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IB Biology C2.2
IB Biology
C2.2 Neural signalling
AHL
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C2.2.1— Neurons as cells within the nervous system that carry electrical
impulses
Neurones are cells specialised for the transmission of electrical signals (impulses), they usually have
the following parts:
Ø Cell body(soma) contains all the usual cell organelles, including a nucleus , mitochondria, large
amounts of rough endoplasmic reticulum to synthesize neurotransmitters
Ø Dendron : extensions of the cell body which subdivide into smaller dendrites, carry nerve impulses
towards the cell body
Ø Axon, a single long fibre that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body
Ø Schwann cells which surround the nerve fibre, protecting it and providing electrical insulation.
Schwann cells wrap themselves around the axon many times, so that layers of their membranes
build up around it
Ø Myelin sheath, made up of the membranes of the Schwann cells. These membranes are rich in a
lipid known as myelin. Neurones with a myelin sheath are called myelinated neurones (myelin
sheath can also be produced by oligodendrocytes in CNS)
Ø Nodes of Ranvier, gaps between adjacent Schwann cells where there is no myelin sheath
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Sensory neuron Relay neuron Motor neuron
(interneurone)
Direction of From the receptors to the CNS à CNS From the CNS to the
nerve impulse CNS effectors
Location of PNS CNS CNS
the cell body
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C2.2.2— Generation of the resting potential by pumping to establish and maintain concentration
gradients of sodium and potassium ions
Ø A polarized membrane is a membrane that has a positive electrical charge on one side and a
negative charge on the other side
Ø The electrical potential difference across a membrane can be described as the voltage across a
membrane, which is the membrane potential
Ø Because there is a potential difference across the cell membrane, the membrane is said to
be polarized
Ø Potential difference is measured relative to a reference point. For a cell’s membrane potential, the
reference point is the outside of the cell
Ø Neurons transmit information in the form of nerve impulses. Self-propagating wave of electrical
activity that travels along the axon membrane. It is a temporary reversal of the electrical
potential difference across the axon membrane. This reversal is between two states, called the
resting potential and the action potential
Measuring the Potential difference
Ø Using a pair of recording electrodes placed on a nerve which was then given a controlled stimulus.
The impulses which resulted were recorded by the electrodes and displayed on a screen
Ø Much study has been done using axons as they are easier to access
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Resting Potential
Ø The membrane potential when the neuron is not firing an impulse
Ø This occurs as a result of an imbalance between sodium ions and potassium ions à giving the
inside a negative charge in comparison to the external environment
Ø As a result of the polarisation, there is a difference in the voltage across the axon membrane, with a
value of usually -70mV known as the resting potential
Maintain the resting potential:
1. The sodium–potassium pump uses one ATP molecule for every 3Na+ ions pumped out and 2
K+ ions pumped into the cell. This is the most important way the neuron generates the negative
membrane potential. (The outward movement of sodium ions is greater than the inward
movement of potassium ions)
2. The plasma membrane is not very permeable to sodium. A negligible number of Na+ ions
diffuse into the cell in response to the concentration gradient. Most sodium channels are
closed
3. The plasma membrane is slightly permeable to potassium. A small number of K+ ions diffuse
out of the cell in response to the concentration gradient. Some potassium channels are open.
4. Negatively charged proteins within the neuron also contribute to the charge imbalance.
Recap the steps of how sodium-potassium pumps
work!
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C2.2.3— Nerve impulses as action potentials that are propagated along nerve fibers
AHL C2.2.8- Depolarization and repolarization during action potentials.
Ø An action potential is the electrical signal that a neuron generates to transmit information along
its cell membrane from the dendrite to the synaptic terminal.
Ø This is the sudden change in membrane potential as the neuron is firing / conducting an impulse
How an action potential is produced:
1. When the neuron receives a stimulation, some Na+ channels open, influx of Na+ ions into the cell,
the membrane potential rises. This is called depolarization.
2. When enough Na+ enters the cell, upon reaching the threshold of -55mV, more voltage gated
sodium channels open and eventually giving a rapid influx of Na+, rising the membrane potential
to +40mV.
3. Once the charge has been reversed from -70 mV to around +40 mV, an action potential is said
to have been generated
Repolarisation:
- Voltage-gated Na+ channels closed, Voltage-gated K+ channels opening
- K+ ions diffuse out of the neuron t, causing the potential to become more negative à restore the
negative membrane potential
- As the closing of K+ channels is slightly delayed, this leads to hyperpolarisation i.e. when the
potential difference becomes more negative than the resting potential
- The period during which the membrane is hyperpolarised is known as the relative refractory
period
- The resting potential is then achieved with the help of sodium-potassium pump which returns the
potential difference to the value of-70mV
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The all-or-nothing principle
- If a stimulus is weak, only a few sodium ion channels will open and the membrane won’t be
sufficiently depolarised to reach the threshold potential à an action potential will not be generated
- Once the threshold is reached, the action potential is propagated all the way through the neurone.
It will never stop halfway. The nervous impulse is an ‘all or nothing’ response
Refractory period:
Ø The refractory period is a period of time during which a cell is incapable or more difficult of having
another action potential
Ø The axon membrane needs to recover after an action potential, as it takes for ionic movements to
repolarise the membrane and restore the resting potential
Ø In absolute refractory period, it is impossible to restimulate the fibre – the sodium ion channels are
completely blocked
Ø It is important to stress that the events described relate to a particular point on the axon membrane
and not the whole of the membrane
Importance of refractory period
Ø Limits the rate at which impulses may flow along a fibre to 500-1000 each second
Ø Ensures impulses flow in only one direction along nerves. Until the resting potential is restored,
the part of the nerve fibre that the impulse has just left cannot conduct another impulse, the
impulse cannot spread backwards
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AHL C2.2.10- Oscilloscope traces showing resting potentials and action potentials
Measuring membrane potential
Ø Oscilloscopes are scientific instruments that are used to
measure the membrane potential across a neuronal
membrane
Ø Data is displayed as a graph, with time (in milliseconds) on
the X axis and membrane potential (in millivolts) on the Y
axis
A typical action potential will last for roughly 3 – 5 milliseconds and contain 4 key stages:
§ Resting potential: Before the action potential occurs, the neuron should be in a state of rest
(approx. –70 mV)
§ Depolarisation: A rising spike corresponds to the depolarisation of the membrane via sodium
influx (up to roughly +30 mV)
§ Repolarisation: A falling spike corresponds to repolarisation via potassium efflux
(undershoots to approx. –80 mV)
§ Refractory period: The oscilloscope trace returns to the level of the resting potential (due to
the action of the Na+/K+ pump)
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AHL C2.2.9- Propagation of an action potential along a nerve fiber/axon as a result of local
currents
Propagation of an action potential:
Once an action potential has been generated, it can be propagated, or transmitted, along the length
of the axon
- The action potential is initiated at the beginning of the axon.
- The depolarisation of the membrane at the site of the first action potential causes sodium ions to
diffuse along the cytoplasm into the next section of the axon, depolarising the membrane in this
new section, and causing voltage gated sodium channels to open
- This triggers another action potential in this section of the axon membrane
- This process then repeats along the length of the axon
(The process is like the Mexican wave that often takes place in a crowded stadium)
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AHL C2.2.11- Saltatory conduction in myelinated fibers to achieve faster impulses
Saltatory conduction:
• Some neurons are surrounded by Schwann cells, which produce layers of myelin around
the axon. Between two Schwann cells, there is a small stretch of unmyelinated axon at the
nodes of Ranvier
• Myelin is a fatty material that insulates
electricity, preventing the depolarization of
the axon
• As depolarisation cannot occur at the cells
making up the myelin sheath, the wave of
depolarisation can only occur at the Nodes of
Ranvier, action potentials appear to jump from
node to node when travelling down an axon
• the Na+ and K+ ion channels are clustered
down the axon at nodes of Ranvier.
è This is called saltatory conduction
• Saltatory conduction may increases the speed of
nervous transmission by up to 100 times
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C2.2.4— Variation in the speed of nerve impulses.
Factors affecting speed of the nerve impulse
1. Presence of myelin sheath à if an axon is myelinated then saltatory conduction can occur which
is much faster than generating an action potential at every point along the axon. (the speed of
conductance increase from 30ms-1 in an unmyelinated neurone to 90m s-1 in a similar myelinated one)
2. Diameter of the axon à the greater the diameter of the axon the faster the conduction e.g. the
giant squids axon is 1mm in diameter compared to a humans at 22um
3. Animal size: larger animals experience longer delays in nerve signal transmission simply because
their neurons need to travel further distances due to their larger bodies; this results in slower
reflexes in larger animals compared to smaller ones
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C2.2.5-- Synapses as junctions between neurons and between neurons and effector cells
Ø Synapses are junctions or structures between the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic membrane of two
cells in the nervous system
Ø Synapse can be between a sensory neuron and a receptor, motor neuron and effector such as a
muscle or a gland. It can balso e between two different neurons
Ø A junction also exists between the sense receptor cells and the sensory neurons
Ø Neurotransmitters are chemicals diffuse across a synapse from pre-synaptic membrane to post-
synaptic membrane to send a signal to the next cell
This EM image reveals a synapse between an axon and dendrite.
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C2.2.6- Release of neurotransmitters from a presynaptic membrane
C2.2.7- Generation of an excitatory postsynaptic potential
Ø Calcium functions as a chemical signal triggering exocytosis
Ø When electrical impulse arrives at the axon end on the presynaptic neuro,the membrane of the
presynaptic neuron becomes depolarized à influx of calcium ions into the presynaptic cell via
calcium ion channels in the membrane
Ø The calcium ions cause vesicles in the presynaptic neurone to move towards the presynaptic
membrane where they fuse with it (exocytosis) and release neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap
A cholinergic neuromuscular synapse:
• Cholinergic synapses are chemical synapses that that use acetylcholine(Ach) molecules as the
neurotransmitter
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On postsynaptic membrane:
• The neurotransmitters e.g. ACh diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind with receptor
molecules on the postsynaptic membrane
• causes associated sodium ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane to open, allowing sodium
ions to diffuse into the postsynaptic cell
• The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind with receptor molecules on the
postsynaptic membrane
• This causes associated sodium ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane to open, allowing
sodium ions to diffuse into the postsynaptic cell
How acetylcholine is broken down:
• Acetylcholine is bound to receptors at the postsynaptic cell for a short time. It is quickly broken
down into acetic acid and choline by an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase, AChE
• AChE prevents excessive firing of nerves by
ensuring that only one action potential is
propagated through the synapse
• Choline molecules are reabsorbed into the
presynaptic neuron and are used to form new molecules
of ACh
Unidirectionality
- Impulses can only pass in one direction at synapses because neurotransmitter is released on one
side and its receptors are on the other – transmission cannot occur in the opposite direction
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AHL C2.2.14- Summation of the effects of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters in a
postsynaptic neuron
l In some cases, the change makes the target cell more likely to fire its own action potential. In this
case, the shift in membrane potential is called an excitatory, or EPSP
l In other cases, the change makes the target cell less likely to fire an action potential and is called
an inhibitory post-synaptic potential, or IPSP
EPSP: Example: acetylcholine (ACh)
- Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger that plays a crucial role in the
nervous system. It is involved in transmitting signals between nerve cells and muscles, enabling
muscle contraction
- In the brain, acetylcholine is important for memory, attention, and learning. It is produced in
nerve endings and broken down by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Imbalances in
acetylcholine levels are linked to conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and myasthenia gravis
l Binding of acetylcholine to its receptors on the postsynaptic cell opens up sodium channels
l These allow an influx of Na+ ions, reducing the membrane potential
l If depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane reaches threshold, this opens sodium ion channels
in the membrane and there is an influx of sodium ions into for depolarization à an action
potential is generated in the postsynaptic cell.
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AHL C2.2.13- Inhibitory neurotransmitters and generation of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.
IPSP:
l An inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) is a response to a neurotransmitter that decreases the
likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential. Inhibitory neurotransmitters function by causing
the membrane potential to become hyperpolarized
l GABA is a very common neurotransmitter used in IPSPs in the adult mammalian brain
l Increase in the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane to chloride ions by binding
to chloride ion channels and causing them to open
l Chloride ions, which are in greater concentration in the synaptic cleft, diffuse into the postsynaptic
neurone.
l As these are negatively charged ions, hyperpolarisation results, making it less likely for an action
potential to be generated in the postsynaptic neurone
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Summation and facilitation
Ø Often a single synaptic knob does not release enough transmitter substance to set up an action
potential in the post-synaptic fibre
Ø Spatial summation: if two or more synaptic knobs are stimulated and release transmitter at
the same time onto the same post-synaptic membrane, the effects add together and a post-
synaptic action potential results
Ø Temporal summation: a single knob does not release enough transmitter substance from one
impulse to stimulate the post-synaptic nerve fibre but if a second impulse is received from the
same knob in quick succession an action potential results (adding over time). If the first
impulse does not trigger a response, but it makes easier for passage of the next impulse
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AHL C2.2.12- Effects of exogenous chemicals on synaptic transmission.
Ø Exogenous chemicals are substances that enter an organism from an external source, not
produced naturally within the body. Examples medicines, pollutants, cigarette smoke,
pesticides, food additives
Neonicotinoid pesticides
• Neonicotinoids can block synaptic transmission at cholinergic synapses in insects by binding
to acetylcholine receptors
• This binding is irreversible, as acetylcholinesterase cannot break down neonicotinoids
• Once the pesticide is bound, sodium channels open and remain open. This results in constant
firing of the synapse and eventually paralysis and death to the affected insect.
• Neonicotinoids are less toxic to birds and mammals than older pesticides such as DDT and
organophosphates because a much greater proportion of synapses in the central nervous system
are cholinergic in insects than in mammals and because neonicotinoids bind much less strongly
to acetylcholine receptors in mammals than insects
• They were developed during the 1990s and are the most widely used class of pesticides today
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Cocaine:
Ø Drug which blocks the reuptake of neurotransmitters into the presynaptic membrane
Ø Primarily affects reuptake of dopamine as it binds to the dopamine transporter protein
à Dopamine builds up in the synapses which can lead to feelings of pleasure
Ø Cocaine also blocks the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine which enhances
feelings of confidence and energy
Ø In regular users of cocaine,the brain responds by increases numbers of dopamine receptors
to respond to the high levels of dopamine Once levels return to normal, more dopamine
receptors result in increased sensitivity and depression
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AHL C2.2.15- Perception of pain by neurons with free nerve endings in the skin
Ø Pain receptors (nociceptors) are sensory receptors. These receptors have free nerve endings
which are unencapsulated nerve endings
Ø These stimuli can be mechanical (pressure, stretching), thermal (heat, cold), or chemical
(inflammatory chemicals, etc.)
Ø When these stimuli reach a certain threshold, they activate the nociceptors, triggering the
start of the pain signal
Mechanism
Ø The exposed dendrites on these nerves have transient
receptor potential (TRP) channels which open in
response to stimuli which indicate a risk of damaged
tissue e.g. heat, chilli peppers
- Voltage-gated channels: Open in response to
changes in electrical charge.
- Ligand-gated channels: Open when a specific
molecule (ligand) binds to them.
- Mechanically gated channels: Open in response to physical force or pressure
Ø Entry of positively charged ions causes the threshold potential to be reached
Ø An action potential is generated, it moves along the axon of the sensory neuron to the central
nervous system
Ø Nerve impulses then pass through the neurons to the cerebral cortex in the brain, where pain
is perceived and a protective response results
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AHL C2.2.16- Consciousness as a property that emerges from the interaction of individual
neurons in the brain
- Consciousness refers to the state of being aware of and able to think about one's own existence,
thoughts, and surroundings
- It arises from the complex and dynamic interactions of billions of individual neurons
working together in intricate networks
- These are properties or behaviors that arise from the interaction of individual components in a
system à emergent properties
The role of cerebrum
Ø The cerebral cortex consists of the cell bodies of neurons. Itis highly folded, which increases
its surface area and allows it to contain a greater number of neurons
Ø With more neurons in the brain, more connections between neurons can be made, the greater
the ability of the brain to carry out more complex behaviours
Ø These behaviours that result from a combination of complex pathways, are called emergent
properties. It is in this part of the brain where interactions between neurons lead to
consciousness
Ø This idea of consciousness incorporates qualitative perception of feelings associated with
colour, temperature, sound as well as communication which results in a complex awareness
of the environment
Ø The unsolved mystery is how consciousness emerges from brain activity. No one has yet
found a clear neural pathway that produces consciousness
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