A Review Pack for

Basic Mathematical Skills

Compiled by Salih A. Elsanousi

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1. Algebra
Algebra is thought of as generalized Arithmetic. Besides numbers, we also use
symbols (usually letters) to represent undetermined quantities that may take
different values. These are often called variables. As representatives of numbers,
variables can be subjected to the processes developed for numbers : addition,
multiplication, raising to powers, forming fractions etc.

1.1Algebraic Expressions

An algebraic expression is a collection of numbers and variables bonded by the

x  y 1
arithmetic operations. For example 3 x  5, 4 x 2  3 x, , x 2  y 3 are all
x2
algebraic expressions.

An expression is often made up of simpler expressions we refer to as terms. In

4 x 2  3 x , for instance, 4 x 2 and 3 x are terms. The number by which a variable is
multiplied is its coefficient. In the present example, 4 is the coefficient of x 2 while
3 is that of x. A term made of just a number is frequently called a constant.

An expression in which a number of terms are added together is called a sum. For
example 2 xy  x  x 2 is the sum of the three terms 3 xy ,  x and x 2 .

An expression in which a number of terms are multiplied is called a product and

each term is then a factor.

Two expressions are equivalent if they take the same value for all the allowed
values of the variables; the equivalence is indicated by the equality sign "=" and
sometimes for emphasis by the identity sign"  ". Transforming an expression into
an equivalent one can result in a form that is simpler or more amenable to
application of certain techniques. We list here the basic methods for obtaining
equivalent expressions.

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2.1 Collecting like terms

Examples:

4 x 3  2 xy  xy 2  x 3  5 y 2 x  2  3 x 3  2 xy  6 xy 2  2

a  1  3  3a  2  7 a  1  8 a  1  3a  5 .

3.1 Cancelling common factors

Non-zero factors common to the numerator and denominator of a quotient are

cancelled.

Examples:

8x 3 y 2 4x2
 3
2 xy 5 y
3 x  x  1  x  1 x

9 x 3

It important to note that we cancel factors and not terms. Beware of errors like
x2  4
 x  4!
x
x  3 3
  3!
x  1 1
4.1 Expanding (multiplying out brackets)

Here we multiply out two sums each of which is enclosed in a bracket. We use the
distributive laws for numbers ; we multiply each term of the first sum by each term
of the second before collecting like terms. By using the associative law for the
product we can expand products of more than two brackets.

Example: Expand each of the following expressions.

i  x  2 y 3 x  y 

 
ii. x 2  x x  x  2 
iii  a  b  a  b  a  b 

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Solution: i  x  2 y 3 x  y   3 x 2  xy  6 yx  2 y 2  3 x 2  5 xy  2 y 2

  
ii. x 2  x x  x  2  x 3  x 5 / 2  2 x 2  x 3 /2  x  2 x 1/2

Here we used x 1/ 2  x and the laws of exponents.

iii  a  b a  b  a 2  ab  ba  b 2  a 2  2ab  b 2 . Thus

 a  b a  ba  b  a  ba 2  2ab  b 2 
 a 3  2a 2b  ab 2  ba 2  2ab 2  b 3
 a 3  3a 2b  3ab 2  b 3 .

5.1 Factorizing

This is the inverse process to expanding; we write a sum as a product of terms.

This is an important skill and requires a good deal of practice; we shall have more
to say about it in what follows. Examples:

i. Consider 25 x 3 y 2  15 xy 3 . The gcd of 15 and 25 is5; also xy 2 contains the

highest powers of x and y common to both terms. Thus it is a common
factor of the given expression. We have

25 x 3 y 2  15 xy 3  5 xy 2 5 x 2  3 y 
ii. For 2 x 2 / 3  4 x 5 / 3 , we observe that x 5 / 3  x 2 / 3 .x which makes 2 x 2 / 3 a
common factor. Thus
2 x 2 / 3  4 x 5 / 3  2 x 2 / 3 1  2 x
It is useful to memorize certain factorizations:
a 2  b 2   a  b  a  b  the difference of two squares.


a 3  b 3   a  b  a 2  ab  b 2  the difference of two cubes.

a3  b3   a  b  a 2
 ab  b  2
the sum of two cubes.

 a  b
2
 a 2  2ab  b 2 complete square.

Combining Fractions Here we use the same rules for numerical fractions:

To multiply two fractions, multiply the numerators , multiply the denominators and
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cancel the common factors; it may prove easier to cancel common factors before
multiplication. For example

a 3 18 x 2 18a 3 x 2 3a 3 x
.  
3x 2 y 6 xy y
a 3 18 x 2 3 3x 3a 3 x
or . a . 
3x 2 y y y
To divide by a fraction, turn it upside down and multiply. For instance
ab  5 3a 2  ab  5 x y ab  5
  . 2  2
xy x y xy 3a 3a y .
To add (or subtract) fractions, begin by arranging for the fractions to have the same
denominator and then add (or subtract) the new numerators. A sure way of getting
a common denominator is to multiply the denominators of the given fractions;
sometimes a simpler common denominator may suggest itself and could save you
the trouble of cancelling common factors at the end. For example
2 y  z 5 2 y  z  x 5 y x 2 yx  zx  5 y x 2 y x  z x  5 y
   3/2  
y x x yx 3 / 2 yx yx 3 / 2 yx
If we note that yx is a possible common denominator, we can write
2 y  z 5 2 y  z  x 5 y 2 y x  z x  5 y
    .
y x x yx yx yx

Exercise 1.1
1. Simplify:

 a  3 z  5 z  14 z b  x  7 x 2  5 x  3 x 2  10

c 2a  a 3  4a 2  6a  a 2 d  x  3 y  4  2 3 y  x
3 1  x  y  x  y
e 4b  a b f
a 2a 4 a a

2. Simplify:

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  xy 
1
35 x 7 y  x  y 3 2 x
  4 2
a b  c
60 x y 2 x y x 3 y 2

16v 3u 2 x 2e 3 x 4x7 y 3
d  e  f  y2   x5y2  3y2
28v 2 u y 2 e 2 x 2
3x y

3. Perform the indicated operations and simplify:

 a  3 x  x 2  3 x  4    x 3  2 x  6 b x  3 x 3  2 x 2  4

c 2 x      d  e  x  x 
3
3 2x  3 x 2  1

ab a3 3x x
 e 2 2 . 2 2 f 
a b a b 2y y

x 2  xy  y 2 x 3  y 3 x  2y y
g   h 
x x y x2 x y x

6 3 1 t  1  2 t 1
i     j  5
 x  1
2
x  x  1 te t e 2t t

6.1 Some tips for factorization

We have already remarked that factorization is a skill that is acquired by drill;

there are no fast rules. Here are general guidelines.

 Examine the expression in question carefully to see if all the terms have
anything in common; if so "pull" them out of each term; if certain variables
appear in all terms but with different powers, choose the lowest power (very
much like finding the gcd of a set of numbers).
Example1
3  s  t   6  s  t   3  s  t   ? ? 
2 3 2

 3 s  t  1  2 s  t 
2

 3 s  t  1  2s  2t 
2

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Example2
x  3 x 2  x  x  3 x 2  x 1 / 2  x 1 / 2  ? ? ? 


 x 1/ 2 x 1/ 2  3 x 3 / 2  1 
 Look out for known factorizations such as the difference of two squares, the
difference or sum of two cubes, perfect squares.
Example 3
a 2  4b 2  3a  6b  a 2  2b   3 a  2b 
2

  a  2b a  2b  3 a  2b

  a  2b? ?   a  2b  a  2b  3
Example4
x 2  6x  8  x 2  6x  9  1
  x  3  1
2

  x  3  1 x  3  1   x  4  x  2
 Some expression can be factorized by grouping : the expression is broken
into parts each of which can be factorized yielding a common factor for the
parts; remember there are no fast rules or guarantees of success; use your
ingenuity and try

Example5
 
x 3  2 x 2  4 x  8  x 3  2 x 2  4 x  8
 x 2  x  2  4  x  2


  x  2 x 2  4 

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Example6
x 3  3x  4  x 3  x  4x  4
 
 x 3  x  4 x  4

 
 x x 2  1  4 x  1
 x  x  1 x  1  4 x  1


  x  1  x  x  1  4   x  1 x 2  x  4 
 Sometimes expressions can be simplified by renaming the variables
(explicitly or implicitly). For example x  6 x  8 may look complicated, but
writing x  t (or better just thinking of it) as t , we see that we have example 4:

  6 x 8
2
x6 x 8 x

  x  2 x  4
 With enough practice you can perform factorization of certain expressions
(like those of the second degree) by inspection ie by trial and modification.

Example7 (See example5)

Consider x 2  6 x  8   x  ? x  ? . We need numbers whose sum is 6 and whose

product is 8. These are 2 and [Link]
x 2  6 x  8   x  4 x  2

Example8

Consider 4 x 2  17 xy  15 y 2 . We try
4 x 2  17 xy  15 y 2  2 x  ? y 2 x  ? y 
and see that we can't find suitable choices. So we try
4 x 2  17 xy  15 y 2  4 x  ? y  x  ? y 
This time the choices +3 and 5 work; indeed
4 x 2  17 xy  15 y 2  4 x  3 y  x  5 y 

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Exercise2.1

1. Factorize:

a 12 x 4 y  18 x 3 y 2  30 xy 3 b  s 5 / 4  3 s 1 / 4
 c  s 5 / 4  s 1/ 3 d  7b 3c 2  5bc 3  bc
e xa x  xa 3 x  f  y x 3  b 3    x  b y 2
 g  8a 3b 3  64 h ln x  ln x
i 2 x  5   x  5  j 4x 2  4x  1  y 2
k  2 x 3  6 x 2  5 x  15 l  x 4  3 x  4
2. Perform the operations and simplify fully:

x 2  3x x 1 x  2 3x 2  x  2
a  2 b  
x  7 x  6 x  6x  9
2
3x  2 x 2  2x
4x2  9 x3 1 1 2
 3
c  2 d   
x  27 2 x  5 x  3 3x 2  2x x  2 x 2
 1 1 

 e  3  3   x 2  y 2  ex
 f  2x  1  x
1
x y  e 1 e 1

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[Link]

A polynomial is an expression made up of a finite number of terms in which each

variable appears with a non-negative power. For example x 3  5 x 2 y 3  3 xy  2 is a
polynomial in the pair x, y, x 4  3 x 2  x  1 is a polynomial in x, but x 3 / 2  5 x 2  2
2
and x 4  2  5 are not polynomials. A polynomial in the single variable x has the
x
form
p x  a 0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a n x n (a n  0).

n is then called the degree of p  x  (written deg p  x  ). Two polynomials p  x  and

q  x  are equal if and only if they have the same degree and the coefficients of the
powers match.

The sum of two polynomials is obtained by collecting like terms; for instance
if p  x  x 5  4 x 2  7 x  3 and q x  x 4  x 3  x 2 , then

p  x  q  x  x 5  x 4  x 3  3 x 2  7 x  3 .

Multiplication is likewise straightforward; the product is obtained by the process of

expanding outlined above. For p  x  and q  x  above

p xq x  x 9  x 8  x 7  4 x 6  4 x 5  4 x 4  7 x 5  7 x 4  7 x 3  3 x 4  3 x 3  3 x 2
 x 9  x 8  x 7  4 x 6  11x 5  14 x 4  10 x 3  3 x 2

Observe that the degree of p  x   q  x  does not exceed the maximum of the
degrees of p  x  and q  x  while the degree of p  x  q  x  is the sum of their degrees.

If deg p  x   deg q  x  , then there exist polynomials s  x  and r  x  such

that p  x   q  x  s  x   r  x  where r  x   0 or deg r  x   deg q  x . s  x  is called the

outcome of the division of p  x  by q  x  and r  x  its remainder. We write

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p x r  x
 s  x  .
q x q x

To perform the division, we adapt the algorithm for long division of natural
numbers taking on board the rules for exponents. The following example
illustrates:

Example1

Divide p  x  x 5  4 x 2  7 x  3 by q x  x 4  x 3  x 2 .

Solution:

Observe how we kept corridors for

missing powers to avoid alignment
problems. Thus the answer is
p x 5 x 2  7 x  3
 x 1 4 .
q x x  x3  x2

In the special case where p  x   x  a for some a  , the remainder is by

necessity a constant ( a polynomial of degree 0). Thus we have

p x   x  a s  x  r

Taking x  a , we see that r  p  a  . This result is known as

the Remainder Theorem. It has a very useful corollary:

 x  a is a factor of the polynomial p  x  if and only if p  a   0 .

To factorize a polynomial of degree n, we try x  1, 1,2, 2... until we find a zero

for p  x  (ie a number a such that p  a   0 ; there is no guarantee that such a
number exists in ). If there is one, then p  x    x  a  s  x . We can then treat
s  x  in a similar way and repeat the procedure until we fail to find zeros.

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Example2
Factorize p x  x 3  2 x 2  x  2 .

Solution:
We can do this by grouping

 
p  x   x 3  2 x 2   x  2  x 2  x  2   x  2 
.
 
  x  2 x  1   x  2 x  1 x  1
2

Let us try using the remainder theorem approach. p 1  1  2  1  2  0 .

Therefore  x  1 is a factor. We now divide p  x  by  x  1 as above and get


p  x    x  1 x 2  x  2 
(with a little bit of courage and focus the operation of division can be done on the
same line!)
The second degree term can be factorized by inspection giving
s  x  x 2  x  2   x  1 x  2 .
If we fail to see this, we can try finding a zero for s  x  . Indeed
s 1  1  1  2  0
s  1  1  1  2  0
Hence  x  1 is a factor of s  x . Dividing s  x  by  x  1 gives s  x    x  1 x  2 .
Therefore our answer is p  x    x  1 x  1 x  2.

We have already remarked that a polynomial need not have a zero in . For
example p x  x 2  1 cannot have a zero in (as p  x   1 for every real x).
Consider the general polynomial of 2nd degree p x  ax 2  bx  c. By completing
the square, we get
2 2
 bx   b  b2  b  b 2  4a c
p x  a x 2    c  a x     c  a x   
 a  2a  4 a  2a  4a
2
 b  
 a x   
 2a  4 a

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where   b 2  4ac . Observe that if   0 , then depending on the sign of a, p  x  is
either always positive or always negative and hence can have no zeros in ; this
means that p  x  cannot be factorized.
It can be shown that any polynomial can be factorized into linear terms (of the
form mx  c ) and quadratic terms (of the form ax 2  bx  c ) with   0 ).

The process of completing the square outlined above is a useful skill; it is

advisable to master it.

Example3
Factorize p  x  x 4  x 3  3 x 2  4 x  4 .

Solution:
p 1  1  1  3  4  4  0
p  1  1  1  3  4  4  0
p 2  16  8  12  8  4  0
So  x  2 is a factor. By long division, we get


p  x    x  2 x 3  3 x 2  3 x  2 .
Writing q x  x 3  3 x 2  3 x  2 , we see that
q 1  0, q  1  0, q 2  0, q  2  0
and conclude that  x  2 is a factor of q  x  . By long division, we get

 
q  x    x  2 x 2  x  1 .

For the quadratic expression x 2  x  1 ,   1  4  0 . Hence it can't be factored

further. Our final answer is
 
p  x    x  2 x  2 x 2  x  1 .

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Exercise

1. Given that
p x  t  3 x 3  3s  1 x 2  2 and q  x  rx 4   s  2 x 3  t  3 x 2  2
find r, s, t so that the polynomials p  x  and q  x  are equal.
[Link] that
p x  x 3  x 2  2 x  1 and q  x  x 4  x 3  x 2  x  2
find (i) p  x  + q  x  (ii) p  x   3q  x  (iii) q x   p x  q  x.
[Link] p  x   q  x  given that
(i) p x  x 5  2 x 3  x 2  2 and q  x  x 3  x 2  2 x  3

(ii) p x  x 4  2 x 3  x 2  1 and q  x  x 4  x 2  2 x  3

(iii) p x  x 6  3 x 5  2 x 2  2 x and q  x    x 3  2 x  3 .

[Link] fully:
(i) p  x  2 x 3  x 2  2 x  1
(ii) p  x  x 3  3 x  4
(iii) p  x  x 3  2 x 2  3 x  6
(iv) p  x  x 4  3 x 2  2 x
(v) p x  x 4  4 x 3  x 2  16 x  12
(vi) p x  x 4  4 x 3  7 x 2  6 x  2 .

5. Simplify:

(i)
x 7 /2
 x 5 / 2  2 x 1/ 2  (ii)
x 3  4x 2  5x  2 x 2  2x  3
.
x 2

1 x 2 x3  8 x2  1

x 3  2x 2  2x  4 x 4  4x 2  4 x3  7x  6 x
(iii)  (iv) 2  3
x 2  2x x4 x  2 x  1 x  5 x  18

14
3. Cartesian Coordinates, Lines and Circles

We have already identified the points on a directed line with the real numbers.
Points in the plane can be identified with ordered pairs of numbers. We draw two
perpendicular real lines that intersect at the 0-point of each; one is horizontal,
directed to the right and is called the x-axis; the other is vertical, directed upwards
and is called the y-axis. The point of intersection of the axes is called the origin.

A point P in the plane is located exactly by an ordered pair of real numbers as

follows. Drop from P perpendiculars to the axes to meet them respectively at the
points representing the real numbers a and b.
a is called the x -coordinate of P and b its y -
coordinate. The ordered pair  a,b  represents
P. The process is reversible. Starting with a
pair  a,b  , we can determine a point P whose
x- coordinate is a and y- coordinate is b. We
shall at will confuse the point with the pair
representing it and talk about "the point
 a,b ". This coordinate system is called the
Cartesian system after the 16th century
French mathematician.
fig2.1

An equation is a statement in which two mathematical expressions are related with

an equals sign. The graph of an equation in the variables x, y is the set of all the
points P  x, y  in the plane whose coordinates satisfy the equation. Many plane
geometric curves can be realized as graphs of equations; thus the coordinate
system allows us to attend to geometric questions with algebraic tools.

The simplest of plane curves is the straight line. A line is completely determined
by two points on it. Let P1  x1 , y 1  and P2  x 2 , y 2  be two points on the non-vertical

15
line L. We set x  x2  x1 , y  y 2  y1 and define the gradient of L to be
y y 2  y1
m 
x x2  x1
Because of the fact that the ratios of corresponding sides of similar triangles are
the same, the gradient is the same for every choice of the pair of points P1 , P2 . See
fig 2.2 where the triangles P1P2Q and P1  P2 Q are similar.

Suppose now that L is a line with gradient m that passes through the point
y  y1
P1  x1 , y 1  . If P  x, y  is any point on L, then m  . Rearranging , we get the
x  x1
equation of the line L as
y  y 1  m  x  x1  .

If the y- coordinate of the point where L meets the y-axis (commonly called the y-
intercept) is c, then using  0,c  for the point P1 , the equation takes the form
y  mx  c .

Observe that both variables are of the first degree.

If the line is horizontal, m  0 and the equation becomes y  c .

The equation of the vertical line through the point a on the x-axis is simply x  a .

Example1. Find the equation of the line through the points 1, 3,  1,7  and find its
intercepts with the axes.
16
Solution:
 73 
The gradient is m     2. Using the point 1, 3 , the equation becomes
 1  1 
y  3  2 x  1
or y  2 x  5

(Check that using the other point gives the same result).
5
For the x-intercept, we put y  0 . Thus it is .
2
For the y-intercept, put x  0 to see that it is 5 .

An application of the Pythagorean theorem (see fig 2.2) assures us that the
distance between the points P1  x1 , y 1  and P2  x 2 , y 2  is

 x2  x1    y 2  y1  .
2 2
P1P2 

If P  x, y  is any point on the circle with centre C  h, k  and radius r, then

PC  r and so the equation of the circle is

 x  h   y  k  r 2 .
2 2

Expanding the perfect squares, we get

x 2  y 2  2hx  2ky  c  0

Where c  h 2  k 2  r 2 . Note the presence of x 2 and y 2 with identical coefficients.

Example2 (i) Find the equation of the circle with centre 1, 3 and radius 3.

(ii) Find the centre and radius of the circle x 2  y 2  3 x  4 y  5  0 .

Solution: (i)

 x  1 2   y  3 2  9
x 2  y 2  2x  6 y  1  0

17
(ii) We can compare with the expanded form of the general equation to conclude
 coefficient of x coefficient of y   3 
that the centre is  ,    , 2  and that the radius
 2 2  2 
9 3 5
is h2  k 2  c  45  .
4 2

Alternatively we can complete the squares and read off the centre and the radius.
2
 3 9
x  3x   x   
2

 2 4
y 2  4 y   y  2  4
2

2
 3 9 45
Thus the equation is  x     y  2   4  5 
2
and hence the centre is
 2 4 4

3  3 5
 , 2  and the radius is 2 .
2 

The graph of the equation y  ax 2  bx  c (a  0)

is a parabola which, depending on the sign of a, looks as in fig 2.4a or fig 2.4b.

Exercise

1. Prove that the midpoint of the line segment joining the points  x1 , y1  and
x1  x 2 y 1  y 2 
 x2 , y 2  is  , .
 2 2 
2. Prove that the line with x-intercept a and y-intercept b is

x y
  1.
a b
3. Find the equation of the line L through 2,1 that is parallel to the line
y  2 x  1. (Two lines with gradients m1 and m2 are parallel if m1  m2 ).

4. Find the equation of the line through  3, 1 that is perpendicular to the line
y  2 x  1. (Two oblique lines with gradients m1 and m2 are perpendicular if

18
m1  m2  1 ).

5. Find the equation of the circle having A1, 3 and B  1,5 as ends of a diameter.

19
4. Equations

In this section we handle only algebraic equations; these are commonly classified
by the highest power involved.

4.1 Linear Equations

Here we have an equation of the form ax  b  cx  d ; the origin of the name is the
fact that the graph of an equation of the form y  mx  c is a straight line. To solve
such an equation (ie to find the values, often called roots, of the variable that when
substituted result in the equality of the two sides), we arrange for the terms
containing the variable to appear on one side and the rest of the terms on the other.
Note that transferring a term from one side to the other is accomplished by
subtraction.

By rewriting a linear equation in x as mx  c  0 , we see that it can have at most

one root since a straight line can cut the x-axis at most once.

Example1 Solve for x:

(i) 7 x  32 x  1  5  x
2 x  1 x 1
(ii)   .
3 5 2
Solution (i)
7 x  32 x  1  5  x
7 x  6x  3  5  x
7 x  6x  x  2
2x  2
Therefore x  1.

(ii) We get rid of the fraction; the lcm of the denominators is 30. Multiplying by 30
both sides gives
20 x  1  6 x  15
20 x  20  6 x  15
14 x  5
5
Thus x .
14
20
Sometimes a non-linear equation may be transformed into a linear one. Note,
however, that a transformation may introduce roots for the new equation that are
not solutions for the original. So check by substituting in the original equation.

Example2. Solve for x:

2 1 x 1 x4 3
(i)  (ii)  2  2
3x  1 x  2 x  2x x  x x  3x  2
2

2x 6
(iii)  1 (iv) x 1  5  7
x3 x3
(v) x 1  5  3 (vi) 5e x  4  3e 2 x .

Solution:
(i) We get rid of the denominators by multiplying both sides by  3 x  1 x  2.
2 x  2  3 x  1
2x  4  3x  1
5  3x  2x
x  5.
A simple check confirms that 5 is indeed a root.

(ii) Factorizing, the equation becomes

x 1 x4 3
 
x x  2 x x  1  x  1 x  2
Multiplying both sides by x  x  1 x  2 ( a sort of lcm) gives
 x  1 2   x  4 x  2  3 x
 
x 2  2 x  1  x 2  6 x  8  3 x
 4 x  7  3 x
x  7
The forbidden values of x are 0,  1,  2. Hence the solution is x  7.

(iii) Multiplying both sides by  x  3 , we have

2 x  6   x  3
x3

21
We must reject this solution since the fractions in the original equations are not
defined for x  3 . Thus the equation has no solution.

(iv) We first get rid of the square root. If we square both sides as they stand , we
would still have the square root. It is more clever to isolate the square root before
squaring.
x 1  7 5
x 1  2
x 1 4
x3
Substituting in the original equation confirms that this is the solution.

(v) If we proceed as in (iv), we get

x  1  2
x 1 4
x3
A simple check shows that 3 is not a solution of the original equation. So there is
no solution. In fact, had we noticed that by definition a is non-negative, we
would have realized from the first step that there is no solution.

(vi) Looking upon e x (rather than x) as our variable, the equation is linear.
5e x  3e x  4
2e x  4
ex 2
The solution is x  ln 2.

22
4.2 Quadratic equations

These are equations that are expressible in the form ax 2  bx  c  0 ,

a  0. Looking at the graph of such an equation (figs2.4a, 2.4b) we see three
possibilities:

(i) the graph cuts the x-axis twice (ii) the graph touches the x-axis (iii) the graph
doesn't meet the x-axis. This says that our equation can have two solutions, one
solution or no solutions. This fact is also borne by the algebra. By the process of
completing the square that has been discussed in the section on polynomials,
the equation takes the form
2
 b  b 2  4ac
a x    0
 2a  4a
2
 b  b 2  4ac
or x   
 2a  4a 2
Thus (i) If   b 2  4ac  0 , then
 b  b 2  4ac
x    
 2a  2a
b  b 2  4ac
and we have two solutions, namely .
2a
b
(ii) If   0 , then we have only one solution which is .
2a
2
 b 
(iii) If   0 , then  x    0 which is impossible for real numbers. Thus
 2a 
there is no solution in .

To solve a quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0 , we suggest first trying to factorize

the 2nd degree polynomial; if successful, then one or the other of the linear factors
must be zero, and you will obtain the roots easily.

If factorization is not possible or not obvious, use the quadratic formula

23
 b  b 2  4ac
x .
2a

You would know that there are no real solutions if what's inside the root is
negative, and that there is one root if it's zero.

Should you be unable to factorize and should you fail to remember the formula, go
for completing the square.

Example3 Solve for x:

(i) 2 x 2  2  3 x (ii) 3 x 2  x 5  1  0

3 2 5
(iii) 16 x 2  80 x  100  0 (iv)  1 2
x 1 x x x
Solution:

(i) It's important to make one side equal to zero (since our methods depend upon
the fact has no zero dividers). We have
2 x 2  3 x  2  0  2 x  1 x  2  0
Therefore either 2 x  1  0 ie x  1/ 2 or  x  2  0 ie x  2.

(ii) Factorization is anything but obvious; so we try the formula.

Here a  3, b   5 , c  1. Thus
5  5  12 5  17
x  .
6 6
(iii) Observe that 4 is a common factor. Dividing by 4 the equation simplifies to
4 x 2  20 x  25  0 . If we fail to notice that the left hand side is a perfect square,
we may use completing the square to avoid the large numbers in the quadratic
formula. Indeed
 5  25 
2 2
2
 2
  5
0  4 x  20 x  25  4 x  5 x  25  4  x      25  4  x  
 2 4   2
and consequently there is one solution which is x  5 / 2.

24
(iv) As presented this is not a quadratic equation. Multiplying both sides of the
equation by x  x  1 reduces the equation to
3 x  2 x  1  x 2  x  5
x2  4x  3  0
 x  1 x  3  0
Hence we have two solutions namely 1 and 3 (none of which is excluded from
the domain of the variable).

Remarks:
(a)We have so far avoided complex numbers (numbers of the
form a  ib where i  1 ). If we can use them, then the quadratic formula ensures
that every quadratic equation has two complex roots or one repeated root.
(b) If r, s are the (complex) roots of ax 2  bx  c  0 , then

b c
rs and rs  .
a a

4.3 Higher degree equations

Consider the equation p  x   0 where p  x  is a polynomial of degree n. For n  2 ,

we have seen that we can obtain the solutions from the coefficients by the
processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and taking roots. For the
cubic equation, where n  3 , there is a formula (albeit messy) using these
processes. Fourth-order equations can be reduced to third order by these processes
and hence we accept that there is a formula. For n > 4, it can be shown there is no
universal formula using these processes for finding the solutions.

When confronted in applications by an equation p  x   0 where p  x  is a

polynomial of degree n > 2, we try to factorize it into linear and quadratic terms; if
successful, finding the roots is reduced to solving linear and quadratic equations.
Otherwise we can use approximate methods.

25
Example Solve for x the equation
p x  x 4  x 3  2 x 2  4 x  8  0

Solution :
By inspection p  1  0. Thus  x  1 is a factor. Dividing by  x  1 , we see that

 
p  x    x  1 x 3  2 x 2  4 x  8 . We can factorize this cubic polynomial by
grouping
   
: x 3  2 x 2  4 x  8  x 3  2 x 2   4 x  8   x 2  x  2  4  x  2   x  2 x 2  4 .

  
Thus we have p  x    x  1 x  2 x 2  4  0. Since the term x 2  4  0 for all 
x , the (real) solutions are 1, 2.

4.4 Simultaneous equations:

Here we consider more than one equation in more than one variable; we look for
the values of the variables which upon substitution satisfy all the equations. We
handle here the case of two equations in two unknowns: p  x, y   0, q  x, y   0 .

Geometrically a pair x1 , y 1 is a simultaneous solution if the graphs of the equations

intersect at the point  x1 , y 1  .
The easiest situation is when both equations are linear; we write them in the form
ax  by  f 1
cx  dy  g 2
Since the graphs are lines, we have three possibilities:
(a) The lines intersect at one point (which translates to having one solution pair).
(b) The lines are coincident and hence we have infinitely many points of
intersection( ie an infinity of solutions).
(c) The lines are parallel and hence do not intersect (ie no solution).

One way of solving the pair of equations simultaneously is to use one equation to
express one of the variables in terms of the other and to substitute in the second
equation; in this way we end up with a linear equation in one variable.
Alternatively, we arrange for the coefficient of one variable to be the same (or

26
different only in sign) in both equations. By subtraction (or addition) we eliminate
that variable and end up with a linear equation in the other.
Example1 Solve simultaneously:

2 x  3 y  5 1  x  2 y  2 1  2x  y  1 1

(i)  (ii)  (iii) 
5 x  2 y  16 2 3 x  6 y  6 2 4 x  2 y  2 2
Solution:
5  3y
(i) Method 1: From 1 , we have x  . Substituting in 2  gives
2
 5  3y 
5   2 y  16 ie  19 y  57
 2 
Therefore y  3. Substituting, we have x  5  9 / 2  2. which gives x  2.
Thus the solution is x  2, y  3.
Method 2: Multiply 1 by 5 and 2  by 2 to get

10 x  15 y  25 1
10 x  4 y  32 2
Subtracting gives 19 y  57 . Therefore y  3. Substituting in 1 , we have
2 x  9  5 which gives x  2. Thus the solution is x  2, y  3.
(ii) It is evident that equation 2  is the same as equation 1 . The solutions are:
y and x  2  2 y. What happens if you try method1 or method2?
(iii) Multiplying 1 by 2 transforms it into 4 x  2 y  2 which is incompatible
with equation 2  . Thus there are no solutions. Observe that the lines with
equations 1 and 2  have the same gradient 2 and are thereby parallel. What
happens if you try method1 or method2?

Another situation that can be handled satisfactorily is when one equation is linear
and the other quadratic. We use the linear equation to express one variable in terms
of the other and then substitute in the second equation to end up with a quadratic
equation.

27
Example2 Solve simultaneously:

 x  2y  3 1
 2
 x  xy  y  3
 2
Solution: From 1 , x  2 y  3. substituting in 2  gives

2 y  3  y 2 y  3  y  3  0
2

2y2  8y  6  0  y2  4y  3  0
 y  1 y  3  0.
Therefore either y  1, x  1 or y  3, x  3.

Exercise 4.1

1. Solve for x:

2 3x 1 2x 10 2x 2  3x
(i)  3 (ii) 3 ln x  4  ln x  1 (iii)  
x  5 x 1 2 x  1 x 2  3x x 2  2x  3
(vi) 2ln x  ln x  1  0
2
(iv) 2 x 2  x  3  0 (v) 12 x 2  71x  6  0

(vii) x  1  x  5  0 (viii) 2 x 2  x 6  2  0
(ix) x 3  2 x 2  x  2  0 (x) x 4  2 x 3  x  2  0 .

2. Solve simultaneously:
(i) y  5 x  7, y  3 x  1 (ii) y  2 x  3, 2 y  5 x  1
1 2 1 4
(iii) 2 y  3 x  4, 10 y  15 x  1 (iv)   3,  1 
y x y x
(v) x  2 y  1, x 2  2 xy  y  x  0 (vi) x 2  y 2  25, x  y  1
(vii) y 2  3 xy  2 y  5 x  1  0, x  y  0 (viii) x  2  y, x 2  3 y  2  0

3. Let L1 be the line that passes through 1,0,  4,2 and L2 be the line parallel to
3 y  x  2 through  0,1 . Find the points of intersection, if any, of L1 and L2 .

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4. Let S be the circle with centre  7,2 and radius 10. Suppose L is the line with
gradient 2 that passes through 2, 0 . Find the points of intersection, if any, of L
and S.
5. Let S be the circle x 2  y 2  2 x  24 and L the line with both x-intercept and
y-intercept equal to 8. Find the points of intersection, if any, of L and S .
6. Find the points of intersection, if any, of the line L whose equation is
y  x  1 and the circle S with centre  3, 0 and radius 8.

4.5 Partial Fractions

We have seen before how fractions can be combined into one fraction. We attend
now to a reverse process.
p  x
Let F  x   where p and q are polynomials with deg  p   deg  q  . It can be
q x
shown that there are fractions such that
F  x   F1  x   F2  x   ...  Fk  x  (* )
with the denominator of each Fi  x  either of the form  sx  t  or
m

 ax  bx  c  (with   b2  4ac  0 ). F1 , F2 ,..., Fk are called the partial fractions

2 n

of F  x  ; their number and form depend on q  x  .

To obtain the partial fractions of F  x  , our first step is to factorize q  x  fully into
linear terms and irreducible quadratic terms (ones for which   0 ). We have
already remarked that this is theoretically always possible. By grouping repeated
factors, we see that q  x  is a product of terms of the form  sx  t  and terms of the
m

form  ax 2  bx  c  with   0 . Each of these factors contributes to the partial

n

fractions as is detailed below:

(i) The contribution of a factor  sx  t  is
m

A1 A2 A2 Am
    
 sx  t   sx  t   sx  t 
2 3
 sx  t 
m

with Ai  i.

29
  
n
(ii) The contribution of a factor ax 2  bx  c is
C1 x  D1 C2 x  D2 C3 x  D3 Cn x  Dn
    
 ax  bx  c   ax2  bx  c   ax2  bx  c 
2 2 3
 ax2  bx  c 
n

where Ci , Di  i.
3x  c
For example if F  x   , then we write
 2 x  1 x  x  1
3 2 2

A1 A2 A3 C x  D1 C2 x  D2
F  x     21 
 2 x  1  2 x  1  2 x  1  x  x  1  x 2  x  12
2 3

There remains the determination of the constants Ai , Ci , Di ...etc. To accomplish

this, we multiply equation (*) by q  x  to obtain an identity p  x   u  x  where u is
a polynomial whose coefficients depend on these constants. By judicious choice of
values of x and/or comparison of coefficients we obtain the values of the constants.

Observe that the number of the undetermined constants equals the degree of the
denominator q  x  .

Example Resolve into partial fractions:

x 1 4 x 2  13x  6 10 x 2 x3  x 2  x  2
(i) 2 (ii) (iii) (iv) 4
x  3x  2  x  2  x  2 
2
 3x  1  x 2  1 x  3x 2  2

2 x 4  x3  6 x 2  x  4
(v)
x5  4 x3  4 x
Solution:
(i) q  x    x  2  x  1 . We set
x 1 A B
F  x = = 
x  3x  2 x  2 x  1
2

Multiplying by the denominator, we get

x  1  A  x  1  B  x  2 
Choosing x  2 , we get 3   A ie A  3 and upon choosing x  1 , we get
B  2 . (Can you see why we made these choices?)

30
 x 1 3 2
 
x  3x  2 x  1 x  2
2

A
(ii) q  x  is already factorized. The contribution of  x  2  has the form while
x2
B C
that of  x  2  , a repeated factor, is of the form 
2
. We therefore
x  2  x  2 2
4 x 2  13x  6 A B C
write    . Multiplying by the
 x  2  x  2 
2
 x  2   x  2   x  2 2
denominator gives us the identity
4 x 2  13 x  6  A  x  2   B  x  2  x  2   C  x  2 
2

x  2  48  16 A ie A  3 .
x  2  4  4C ie C  1 .
To obtain B we can choose any other value for x, or compare coefficients; for
example coefficient of x2  4  A  B so that B  1 . Hence
4 x 2  13 x  6 3 1 1
   .
 x  2  x  2   x  2   x  2   x  2 
2 2

10 x 2 A Bx  C
(iii) We have   so that
 3x  1  x 2  1 3x  1 x 2  1
10 x 2  A  x 2  1   Bx  C  4 x  1
(Note that the number of constants is 3 which is the degree of the
denominator.)
x  1/ 3  A  1.
Coeff of x 2  10  A  3B  B  35.
x  0  0  A  C  C  1.
10 x 2 1 3x  1
Thus  
 3x  1  x 2  1 3x  1 x 2  1
(iv) q  x  is in fact a quadratic in x 2 and can be factorizes easily as
q  x    x 2  2  x 2  1 and we therefore write
x3  x 2  x  2 Ax  B Cx  D
 2  2
x 4  3x 2  2 x 2 x 1
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 or : x3  x 2  x  2   Ax  B   x 2  1   Cx  D   x 2  2 
coeff of x3  1  A  C ,
coeff of x 2  1  B  D,
coeff of x  1  A  2C ,
coeff of x 0  2  B  2 D.
Solving, we get B  C  0, A  D  1. Thus
x3  x 2  x  2 x 1
  .
x 4  3x 2  2 x2  2 x2  1
(v) Here q  x   x  x 4  4 x 2  4   x  x 2  2  so that
2

2 x 4  x3  6 x 2  x  4 A Bx  C Dx  E
  
x5  4 x3  4 x x  x 2  2   x 2  2 2
(What is deg(q)? and how many constants do we have?) We have
2 x 4  x3  6 x 2  x  4  A  x 2  2    Bx  C  x  x 2  2    Dx  E  x
2

x  0  4  4 A  A  1,
coeff x 4  2  A  B  B  1,
coeff x3  1  C ,
coeff x 2  6  4 A  2 B  D  D  0,
coeff x  1  2C  E  E  3.
2 x 4  x3  6 x 2  x  4 1 x 1 3
Thus:    .
x5  4 x3  4 x x  x 2  2   x 2  2 2

There remains a final consideration; what happens if deg  p   deg  q  ? Here we

r  x
use long division to write p  x   s  x   where deg  r   deg  q  . Proceeding
q x
r  x
as above , we resolve into partial fractions.
q  x

32
Exercise 4.2
Resolve into partial fractions:
1 7x 3x3  9 x 2  7 x  3
(i) 2 (ii) 2 (iii) 4
x  a2 x  x2 x  3x3  3x 2  x
1  x2  6 x  1 3x 4  x3  3x 2  1
(iv) 4 (v) (vi)
x  2 x3  x 2  2 x  1  x 2  x  1  x  1  x 2  1
2

x 4  2 x3  5 x 2  4 2 x 4  3 x3  10 x 2  2 x  11
(vii) (viii)
x  2x x3  x 2  5 x  3
3 2

33