Thermal torpedoes are primarily designed for anti-submarine warfare, meaning they

are used to target and destroy submarines. They are also used in anti-ship warfare,
and can be launched from submarines, surface ships, or aircraft.
A thermal torpedo refers to a type of torpedo that uses thermal propulsion, meaning
it burns fuel within a closed cycle to generate thrust. This is in contrast to other
torpedoes that use electric propulsion, which uses electricity to power motors.
Here's a more detailed look at thermal torpedoes:

Key Features:
Thermal Propulsion:
Thermal torpedoes utilize fuel combustion to create high-pressure gases that drive a
pumpjet, generating thrust and propelling the torpedo through the water.

Monopropellant Fuel:
Some thermal torpedoes, like the Varunastra, use monopropellant fuel, which allows
combustion to occur without external oxygen.

Fuel Oxidizer:
Some thermal torpedoes, like the Mk48 ADCAP, use a liquid oxidizer to increase the
efficiency of the combustion process.

Closed Cycle:
Thermal torpedoes can operate in a closed-cycle mode, where combustion exhaust
products are condensed and reused.

Speed and Depth:

Thermal torpedoes can reach high speeds, like 60 knots (110 km/h), and operate at
significant depths, such as 600 meters.

Examples of Thermal Torpedoes:

Varunastra: An indigenously developed heavyweight anti-submarine torpedo used
by the Indian Navy.

Mk48 ADCAP: A U.S. Navy heavyweight torpedo, widely considered one of the most
capable anti-submarine weapons.

MTT: A small-size thermal torpedo used for anti-submarine warfare.

Torpedo power
It is divided into electricity promotion (battery-motor) and chemical promotion
(oxygen, air, oxidant operation by engine operation), both of which have been used
since World War II. It is used together with the advantages and disadvantages of
quiet electricity promotion and fast and long range. The Korean Navy operates th e
German submarine, so the blue fish developed under the influence is an electricity
promotion method. The Russian rocket promotion method is so unique that it is a
different kind of treatment, and the nuclear steam turbine of the Status-6 long-
distance cruise nuclear turbine goes over.
Below is an example of a chemical propulsion engine. Content introduced in a naval
monthly magazine in 2000.
Hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2) It is an oxidizing agent mainly used in the Soviet
Union. From the end of World War II, the US Army also took advantage of this,
greatly increasing the maximum range of torpedoes, such as 10.5 km and 16.7 k m.
It is conceptually identical to the German Walter boat. At the same dangerous point,
the seawater seeping into the Kursk contacted hydrogen peroxide, generating
hydrogen, leading to an explosion and sinking.
Otto: Otto is a single fuel that is a mixture of oxidizer and fuel developed in the
United States in the 1960s. It is a propulsion system that is capable of self-ignition
and propulsion without a separate oxidizer, and is heated and vaporized by external
ignition to operate the engine. The fuel ignited by the ignition reacts wit h the
oxidizer it contains and burns it. The resulting air pressure is used to turn a small
turbine or piston mounted on the torpedo to generate propulsion, and the vaporized
fuel used in the remaining air pressure is released to the outside. is discharged.
Because it uses a mixture of fuel and oxidizer, structural problems are simple and
maintenance costs are low. However, because fuel and oxidizer are mixed, [23]
There i s always risk. In addition, long range and high speed can be achieved, but
speed control is difficult and noise is high.
HAP-Otto: It is a single fuel used by adding a strong oxidizer to Otto fuel. HAP
added as oxidizing agent, Because it accelerates through a vaporization reaction, it
generates more powerful gas than existing auto fuel. Therefore, the noise at the
same output is smaller than that of the existing auto, and the maximum speed a nd
range are actually increased, but it has the disadvantage of being difficult to
maintain because the H AP added as an oxidizer is highly corrosive. If this torpedo
is used for training, it can be reused. It also has s the disadvantage of being
impossible. The British spearfish is a representative torpedo.
Hydrocarbon + Hydrogen Peroxide (Hydrocarbon+H2 O2): It is a new fuel for
torpedo propulsion developed by Sweden. It uses hydrocarbons as fuel and
hydrogen peroxide as an oxidizing agent. This is a method of propelling and
operating a torpedo by mixing independently stored fuel and oxidizer into a mixer
through a valve and driving a 5-cylinder piston engine using the pressure generated
from the explosion. Although its thrust is relatively lower than that of Otto fuel, it has
the advantage of being easy to control speed, and the noise is also relatively low.
Also, the price is cheap. The representative torpedo used is Sweden's TORPEDO
2000.
Hydrocarbon + Oxygen (Hydrocarbon + O2): It is a traditional torpedo propulsion
method in which propulsion is obtained and driven using hydrocarbons and oxygen.
It is a method using kerosene and compressed oxygen that is separately loaded. It
has t he advantage of being simple in structure, easy to maintain, and very
inexpensive, but its performance is far inferior to fuel/oxidizer used as other torpedo
propulsion engines. has
SCEPS (Stored Chemical Energy Propulsion System): It is a propulsion
chemical fuel commercialized in the United States around 1979 to complement
Otto . It is a type of closed engine, and SF is used as an oxidizing agent, and
liquefied lithium (liquid lithium) is used as fuel. This is a method of reacting these
oxidizers with fuel to generate heat reaching thousand s of degrees, and using the
steam generated from that heat to turn a turbine and propel it. Because it is a closed
engine, its advantage is that it does not have the disadvantages of existing
chemical-propelled torpedoes, which do not perform well at great depths due to
exhaust problems. In addition, it has low noise and a long operating time, making it
very suitable as a torpedo propulsion engine. However, the high unit price is pointed
out as the only drawback

Tracking
Early torpedoes were operated in the form of constructing a fire net by
simultaneously firing several to dozens of torpedoes unguided.
During World War II, guided torpedoes that followed sound were developed. It was
an analog type that tracked loud sounds by installing two microphones and turning
to the right when the sound on the right was louder, and then turning to the left when
the sound was louder on the left. The depth was maintained at a certain depth using
a water pressure gauge, so it could only attack surface ships. . Sometimes, it would
come back and attack the person who had launched the torpedo. In the first place,
the method was to follow a loud sound, so it had great limitations other than the
initial surprise attack, and the Allied ships tied a line to a can, threw it into the sea,
and dragged a disruptor that made a loud noise when dragged. Meanwhile, the
United States developed a two-axis anti-submarine depth charge equipped with four
microphones and showed consider able success in hunting down German U-boats.
Meanwhile, this system was attached to an anti-aircraft rocket and used to intercept
bombers, but this did not seem to have much effect.
Nowadays, with the advancement of technology, it is not just a loud sound, but the
unique submarine screw sound or engine sound that is tracked. The torpedo itself is
equipped with a sonar, and the torpedo tracks the target on its own. This is called
automatic guidance. The torpedo is controlled from the launching ship using
information captured by the launching ship's larger and more precise sonar through
wires or lighter fiber optic wires. This is called manual guidance.
Normally, the target is first captured at the launch box and tracked by manual
guidance, but if the situation is not favorable, the wire is cut and left to automatic
guidance. And when it reaches the vicinity of the target, the torpedo's sonar emits an
active ping to finally confirm the target location and then attack.
White Shark, a Korean-made torpedo, is a heavy-duty torpedo, but it is an active
guidance system without a wired guidance function from the beginning. Even in the
white shark brochure of LIG Nex1, it is written that it is a torpedo for high-low mix
that assists wire-guided torpedoes. This is a common testimonial by Reserve
Admiral Kim Hyeon-kyu in the first part of the 156th episode of the Defense TV
documentary "The cornerstone of a high-tech nation, the defense industry." At the
time, the SUT was too expensive for South Korea, so it was necessary to apply the
high-low mix concept of separately developing low-cost heavy torpedoes for
attacking low-value targets such as merchant ships.
In addition, the latest torpedoes of the 21st century model the shape of the target by
analyzing sound waves reflected by active ping, so they can target critical points
such as command centers or engines rather than hit ting anywhere.
No induction
Early torpedo developers went through a lot of trouble to keep the torpedo in a
certain direction and at a certain depth, and the gyroscope and depth gauge were
introduced to gain value as a weapon. As a result, torpedoes sailed in a fixed
direction and at a fixed depth. In World War II submarine movies, you must check
the target with a periscope before launching it, but if you wanted to, you could
launch it only with the sound wav e location information captured by the submarine.
Even with these unguided torpedoes, there were quite a few records of submarine
sinkings, and although British submarines overpowered German and Italian
submarines in this area, most of them attacked surfaced enemy submarines, and
the only record of submarine sinkings with both parties submerged was HMS
Venturer. was launched by an unguided torpedo on 9 February 1945 against U-864.
A case in the 1940s when the reliability of guided torpedoes was low or not practical.
In order to reduce the sound of the launch, there are forms in which the launch
speed is low at the beginning and then accelerates after sailing a certain distance, or
even changes course immediately after entering the water at a predetermined angle
before launch even without guidance functions, or even changes course in a zigzag
manner to facilitate sailing and forming a fire net to attack surface ships. However, in
this case, there have been cases in which the rudder, which must go back and forth
left and right at certain intervals, is fixed, so it returns to the launch point in a large
circle.
During the Falklands War in 1982 , a Royal Navy nuclear-powered submarine sank
an Argentine Navy cruiser with outdated Mk.8 unguided torpedoes from World War
II. At that time, there was a Tiger Fish guided torpedo, but it was unreliable, so
unguided torpedoes were used. In modern times, the reliability and performance of
guided torpedoes are incomparably better than in the past, so the unguided method
is not used except for some torpedo boats or old submarines of the former
communist bloc.
Passive induction:
It was developed from the second half of World War II. It uses an acoustic receiver
to track the loudest noise. Since the electronics were in an immature era,
structurally, it was a method of tracking the noise by attaching microphones to both
sides of the torpedo and turning to the right if it was loud from the right side and to
the left if it was loud from the left side.
In the early stages of World War II, many problems arose. Kriegsmarine put acoustic
detection torpedoes into practical use, but the sound of the mothership U-boat was
louder, so the torpedo returned and the U-boat w as hit and sunk. And the allied
navies used torpedo decoys behind warships. I put a metal ball motor in a met al
cylinder about 20 cm long, hit the inside of the cylinder, and dragged it by hanging it
on a cable.
The United States developed the Mk24 guided torpedo, Unlike the German anti-ship
guided torpedoes, this was an anti-submarine torpedo that could be guided two-
dimensionally using a two-axis guidance device (four microphones). Britain and
Canada also used these torpedoes and achieved remarkable results in anti-
submarine missions. During the war, 204 torpedoes were used against submarines,
and 37 submarines were destroyed. It is a record that cannot be compared to depth
charges.
Active induction:
Small sonar is installed on the front of the torpedo to send out sound waves and
receive and analyze the re turned sound waves to track the target. Modern, state-of-
the-art torpedoes do not simply track the target, b ut also analyze the shape of the
target and target vulnerable parts such as the sail where the CIC is located.
Wire induction:
Submarines are mainly used. The submarines that fired torpedoes and torpedoes
are connected to the wire, and the submarines that fire torpedo can control
torpedoes. In the past, copper wires were used, but new torpedoes have increased
range by using a much lighter, thinner and durable optical fiber, and the hit rate is
high because the submarine can be directly controlled by the target. The torpedoes
are not sent out in torpedoes, so it is difficult to know that the torpedo is
approaching. Or use the active sonar of the torpedo without discovering the location
of the submarine The wire can transmit the enemy ship position to the submarine.
The disadvantage is that it is literally tied to one, so if the range is over or the
submarine moves excessively, the w ire can be cut off. When the wire is broken,
torpedoes are changed to active oil.
Manned induction: In Japan, they created Kaiten, which involves putting a person
on a torpedo and ramming it. Like other Japanese suicide weapons, it was difficult to
operate and even transporting the weapon to the appropriate location was difficult,
so there were almost no criminal records. In the first place, like other suicide
weapons, it is inefficient to waste such brave and capable human resources as a
one-time use.
In other countries, torpedoes have been modified to carry special forces and use
them as mobile equipment t hat puts special forces. It is also called human torpedo,
but it is not like a Japanese army, but for special troops to install or penetrate bombs
directly on enemy ships. After that, it was difficult to return to a carrier and landed,
and planned to escape from the existing troops. It is not easy, but it is not a self -
explosion.
There are Chariots in England, Neger semi-submersibles in Nazi Germany, and
Maiale in Italy, which are still operated under the name SDV
Torpedoes, like naval guns, have standard specifications. Light torpedoes are 3m
long and weigh up to 200k g, and heavy torpedoes are 6m long and weigh up to 2t.
324 mm (12.75 inches) This is a standard generally used for light torpedoes
launched from helicopters or surface ships. Representative light torpedoes from
Western countries include the Mk.44, Mk.46 light torpedo , Mk.50 light torpedo ,
Mk.54 light torpedo , and Blue Shark light torpedo .
406 mm (16 inches) These are heavy torpedoes used on submarines and surface
ships. This is a standard commonly used for small submarines such as the Dolphin
class, the first submarine of the South Korean Navy, or the Yugo class of the North
Korean Navy. It is also mounted on submarines of the Swedish Navy.
450 mm (17.75 inches), 483 mm (19 inches) 450 mm was widely used in the late
19th and early 20th centuries, and is now a caliber that can only be seen in former
Soviet and Russian-made aerial torpedoes. [25] It was also the standard size for
heavy torpedoes for Japanese Navy torpedo bombers, and was also mounted on
torpedo boats urgently built at the end of the war. 483 mm is the standard for the
Mark 24, the US Navy's first guided torpedo. The Mk.37 a nd the Korean Navy's
White Shark heavy torpedoes were initially planned to be made as 483 mm
torpedoes.
533 mm (21 inches) This is the standard size for various heavy torpedoes. It is a
standard that appeared during World War I a nd has been used since World War II.
In modern times, 533 mm is mainly used all over the world, regardless of whether it
is Western or Eastern European countries. Most representative torpedoes, such as
Mk.4 8 and Spearfish, can be considered to be 533 mm in size. (The White Shark,
the Korean Navy's current heavy torpedo, and the Panshark heavy torpedo, the next
heavy torpedo, are also of this caliber.)
610 mm This is the standard for torpedoes for surface ships of the Japanese Navy.
The Type 93 oxygen torpedo w as of this size.
650 mm This is the standard favored by the Russian Navy. Akula class submarine
Ina Sierra class submarine. It i s equipped with 533 mm in the same latest SSNs.
The Type 65 wake homing torpedo with a range of 50 km, which was once attracting
attention for hunting aircraft carriers, is of this size. etc The US Navy's Seawolf-class
nuclear attack submarines adopted 660mm torpedo launchers to launch 53 3mm
torpedoes in a swim-out manner, and the Japanese Navy also planned to mount
725mm torpedoes on the Yamato-class battleships during their design stages. If you
consider the Kaiten as a torpedo, it is a 1000mm torpedo. (It is also listed on torpedo
lists such as Wikipedia and namuwiki.
Unusual torpedoes
Wake-seeking torpedo
Wake Homing Torpedo. Tracks the trail the ship leaves as it sails. When a huge
ship cuts through the sea, it leaves a long tail in the for m of foam and turbulence,
and in some cases, the wake left by large ships such as aircraft carriers can last for
more than a day. If it is a fleet unit, the scale becomes even larger.
A track-tracking torpedo is launched from a long distance in a course that crosses
the wake, and when it is judged that it has passed the wake by inspecting the sea
condition while moving, it changes the angle and moves forward again in the
direction of crossing the wake to track the enemy ship. In the Cold War developed in
the Soviet Union, there was a limit to the accuracy rate, but at that time, it was an
era where nuclear weapons were used to solve the problem.
Advantages
Due to the nature of the wake, it is likely to damage the propulsion system such as
screws and rudder, which has a great impact on the maneuverability of the ship, and
it is not easy to disturb it using equipment such as sound decoys.
Disadvantage
Because it traces the trail in a zigzag manner, the route is quite inefficient, it has the
weakness of being trackable only from the rear of the ship. If the weather conditions
are bad, it may be difficult to track t he track. Additionally, torpedoes can be
disrupted if a ship crosses the path. Therefore, other sensors such as acoustic
tracking are also installed to complement this.
In modern times, it seems that ship opening tracking has become possible due to
technological development. The Korean Navy's next-generation Tiger Shark heavy
torpedo is also equipped with a tracking function. It can even track a submarine's
underwater wake.
Supercavitation torpedo The concept is to blow gas into the front of the torpedo to
make a hole in the water and fly through it.
As a torpedo that tried to solve the big problem of torpedoes, speed, by using
supercavitation, Russia put the VA-111 Sikbal torpedo into practical use, and
Germany is researching the Barracuda torpedo. Since it is in its infancy, it still has
the disadvantages of being impossible to induce, making a lot of noise, and having a
short range. In the case of Russia, it also provides Shkbal torpedoes to Iran and is
developing a new torpedo that solves the current disadvantages of unguided and
loud noise. At first, it proceeds at high speed and then slow s down near the target
point.
A prototype of the Barracuda torpedo was developed, but ended there. After that,
the project was scrapped and went down in history... Currently, Korea is also
developing supercavitation torpedoes at the Agency for Defense Development
(ADD). It seems that it is progressing to the extent that even the test video is
released.
Nuclear torpedo: Torpedoes heard of their stealth, and both the United States and
the Soviet Union were eager to develop nuclear torpedoes. In the end, it is said that
there was a time when someone almost blew up the other port with nuclear engines
and nuclear warheads. And it is expected to come out as described below. The
November class, the first attack nuclear submarine in the former Soviet Union, was
developed for the purpose of blowing up naval ports with nuclear torpedoes, but was
repurposed as an attack nuclear submarine.
Nuclear Propelled Nuclear Torpedoes - Underwater Drones
Russia has reportedly been developing a long-range, nuclear-powered nuclear
torpedo, the Статус-6 (Stat us-6), since 2015. This is a nuclear torpedo field 24
meters long and 1.6 meters in diameter powered by a small nuclear reactor with a
maximum range of 10,000 km and, according to the latest information, an estimated
speed of 56 knots (100 km/h). It is, in effect, an underwater drone with a nuclear
warhead . Existing SLBMs ma y be caught by US early warning radar and blocked
by the US MD system the moment they are launched, but Статус-6 is launched
underwater from a distance from the target, avoiding early warning radar and can be
us ed in enemy port cities and naval bases. You can launch a surprise nuclear
attack on your back. The force could create a cobalt-60-covered tsunami up to 500
meters high, contaminating large areas with radioactivity. As quoted above, the
concept was conceived by Andrei Sakharov in the 1960s, but at the time the entire
Soviet Navy opposed its development as 'an excessively brutal weapon'. What
finally became a reality after 50 years. On March 1, 2018, Russian President
Vladimir Putin announced the completion of the Статус-6 development. In 2019, it
was given the official name of the nuclear underwater drone Poseidon, and
deployment began.
A wobble plate engine utilizes a wobble plate to convert rotary motion into
reciprocating motion, typically for pistons in an axial engine design. This mechanism
allows for a unique engine configuration with potential benefits like simpler variable
compression ratio systems and potentially higher efficiency compared to traditional
engines.

How It Works
In a wobble plate engine:
Pistons: Multiple pistons are arranged around a central shaft, each moving in a
linear path within its cylinder.
Wobble Plate: A wobble plate is mounted on the central shaft. Unlike a swashplate,
which rotates, the wobble plate undergoes a nutating motion—a small, oscillating
movement.
Connecting Rods: Each piston is connected to the wobble plate via a connecting
rod. As the pistons move, they apply force to the wobble plate, causing it to nutate.
Rotary Motion: The nutating motion of the wobble plate is converted into rotary
motion of the central shaft, which can then be used to drive external loads

Here's a more detailed breakdown:

Wobble Plate Function:
The wobble plate is essentially a rotating plate that is inclined at an angle to the
rotating shaft. This inclination causes the plate to move back and forth as it rotates,
effectively converting the rotary motion into linear motion.
Piston Movement:
In a wobble plate engine, the pistons are typically arranged in a circular or radial
pattern within the cylinder block. The wobble plate's reciprocating motion drives the
pistons, causing them to move in and out of the cylinder bores.
Axial Engine:
Wobble plate engines are often categorized as axial engines, meaning the pistons
move along the longitudinal axis of the engine rather than the radial axis like in a
traditional crank-connecting rod mechanism.
Potential Benefits:
Wobble plate engines offer several potential advantages, including:
Variable Compression Ratio:
The angle of inclination of the wobble plate can be adjusted to change the stroke of
the engine, allowing for variable compression ratios.
Simpler Mechanisms:
Some designs with wobble plate engines can have simpler mechanisms compared
to traditional engines.
Potential for Higher Efficiency:
The axial design and variable compression ratio control can potentially lead to
increased efficiency.

1. Engine Configuration
Wobble Plate Mechanism: Utilize a wobble plate to convert linear piston motion
into rotary output. This design is compact and suitable for torpedo applications.
Cylinder Arrangement: Implement a multi-cylinder setup (e.g., six cylinders) evenly
spaced around the drive shaft to ensure balanced power delivery and minimize
vibrations.
Rotary Valve System: Employ a rotary valve to sequentially distribute energized
gas to each cylinder, optimizing combustion timing and efficiency.

2. Combustion System
Fuel Type: Use Otto Fuel II, a monopropellant composed primarily of propylene
glycol dinitrate, which ignites upon vaporization without the need for an external
oxidizer.
Ignition Mechanism: Incorporate a solid propellant initiator charge to start
combustion, which then sustains itself due to the high temperature in the combustion
chamber.
Expansion Chamber: Design an expansion chamber to reduce pressure pulses
and smooth out the exhaust gases, enhancing engine stability and performance.
3. Thermal Management
Cooling System: Implement a seawater-based cooling system to dissipate the heat
generated during combustion, maintaining optimal engine temperature and
preventing overheating.
4. Vibration and Noise Control
Vibration Dampening: Design the engine to minimize torsional and flexural
vibrations, which can lead to mechanical failures and affect the torpedo's trajectory.
Noise Reduction: Consider using a pump-jet propulsion system to reduce cavitation
and acoustic signature, enhancing stealth capabilities.
5. Propulsion System
Pump-Jet Configuration: Opt for a pump-jet system to provide high-speed
operation and improved maneuverability, especially in shallow waters.
Contra-Rotating Propellers: Incorporate contra-rotating propellers to cancel out
gyroscopic effects, ensuring stable and accurate movement.
6. Safety and Handling
Stability and Handling: Ensure the engine design maintains stability under
various operating conditions, preventing unbalanced torque and rolling.
Safety Protocols: Implement safety measures for handling Otto Fuel II,
including proper ventilation and protective equipment, due to its toxic and
corrosive nature.
Summary Table
Design Factor Specification
Engine Type Wobble plate with rotary valve system

Otto Fuel II (propylene glycol dinitrate-based

Fuel
monopropellant)

Ignition Solid propellant initiator charge

Combustion Expansion chamber with perforated baffle plate

Design Factor Specification
Chamber

Cooling System Seawater-based cooling mechanism

Vibration Control Torsional and flexural vibration dampening

Propulsion System Pump-jet configuration with contra-rotating propellers

Protocols for handling Otto Fuel II, including ventilation

Safety Measures
and protective gear

Otto Fuel II is a monopropellant used in torpedo propulsion systems, notably in the

U.S. Navy's Mk 46 and Mk 48 torpedoes. It is designed to be self-oxidizing, meaning
it does not require an external oxidizer to sustain combustion.

Self-Oxidizing Nature of Otto Fuel II

Otto Fuel II is a mixture of three primary components:

Propylene Glycol Dinitrate (PGDN): The primary energetic component, providing the
fuel's energy content.

2-Nitrodiphenylamine (NDPA): Acts as a stabilizer, preventing premature

decomposition of the fuel.

Dibutyl Sebacate (DBS): Serves as a desensitizing agent, reducing the fuel's

sensitivity to shock and friction.

These components are chemically reactive with each other when vaporized and
heated, allowing Otto Fuel II to ignite and release energy without the need for an
external oxidizer. This self-oxidizing characteristic makes it particularly suitable for
use in the confined environment of a submarine, where carrying separate oxidizers
would be impractical.
Engine and Propulsion System

Wobble Plate Engine Design:

Configuration: A wobble plate engine converts linear piston motion into rotary
output, suitable for compact applications like torpedoes.

Fuel: Otto Fuel II, a monopropellant, ignites upon vaporization, eliminating the need
for an external oxidizer.

Ignition: A solid propellant initiator charge starts combustion, sustaining itself due to
the high temperature in the combustion chamber.

1. Thermal Management:

Cooling System: A seawater-based cooling system dissipates heat generated

during combustion, maintaining optimal engine temperature and preventing
overheating.

2. Hydrodynamic Performance

To achieve a speed of 60 knots (approximately 111 km/h or 69 mph) in a 3-meter

torpedo powered by Otto Fuel II, we need to calculate the required thrust, fuel mass,
and energy considerations. Here's a detailed breakdown:

Drag and Friction:

3. Drag Coefficient (cₓ)

The drag coefficient quantifies the resistance an object encounters as it moves

through a fluid. For a streamlined torpedo, the drag coefficient typically ranges
between 0.5 and 0.8s.

Formula:
where:
Fdrag = Drag force (N)
ρ = Density of water (approximately 1.025 kg/m³)
u = Velocity (60 knots ≈ 30.9 m/s)
cd = Drag coefficient
A = Cross-sectional area of the torpedo
Estimated Drag Force:
F drag=1/2 × 1.025 × (30.9)2 × 0.8 × 0.2 ≈ 738N

4. Fuel Mass and Energy

a) Fuel Consumption

The energy required to overcome drag is converted into fuel consumption. Assuming
specific fuel consumption (SFC) of 0.75 g/HP·h and an engine power output of 360
HP:

Fuel Consumption Rate:

Fuel Rate = 0.75 × 360 = 270 g/h

Energy Content of Otto Fuel II: Approximately 40 MJ/kg.

Fuel Mass for 1 Hour Operation:

Fuel Mass=270g / 1000 × 1 / 3600 × 40MJ/kg≈0.0003kg/s

b) Endurance

Given a range of 20 km at 60 knots:

Time to Target:

Time = 20000m / 30.9m/s ≈ 647seconds ≈ 10.8minutes

Total Fuel Mass:

Total Fuel=0.0003×647≈0.194kg
5. Structural and Safety Considerations

a) Materials

Aluminum Alloys: Commonly used for their strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion
resistance.

Nickel-Aluminum Bronze: Offers enhanced strength and corrosion resistance,

suitable for marine environments.

b) Safety Factors

Design Safety Factor: Typically ranges from 2.0 to 4.0, depending on the criticality of
the component and material properties .

c) Structural Analysis

Finite Element Analysis (FEA): Utilized to simulate and analyze the torpedo's
structural integrity under various loading conditions.

Stress Constraints: Ensuring that the von Mises stress does not exceed the
material's yield strength is crucial for structural reliability.

Summary Table

Parameter Value

Drag Coefficient (cₓ) 0.5 – 0.8

Drag Force (Fₓ) ~738 N

Fuel Consumption Rate 270 g/h

Fuel Mass for 1 Hour ~0.0003 kg/s

Endurance ~10.8 minutes

Total Fuel Mass ~0.194 kg

Materials Used Aluminum Alloys, Ni-Al Bronze

Safety Factor 2.0 – 4.0

Otto Fuel II is a widely used monopropellant in torpedo propulsion systems, notably
in the U.S. Navy's Mk 46, Mk 48, and Mk 54 torpedoes. It is a mixture of propylene
glycol dinitrate (PGDN), 2-nitrodiphenylamine, and dibutyl sebacate. This fuel is self-
oxidizing, meaning it does not require an external oxidizer to sustain combustion,
making it ideal for underwater applications. Upon ignition, Otto Fuel II decomposes
exothermically, producing hot gases that drive a turbine or piston engine, propelling
the torpedo.

Alternative Fuels and Propulsion Systems in Torpedoes

While Otto Fuel II is prevalent, several other fuels and propulsion systems are
employed in torpedoes worldwide:

1. Hydroxylammonium Perchlorate (HAP) Boosted Otto Fuel II

The UK's Spearfish torpedo utilizes a combination of Otto Fuel II and HAP as an
oxidizer. This hybrid approach enhances the specific energy of the fuel, enabling the
torpedo to achieve speeds up to 80 knots. The HAP addition reduces the fuel's
richness, improving combustion efficiency.

2. Stored Chemical Energy Propulsion

The U.S. Navy's Mark 50 torpedo employs a stored chemical energy propulsion
system. This system uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride gas, which is sprayed
over a block of solid lithium. The reaction generates heat, producing steam that
drives a pump-jet. This method offers deep-water performance advantages, as the
combustion products occupy less volume than the reactants, reducing the need to
expel gases against increasing water pressure at greater depths.

3. Electric Propulsion

Electric propulsion systems, powered by batteries, are employed in torpedoes like

the Mark 46. These systems are known for their quiet operation, making them
suitable for stealth missions. However, they typically offer lower speeds and shorter
ranges compared to thermal propulsion systems.

4. Hybrid Systems

Some modern torpedoes integrate both electric and thermal propulsion systems.
These hybrid systems aim to combine the speed and range advantages of thermal
propulsion with the stealth characteristics of electric propulsion, providing versatility
in various operational scenarios.
Global Use of Otto Fuel II

Otto Fuel II is predominantly used by Western and allied nations, including the
United States, the United Kingdom, and China. For instance, the Chinese Yu-7
torpedo, a derivative of the Italian A244/S, utilizes Otto Fuel II.

In contrast, other countries have developed alternative propulsion systems. For

example, Japan's Type 96 torpedo employed a kerosene-air mixture with oxygen
enrichment in a wet heater system during World War II . Similarly, the Russian Navy
has developed torpedoes with advanced propulsion technologies, although specific
details may vary.

Summary Table

Country Torpedo Model(s) Fuel/Propulsion Type

United States Mk 46, Mk 48, Mk 54 Otto Fuel II

United Kingdom Spearfish Otto Fuel II + HAP

China Yu-7 Otto Fuel II

Japan Type 96 Kerosene-Air with Oxygen Enrichment

Russia Various Advanced Propulsion Technologies

Several engine designs share similarities with the wobble plate engine, particularly
in their approach to converting linear piston motion into rotary motion without the use
of a traditional crankshaft. Here are some notable alternatives:

1. Swashplate Engine

A swashplate engine employs a rotating swashplate to convert the linear motion of

pistons into rotary motion. This design is commonly used in hydraulic pumps and
some aircraft engines.

Operation: Pistons are connected to a swashplate, which tilts as it rotates, causing

the pistons to move in a reciprocating manner.

Applications: Widely used in helicopter rotor systems and some automotive air
conditioning compressors.

2. Nutating Disc Engine

The nutating disc engine utilizes a disc that nutates (wobbles) within a housing to
convert linear motion into rotary motion.

Operation: A nutating disc inside the engine housing moves in a spherical motion,
with different areas of the disc performing intake, compression, power, and exhaust
functions.

Advantages: Offers a compact design with potential for high power-to-weight ratios.

Applications: Investigated for use in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and other
compact propulsion systems.

3. Wave Disk Engine

A wave disk engine is a type of pistonless rotary engine that uses a spinning disk
with curved blades to create shockwaves that compress and ignite the fuel-air
[Link]

Operation: As the disk spins, shockwaves compress the fuel-air mixture, leading to
ignition and expansion that drives the [Link]

Advantages: Potentially higher efficiency compared to traditional piston engines,

with reduced cooling [Link]
Applications: Under development for various applications, including compact
propulsion systems.

4. Dyna-Cam Engine

The Dyna-Cam engine features pistons connected to a sine-shaped cam, converting

their linear motion into rotary motion.

Operation: Pistons move in a linear path and drive a sine-shaped cam, which in turn
rotates the output shaft.

Advantages: Simplified design with fewer moving parts compared to traditional

engines.

Applications: Used in various experimental and prototype applications.

5. Opposed-Piston Engine

In an opposed-piston engine, two pistons move towards each other within a single
cylinder, with combustion occurring between them.

Operation: Two pistons move in opposite directions within a single cylinder, with
combustion occurring between them.

Advantages: Eliminates the need for a traditional cylinder head, potentially reducing
weight and complexity.

Applications: Used in some military and commercial applications, including

torpedoes and large diesel engines.

These alternative engine designs offer various advantages in terms of compactness,

efficiency, and simplicity. The choice between them depends on the specific
application requirements, including size constraints, power output, and operational
conditions.
Comparative Analysis of Engine Types

Engine Type Efficiency Compactness Complexity Suitability for Torpedo

Wobble Plate Engine Moderate High Moderate High

Swashplate Engine Moderate High High Moderate

Nutating Disc Engine High Moderate High Moderate

Wave Disk Engine Very High High High Low

Opposed Piston Engine High Moderate Moderate High

For a 3-meter thermal torpedo targeting 60 knots, the Wobble Plate Engine and
Opposed Piston Engine emerge as the most suitable options. Both offer a balance
of efficiency, compactness, and proven applicability in marine environments. The
Wobble Plate Engine is favored for its simplicity and compact design, making it ideal
for constrained spaces. The Opposed Piston Engine, while slightly more complex,
provides higher efficiency and has a track record in military applications.

The Wave Disk Engine, despite its high efficiency, is still under development and
lacks proven performance in marine applications. Similarly, the Nutating Disc Engine
and Swashplate Engine are less suited for underwater propulsion due to their design
complexities and unproven marine performance.

Advanced propulsion fuels for torpedoes are central to enhancing speed, range, and
stealth capabilities. While Otto Fuel II remains a standard due to its self-oxidizing
nature and high energy density, several alternative and emerging technologies are
being explored:

1. Stored Chemical Energy Propulsion (SCEP)

Mark 50 Torpedo

The U.S. Navy's Mark 50 torpedo employs a stored chemical energy propulsion
system. This system utilizes a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride gas sprayed over a
block of solid lithium, generating heat that produces steam to drive a pump-jet. This
method offers deep-water performance advantages, as the combustion products
occupy less volume than the reactants, reducing the need to expel gases against
increasing water pressure at greater depths.
2. Electric Propulsion

Electric propulsion systems, powered by batteries, are employed in torpedoes like

the Mark 46. These systems are known for their quiet operation, making them
suitable for stealth missions. However, they typically offer lower speeds and shorter
ranges compared to thermal propulsion systems.

3. Advanced Fuel Alternatives

Moden Fuel I Force India+5defense-aerospace+5Wikipedia+5

The U.S. Navy has tested Moden Fuel I, a cleaner monopropellant that produces
pure water and carbon dioxide as by-products. This environmentally friendly
alternative could reduce hazardous waste disposal associated with Otto Fuel II.
defense-aerospace+1Blue Water Forces+1

Global Fuel Usage in Torpedoes

Country Torpedo Model(s) Fuel/Propulsion Type

United States Mk 46, Mk 48, Mk 54 Otto Fuel II, SCEP

United Kingdom Spearfish Otto Fuel II + HAP

China Yu-7 Otto Fuel II

Japan Type 93 Kerosene-Air with Oxygen Enrichment

Russia Various Advanced Propulsion Technologies

These advancements reflect ongoing efforts to enhance torpedo performance

through innovative propulsion technologies. If you have further questions or need
more detailed information on specific torpedo models or propulsion systems,
Torpedo detection and countermeasure systems use a combination of active and
passive sonar, along with infrared technology, to detect, classify, and neutralize
incoming torpedoes. These systems are crucial for protecting naval platforms from
torpedo attacks.
Here's a more detailed look at the technologies involved:
1. Active and Passive Sonar:
Active Sonar:
Emits sound waves and analyzes the echoes to identify objects in the water, including
torpedoes. This allows for the determination of range, bearing, and speed of the
torpedo.
Passive Sonar:
Detects the sound signatures of torpedoes, which are generated by their propulsion
systems and other mechanisms. This helps to classify the torpedo type and its
operational mode.

2. Infrared Technology:
Torpedo Hot Spot Detection (THSD): Uses infrared cameras to monitor the
temperature of the torpedo steel structure. This helps to detect hotspots that may
indicate impending failures or breaks in the torpedo, potentially preventing dangerous
situations.

3. Countermeasures:
Towed Decoys:
These are deployed into the water to confuse or divert incoming torpedoes, drawing
their attention away from the target vessel.
Expendable Decoys:
These are similar to towed decoys but are designed to be deployed in a more active
manner, creating noise and/or heat patterns to mimic the target vessel.
Anti-torpedo Torpedoes (Hard-Kill):
These are torpedoes designed to intercept and destroy incoming torpedoes, offering a
direct countermeasure against the threat.

4. Software-Defined Sonar (SDS):

Modular and Reconfigurable: A software-based approach to sonar processing,
allowing for flexible and adaptable systems that can be updated and modified as
needed.

5. System-of-Systems (SOS) Architecture:

Cohesive Defenses: A system that integrates multiple sensors and countermeasures
to create a robust and effective defense against torpedo attacks.
In summary, torpedo detection and countermeasure systems rely on a combination of
sonar technologies, infrared monitoring, and various countermeasures to detect,
classify, and neutralize incoming torpedo threats, ensuring the safety and security of
naval platforms
Countries worldwide have developed and adopted various torpedo detection and
countermeasure technologies to safeguard naval assets from underwater threats.
Here's an overview of notable systems employed by different nations:

United Kingdom: SSTD (Surface Ship Torpedo Defence)

India: Maareech ATDS
Maareech Advanced Torpedo Decoy System (ATDS) is a torpedo detection
and countermeasure system used by the Indian Navy. The system offers a complete
solution to detect and locate an incoming torpedo and to apply countermeasures to
protect naval platform against torpedo attack.
United States: AN/SLQ-25 Nixie
France: CAPTAS-4
Israel: Rafael Systems
Turkey: ASELSAN Systems
Pakistan: Zargana Integration
Indonesia: Zargana Deployment
Rafael's Torbuster SP: A Comprehensive Defense Suite
Rafael's Torbuster SP is an integrated torpedo defense system designed for surface
ships. It combines both soft-kill and hard-kill measures to effectively counter torpedo
threats.

MONKFISH Sensor: A multi-mode sonar system that provides continuous 360°

detection and alert capabilities, operating in active, passive, and intercept modes. It
offers accurate detection without false alarms and can track multiple targets
simultaneously.

 BLACKFISH Hull-Mounted Sonar: Provides continuous security alerts, detects,

classifies, tracks, and alerts on incoming torpedoes. It overcomes the limitations
of current passive sonar systems.
 Torbuster SP Countermeasure: A hard-kill decoy that lures incoming torpedoes
away from the ship. Once the torpedo homes in on the decoy, the Torbuster SP
neutralizes the threat using its onboard hydrophone and warhead. This multi-
layered approach ensures comprehensive protection against various torpedo
threats.

Other Notable Systems

 Maareech ATDS (India): Developed by DRDO, this system offers detection,

classification, and localization of incoming torpedoes, deploying towed and
expendable decoys to divert threats. It is integrated into Indian Navy platforms,
including destroyers and aircraft carriers.
 AN/SLQ-25E Nixie (USA): An upgraded version of the Nixie system, it features
improved capabilities against wake-homing, acoustic-homing, and wire-guided
torpedoes. The system employs a modular, open architecture for enhanced
flexibility.
 SSTD (UK): The Surface Ship Torpedo Defence system includes a passive
acoustic towed array and expendable acoustic decoys. It uses advanced AI
processing to detect and classify torpedoes, providing tactical advice for vessel
maneuvering and countermeasure deployment.

Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd., the developer of the Torbuster SP torpedo
defense system, is an Israeli defense technology company. Founded in 1948 and
headquartered in Haifa, Israel, Rafael is a government-owned corporation under the
Israeli Ministry of Defense. It specializes in a wide range of military technologies,
including missile systems, naval defense, and electronic warfare.
The Torbuster SP is a hard-kill decoy system designed to protect surface vessels from
advanced torpedo threats. It is part of a comprehensive torpedo defense suite
developed by Rafael in collaboration with its subsidiary DSIT Solutions. This suite
includes the Blackfish and Monkfish sonar systems for torpedo detection and alert, and
the Torbuster SP decoy for neutralizing incoming torpedoes.

In addition to its development in Israel, Rafael has partnered with India's Bharat
Dynamics Limited (BDL) to manufacture the Torbuster SP locally under India's "Make in
India" initiative. This collaboration aims to enhance the Indian Navy's capabilities in
countering modern torpedo threats .

10 Fsastest Torpedoes

1. SHKVAL, Russia :
Length@ 8.2 mts, Mass@ 2700 kg, Effective Range@ 15,000 m, Speed@ 200 Knots
2. Hoot, Iran:
Length @ 8.2 mts, Mass @ Undefined , Effective Range@ 9,600 m, Speed@ 194 Knots
3. Type 95, Japan:
Length @ 9 mts, Mass @ 2700 kg , Effective Range@ 40,000 m, Speed@ 91 Knots
4. Type 89, Japan:
Length @ 6.25 mts, Mass @ 1760 kg , Effective Range@ 50,000 m, Speed@ 70 Knots
5. Spearfish, UK:
Length @ 7 mts, Mass @ 1850 kg , Effective Range@ 54,000 m, Speed@ 60 Knots
6. APR 3E, Russia:
Length @ 3.68 mts, Mass @ 525 kg , Effective Range@ 3,000 m, Speed@ 50 Knots
7. Type 65, Russia :
Length @ 9.14 mts, Mass @ 4500 kg , Effective Range@ 50,000 m, Speed@ 50 Knots+
8. Mark 93, Japan:
Length @ 9mts, Mass @ 2700 kg , Effective Range@ 22,000 m, Speed@ 48 Knots
9. Mark 36, USA:
Length @ 6.2mts, Mass @ 1810 kg , Effective Range@ 6,400 m, Speed@ 47 Knots

Source: The buzz ( you tube)