travelling in the optical fiber is called signal
attenuation or signal losses. The signal attenuation in optical fiber is caused by (a) absorption
of light, (b) scattering of light and (c) radiative losses of the optical energy.
Absorption losses: Atomic defects such as missing molecules, high-density clusters of
atomic groups, oxygen defects and impurity atoms in the fiber glass structure absorb the
light energy passing through the optical fiber.
Scattering losses: During the fiber manufacturing process, microscopic material density
variations, compositional fluctuations an structural inhomogeneities arise in fiber
structure. Scattering of light at these defects, leads to signal attenuation.
Radiative losses or bending losses: When fiber is bent, the field of the light travelling, far
side of of the center of curvature, moves faster than field of the light travelling in the core
of optical fiber. This leads to radiation loss.
Measurement of signal losses in optical fiber:
As light travels along a fiber, its power decreases exponentially with distance. If P(0) is
the optical power at the input end of the fiber and P(z) is the optical power at a distance
z from input end of the fiber, then

P(z) = P(0)e −αp z (5)

Here, αp is called attenuation coefficient, which is measurement for signal losses in optical
fiber. It is given by
P(0)
10 P(z)
α= log10 dB/km (6)
z
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Applications of optical fiber

Communication system: Optical fiber is used as transmission channel

for transfer information in optical communication system. The
communication system consists of transmitter (Converts information
to digital optical pulses) , optical fiber (Guides path for light pulses)
and Receiver (Converts the digital light pulses back to information).
Sensing system: Optical fibers can be used to sense, temperature,
pressure and displacements. The sensing system uses two optical
fibers. While one optical fiber is called reference fiber, the other is
called target fiber, which is subjected to heat or pressure. The light
waves emerged from reference and target fibers are allowed to
interfere. The bright and dark fringes of the interference pattern are
analyzed to measure the property to be sensed.

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Model Questions

1 Define optical fiber. Write advantages of optical fiber communication.

2 Draw the geometry of optical fiber and describe structural features of the optical fiber.
3 Describe the principle of light transmission through optical fiber. If refractive indices of
core and cladding of optical fiber are 1.48 and 1.46 respectively, find critical angle of
core-cladding interface.
4 Define and derive expressions for acceptance angle and numerical aperture of optical fiber.
5 Refractive indices of core and cladding of optical fiber are 1.48 and 1.46 respectively, If
the optical is surrounded by the medium air, find acceptance angle of numerical aperture.
6 Write differences between step index and graded index optical fibers.
7 Write important features of single mode and multi-mode optical fibers
8 Define signal attenuation. Describe attenuation mechanisms in optical fibers. For a 15 km
length optical fiber, If the input optical power is 30 mW and output optical power is
15mW, find attenuation coefficient of the optical fiber.
9 Describe following two applications of optical fibers with neat sketches: 1. Optical fiber
communication, 2. Sensing application.

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