BEC701

MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
AND ANTENNA THEORY
MODULE-1
Dr. Harish S.,
Associate Professor,
Dept. of ECE, R L J I T
Mobile: 9964939169,
E-mail: harishs@[Link]
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SYLLABUS
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Text Books
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MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES
• The term microwave frequencies is generally used for those
wavelengths measured in centimeters, roughly from 30 cm to 1
mm (1 to 300 GHz).
• However, microwave really indicates the wavelengths in the
micron ranges. This means microwave frequencies are up to
infrared and visible-light regions. In this revision, microwave
frequencies refer to those from 1 GHz up to 106 GHz.
• In August 1969, the U.S. Department of Defense introduced a
new system for dividing frequency bands, as shown in Table-1.
• On May 24, 1970, the Department of Defense adopted another
band designation for microwave frequencies as listed in Table-2.
• The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
recommended new microwave band designations as shown in
Table-3 for comparison.
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MICROWAVE DEVICES
• In the late 1930s, it was shown that as wavelength approached
the physical dimensions of the vacuum tubes, electron transit
angle, interelectrode capacitance, and lead inductance limit the
operation of vacuum tubes in microwave frequencies.
• In 1935 A. A. Heil and 0. Heil suggested that microwave
voltages can be generated by using transit-time effects together
with lumped tuned circuits.
• In 1939 W. C. Hahn and G. F. Metcalf proposed a theory of
velocity modulation for microwave tubes. Next, R. H. Varian
and S. F. Varian described a two-cavity klystron amplifier
and oscillator by using velocity modulation.
• In 1944 R. Kompfner invented the helix-type Traveling-Wave
Tube (TWT).
• Microwave tubes deviated from that of conventional vacuum
tubes as a result of the application of new principles in the
amplification and generation of microwave energy.
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• Historically microwave generation and amplification were

accomplished by means of velocity-modulation theory.
• Microwave solid-state devices-such as tunnel diodes, Gunn
diodes, transferred electron devices (TEDs), and avalanche
transit-time devices have been developed to perform these
functions.
• B. K. Ridley and T. B. Watkins in 1961 and C. Hilsum in 1962
independently predicted that the transferred electron effect
would occur in GaAs (gallium arsenide).
• In 1963 J. B. Gunn reported his "Gunn effect." The common
characteristic of all microwave solid-state devices is the
negative resistance that can be used for microwave oscillation
and amplification.
• The progress of TEDs and avalanche transit-time devices has
been so swift that today they are firmly established as one of
the most important classes of microwave solid-state devices.
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MICROWAVE SYSTEMS
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•A microwave system normally consists of a

transmitter subsystem, including a microwave
oscillator, waveguides, and a transmitting antenna,
and a receiver subsystem that includes a receiving
antenna, transmission line or waveguide, a
microwave amplifier, and a receiver.
• Figure shows a typical microwave system.
• In order to design a microwave system and conduct
a proper test of it, an adequate knowledge of the
components involved is essential.
• Along with microwave devices, the microwave
components, such as resonators, cavities, microstrip
lines, hybrids, and microwave integrated circuits are
also important.
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Microwave Sources
• Introduction:
• The application of two-terminal semiconductor devices at microwave
frequencies has been increased usage during the past decades.
• The CW, average, and peak power outputs of these devices at
higher microwave frequencies are much larger than those
obtainable with the best power transistor.
• The common characteristic of all active two-terminal solid-state
devices is their negative resistance.
• Positive Resistance:
• Voltage and current are in phase.
• Power is dissipated: P=I2R
• Acts as a passive device (absorbs power).
• Negative Resistance:
• Voltage and current are 180° out of phase.
• Power is generated: P=−I2R
• Acts as an active device (generates power).
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Comparison of microwave transistors

and TEDs
Transferred Electron
Feature Microwave Transistors
Devices (TEDs)
Bulk devices with no
Structure Have junctions or gates
junctions or gates

Elemental semiconductors (e.g., Si, Compound semiconductors

Material Used
Ge) (e.g., GaAs, InP, CdTe)

Use "hot" electrons (high

Electron Energy Use "warm" electrons (low energy)
energy)
Based on conventional transistor Based on transferred
Operating Principle
theory electron effect

Technology Follows standard transistor design Requires different theory

Compatibility and fabrication and design approach
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GUNN-EFFECT DIODES-GaAs DIODE

or simply GUNN DIODE
• Gunn-effect diodes are named after J. B. Gunn,
who in 1963 discovered a periodic fluctuations of
current passing through the n-type gallium
arsenide (GaAs) specimen when the applied
voltage exceeded a certain critical value.
• The principle involved is to heat carriers in a light-
mass, high-mobility subband with an electric field
so that the carriers can transfer to a heavy-mass,
low-mobility, higher-energy subband when they
have a high enough temperature.
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Gunn Effect
Fig(a): Schematic diagram for ntype GaAs
diode
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• A schematic diagram of a uniform n-type GaAs diode with ohmic

contacts at the end surfaces is shown in Fig. J. B. Gunn observed
the Gunn effect in the n-type GaAs bulk diode in 1963. He stated in
his first paper that:
• Above some critical voltage, corresponding to an electric field
of 2000-4000 volts/cm, the current in every specimen became a
fluctuating function of time.
• In the GaAs specimens, this fluctuation took the form of a
periodic oscillation superimposed upon the pulse current. The
frequency of oscillation was determined mainly by the
specimen, and not by the external circuit. The period of
oscillation was usually inversely proportional to the specimen
length and closely equal to the transit time of electrons
between the electrodes, calculated from their estimated
velocity of slightly over 107cm/s. The peak pulse microwave
power delivered by the GaAs specimens to a matched load was
measured. Value as high as 0.5 W at 1 Gc/s, and 0.15Wat 3Gc/s,
were found, corresponding to 1-2% of the pulse input power.
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• From Gunn's observation the carrier drift velocity is linearly

increased from zero to a maximum when the electric field is
varied from zero to a threshold value.
• When the electric field is beyond the threshold value of
3000V/cm for the n-type GaAs, the drift velocity is decreased
and the diode exhibits negative resistance. This situation is
shown in Fig.
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• The current fluctuations are shown in Fig. The current

waveform was produced by applying a voltage pulse of
16-V amplitude and 10ns duration to a specimen of n-
type GaAs 2.5 x 10-3cm in length.
• The oscillation frequency was 4.5 GHz. The lower trace
had 2ns/cm in the horizontal axis and 0.23A/cm in the
vertical axis.
• The upper trace was the expanded view of the lower
trace. Gunn found that the period of these oscillations
was equal to the transit time of the electrons through the
specimen calculated from the threshold current.
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Current waveform of ntype GaAs reported by Gunn

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• Gunn also discovered that the threshold electric field

Eth varied with the length and type of material.
• He developed an elaborate capacitive probe for
plotting the electric field distribution within a
specimen of n-type GaAs of length L=210µm and
cross-sectional area 3.5 x 10-3 cm2 with a low-field
resistance of 16.
• Current instabilities occurred at specimen voltages
above 59V, which means that the threshold field is,
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TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATIONS
AND SOLUTIONS
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Problem:
A transmission line has the following parameters:
R = 2/m, L=8nH/m, G=0.5mmho/m, C=0.23pF, f=1GHz.
Calculate: (a) the characteristic impedance; (b) the
propagation constant.
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Reflection Coefficient
• In the solutions of transmission-line equations, the
traveling wave along the line contains two components:
one traveling in the positive z direction and the other
traveling the negative z direction.
• If the load impedance is equal to the line characteristic
impedance, then reflected traveling wave does not exist.
•
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• Figure shows a transmission line terminated in an impedance

Zl. The incident voltage and current waves traveling along the
transmission line are given by,

• in which the current wave can be expressed in terms of the

voltage by,

• If the line has a length of l, the voltage and current at the

receiving end become,
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• The ratio of the voltage to the current at the receiving end is the
load impedance. That is,

• The reflection coefficient, which is designated by  (gamma), is

defined as,

• If Eq. for Zl is solved for the ratio of the reflected voltage at the
receiving end, which is V_el, to the incident voltage at the
receiving end, which is V+e-l, the result is the reflection
coefficient at the receiving end:
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• If the load impedance and/or the characteristic impedance are

complex quantities, the reflection coefficient can be expressed
as,

• where IlI is the magnitude and never greater than

unity-that is, IlI1, l is the phase angle between the
incident and reflected voltages at the receiving end. It
is usually called the phase angle of the reflection
coefficient.
• The generalized reflection coefficient is defined as,
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Transmission Coefficient
• A transmission line terminated in its characteristic
impedance Zo is called a properly terminated line.
Otherwise it is called an improperly terminated
line.
• There is a reflection coefficient  at any point
along an improperly terminated line.
• According to the principle of conservation of
energy, power transmitted to the load = (incident
power - reflected power). This can be expressed
as,
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• The letter T represents the transmission coefficient,

which is defined as,

• Figure shows the transmission of power along a

transmission line where Pinc is the incident power, Pref
is the reflected power, and Ptr is the transmitted
power.
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• Let the traveling waves at the receiving end be,

• Multiplication of Second Eq. by Zl and substitution of the result

in First Eq. yield,

• After simplifying,

• The power carried by the two waves in the side of the incident
and reflected waves is,,
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• The power carried to the load by the

transmitted waves is,

• By setting Pinr = Ptr,

• This relation verifies the that the transmitted

power is equal to the difference of the incident
power and reflected power.
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Example
•A certain transmission line has a characteristic
impedance of 75+j0.01  and is terminated in a load
impedance of 70+j50 . Compute (a) the reflection
coefficient (); (b) the transmission coefficient (T). Verify:
(c) the relationship

• (d) the transmission coefficient equals the algebraic sum

of 1 plus the reflection coefficient, i.e., T=1+.
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• b) Transmission coefficient,

• c)

• Verified.

• d) Verified.
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Standing Wave
• The general solutions of the transmission-line
equation consist of two waves traveling in opposite
directions with unequal amplitude as given by,

• It is assumed that V+e-z and V-e z are real. Then the

voltage-wave equation can be expressed as,

• This is called the equation of the voltage

standing wave, where
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• Standing-wave pattern of the voltage wave or the

amplitude of the standing wave is V0, and is given
by,

• Phase pattern of the standing wave , and is

given by,

• The maximum and minimum values of V0 can be

found by differentiating the equation with respect to
z and equating the result to zero. By doing so and
substituting the proper values of z in the equation,
we find that
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• Then,
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• The standing-wave patterns of two oppositely

traveling waves with unequal amplitude in lossy or
lossless line are shown in Figs.
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Figure: Voltage standing-wave pattern in a

lossless line
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• From the Equation given below, following points can be noted:

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• Equations Voltage and Current show that the voltage and

current standing waves are 90° out of phase along the line.
• The points of zero current are called the current nodes. The
voltage nodes and current nodes are interlaced a quarter
wavelength apart.
• The voltage and current may be expressed as real functions of
time and space:

• The amplitudes of these Eqs. vary sinusoidally with

time; the voltage is a maximum at the instant when
the current is zero and vice versa.
• Figure shows the pure-standing-wave patterns of the
phasor of Eqs. And for an open-terminal line.
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• Figure: Pure standing waves of voltage and

current.
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Standing-Wave Ratio
• Standing waves result from the simultaneous
presence of waves traveling in opposite directions on
a transmission line.
• The ratio of the maximum of the standing-wave
pattern to the minimum is defined as the standing-
wave ratio, designated by . That is,
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• The standing-wave ratio results from the fact that the

two traveling-wave components of Eq.,

• add in phase at some points and subtract at other

points.
• The distance between two successive maxima or
minima is /2. The standing-wave ratio of a pure
traveling wave is unity and that of a pure standing
wave is infinite.
• Note: Since the standing-wave ratios of voltage and
current are identical, no distinctions are made
between VSWR and ISWR.
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• When the standing-wave ratio is unity, there is no

reflected wave and the line is called a fiat line.
• The standing-wave ratio cannot be defined on a lossy line
because the standing-wave pattern changes markedly from
one position to another.
• On a lowloss line the ratio remains fairly constant, and it may
be defined for some region.
• For a lossless line, the ratio stays the same throughout
the line.
• Since the reflected wave is defined as the product of an
incident wave and its reflection coefficient, the standing-wave
ratio  is related to the reflection coefficient  by,

OR
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• The curve in Fig. shows the relationship between || and . As

a result of these Eqs., since ||1, the standing-wave ratio is a
positive real number and never less than unity, 1.
• Also, the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is never
greater than unity.
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Problem:
•A transmission line has a characteristic
impedance of 50+j0.01  and is terminated in a
load impedance of 73-j42.5. Calculate: (a) the
reflection coefficient; (b) the standing-wave ratio.
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SMITH CHART
• The Smith chart consists of a plot of the normalized
impedance or admittance with the angle and magnitude of a
generalized complex reflection coefficient in a unity circle.
The chart is applicable to the analysis of a lossless line as
well as a lossy line. By simple rotation of the chart, the effect
of the position on the line can be determined.
• Derivation:
• Consider the equation of reflection coefficient at the load for a
transmission line,

• Since IlI1, the value of l must lie on or within the unity

circle with a radius of 1. The reflection coefficient at any other
location along a line is,
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• which is also on or within the unity circle. Figure shows

circles for a constant reflection coefficient  and constant
electrical-length radials d.
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• The normalized impedance along a line is given by,

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• Equation (1) represents a family of circles in which

each circle has a constant resistance r. The radius of
any circle is 1/(1 + r), and the center of any circle is
r/(1 + r) along the real axis in the unity circle, where r
varies from zero to infinity. All constant resistance
circles are plotted in Fig. according to Eq. (1).
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• Equation (2) also describes a family of circles, but each of

these circles specifies a constant reactance x. The radius of
any circle is (1/x), and the center of any circle is at,

• All constant reactance circles are plotted in Fig. according to

Eq. (2).
• There are relative distance scales in wavelength along the
circumference of the Smith chart. Also, there is a phase scale
specifying the angle of the reflection coefficient. When a
normalized impedance z is located on the chart, the
normalized impedance of any other location along the line
can be found by use of Eq.,
• Where,
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Characteristics of the Smith chart

are summarized as follows:
1. The constant r and constant x loci form two families of
orthogonal circles in the chart.
2. The constant r and constant x circles all pass through the
point (r= 1, i =0).
3. The upper half of the diagram represents + jx.
4. The lower half of the diagram represents - jx.
5. For admittance the constant r circles become constant g
circles, and the constant x circles become constant
susceptance b circles.
6. The distance around the Smith chart once is one-half
wavelength (/2).
7. At a point of Zmin = 1/, there is a Vmin on the line.
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8. At a point of Zmax=, there is a Vmax on the line.

9. The horizontal radius to the right of the chart
center corresponds to Vmax, Imin, Zmax, and 
(SWR).
10. The horizontal radius to the left of the chart
center corresponds to Vmin, Imax, Zmin, and 1/ .
11. Since the normalized admittance y is a reciprocal of
the normalized impedance z, the corresponding
quantities in the admittance chart are 180° out of
phase with those in the impedance chart.
12. The normalized impedance or admittance is
repeated for every half wavelength of distance.
13. The distances are given in wavelengths toward the
generator and also toward the load.
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Let’s work
on Smith
Chart
 The Complete Smith Chart
Black Magic Design

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ORIGIN
Introduction to Smith Chart
For VII Semester ECE Students

by,
Dr. Harish S.
Associate Professor,
Dept. ECE,
R.L.J.I.T.,
Doddaballapur – 561 203
 Smith Chart
❖ Philip H. Smith of Bell Laboratories developed
the “Smith Chart” back in the 1930’s to expedite
the tedious and repetitive solution of certain RF
design problems. These include:
Transmission line problems
RF amplifier design and analysis
L-C impedance matching networks
Plotting of antenna impedance
Etc.

8/22/2025 Dr. Harish S., RLJIT, 9964939169 2

 Smith Chart
❖The Smith Chart provides a very useful graphical
aid to the analysis of transmission line problems.
❖ The Smith chart is basically a plot of all passive
impedances in a reflection coefficient chart of
unit radius.
❖The reading accuracy of the Smith chart is
sufficient for most practical microwave design
problems.

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 Smith Chart
❖From a mathematical point of view, the Smith
chart is a 4-D representation of all possible
complex impedances with respect to coordinates
defined by the complex reflection coefficient.
❖The domain of definition of the reflection
coefficient for a loss-less line is a circle of unitary
radius in the complex plane. This is also the
domain of the Smith chart.

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 Constant Resistance r Circles

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 Constant Reactance x Circles

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SHORT CIRCUIT OPEN CIRCUIT
Vmin Vmax
Imax Imin
Zmin Zmax
1/SWR SWR

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Q. Find the admittance value for an
impedance value of Z=50+j50 Ohm,
in a 50 Ohm system.

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 To find the Zin using a known
load (ZL)
1. Plot the normalized load impedance (ZL)N on
the Smith chart.
2. Draw the constant VSWR circle that goes
through (ZL)N
3. Starting from (ZL)N, move “toward generator”
on the constant VSWR circle a distance “l/λ”.
4. Read off the normalized input impedance
from the chart.

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 OR
Find the i/p impedance of Transmission Line
(Z0=50 ohm) that has a length of λ/8 and is
connected to a load impedance of ZL=50+j50 Ω.

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 Problem
Determine the input impedance of 200Ω line
(3/8) wavelength long terminated in a 100Ω
resistance using Smith chart and write
procedural steps.

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 Solution

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 Problem
A voltage minimum occurs 18cm from the
termination of a lossless line of length 52cm.
Adjacent voltage minima are 20cm apart. The
VSWR is 2.5 and the characteristic impedance
is 300Ω. Using Smith chart find the input
impedance and the load impedance of the
transmission line.

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 Solution

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 Problem
Given the normalized impedance Zl=1+j1 and
operating wavelength λ=5cm. Determine first
Vmax, first Vmin from the load, and the VSWR.

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 Solution

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 Procedure

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 Impedance determination with Short
Circuit Minima Shift
Suppose that the characteristic impedance of
the line R0 is 50 ohm, and the SWR=2 when
the line is loaded. When the load is shorted,
the minima shift 0.15λ toward the load.
Determine the load impedance.

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 Procedure
• 1. When the line is shorted, the first voltage
minimum occurs at the place of the load as shown
in Fig.

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 IMPEDANCE MATCHING
• Impedance matching is very desirable with radio frequency
(RF) transmission lines. Standing waves lead to increased
losses and frequently cause the transmitter to malfunction.
• A "flat" line is nonresonant; that is, its input impedance
always remains at the same value Zo when the frequency
changes.
• In transmission-line problems matching means simply
terminating the line in its characteristic impedance.
• A common application of RF transmission lines is the one in
which there is a feeder connection between a transmitter and
an antenna.
• Matching devices are necessary to flatten the line. A
complete matched transmission-line system is shown in Fig.
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• For a low-loss or lossless transmission line at RF, the
characteristic impedance Zo of the line is resistive. At every
point the impedances looking in opposite directions are
conjugate.
• If Zo is real, it is its own conjugate. Matching can be tried first
on the load side to flatten the line; then adjustment may be
made on the transmitter side to provide maximum power
transfer.
• In a practical transmission-line system, the transmitter is
ordinarily matched to the coaxial cable for maximum power
transfer. Because of the variable loads, however, an
impedance-matching technique is often required at the load
side.
• Since the matching problems involve parallel connections on
the transmission line, it is necessary to work out the problems
with admittances rather
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than impedances.
Dr. Harish S., RLJIT, 9964939169 35
 Single-Stub Matching
• Although single-lumped inductors or capacitors can match
the transmission line, it is more common to use the
susceptive properties of short-circuited sections of
transmission lines. Short-circuited sections are preferable to
open-circuited ones because a good short circuit is easier to
obtain than a good open circuit.
• For a lossless line with Yg=Y0, maximum power transfer
requires Y11=Y0, where Y11 is the total admittance of the line
and stub looking to the right at point 1-1 (see Fig.). The stub
must be located at that point on the line where the real part
of the admittance, looking toward the load, is Yo. In a
normalized unit Y11 must be in the form, Y11 = Yd ± Ys = 1, If
the stub has the same characteristic impedance as that of
the line.
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• Otherwise Y11 = Yd ± Ys = Y0
• The stub length is then adjusted so that its susceptance just
cancels out the susceptance of the line at the junction.

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 SINGLE STUB MATCHING
PROBLEM
A 300Ω lossless is terminated in a load of
(600+j300) Ω operating at 600MHz. Find
standing wave ratio on the line. Design a
single stub matching section, assuming main
line and the stub are of the same type.

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 Problem
A load impedance of Zl=60-j80Ω is required to
be matched to a 50Ω coaxial line, by using a
short circuited stub of length L located at a
distance d from the load. The wavelength of
operation is 1m. Using Smith chart find d and
L.

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 Problem
A load impedance of (73-j80)ohm is required
to be matched to a 50ohm coaxial line having
operating wavelength of 30cm, using a short
circuited shunt stub. Determine the position
and length of the stub.

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 Problem
• A lossless line of characteristic impedance
R0=50 is to be matched to a load Zl = 50/[2 +
j(2+3)] by means of a lossless short-circuited
stub. The characteristic impedance of the stub is
100. Find the stub position (closest to the load)
and length so that a match is obtained.
• Solution: (1) Mark admittance YL=2+j3.7 and join it to the center
and extend the line. Also draw the circle.
• (2) From YL move clockwise to the point where drawn circle
touches r=1 circle and join it to the center. From there to YL
measure the distance, i.e., d/.
• (3) Reactance (–j2.6)*(100/50)=-j5.2, opposite value +j5.2 is
marked and join the line to center. Now, From SC point to this
point measure the distance,
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i.e., l/.
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 Problem
A transmission line 100m long is terminated in
a load of (100-j200)ohm. Determine the line
impedance at 25m from the load end at a
frequency of 10MHz. Assume characteristic
impedance is 100ohm. Determine the input
impedance and the admittance using Smith
chart.

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Try to solve more problems….

PRACTICE MAKES MAN PERFECT.

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