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[Link], MANILA- MAIN CAMPUS
Department of Mechanical Engineering

VI.​ ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

In internal combustion engines (ICEs), performance parameters are quantitative measures

that describe how effectively the engine converts fuel (chemical) energy into useful mechanical
work, and how much is lost to irreversibilities, friction, heat transfer, or incomplete combustion.
Understanding and quantifying these parameters is essential both for engine design and control,
and for evaluating trade-offs between power, efficiency, emissions, and durability.

Power and Torque

Torque (T) refers to the rotational force generated at the crankshaft, expressed in
newton-meters (N·m).

Power (P) is the rate at which work is done or energy is converted. For rotating systems:

𝑃=𝑇· ω

where ω is the angular velocity (rad/s).

In terms of revolutions per minute (rpm):

2π𝑁𝑇
𝑃= 60

A high-torque engine excels at low-speed performance (such as in trucks or heavy

machinery), while high-power engines are optimized for speed (as in sports cars or motorcycles).
Engine tuning, valve timing, and combustion design all affect torque and power curves.

The brake power (Pb) is the usable power available at the crankshaft, measured using a
dynamometer.
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​
​ The indicated power (Pi) represents theoretical power inside the cylinder before
accounting for mechanical losses, while friction power (Pf) represents the difference:

𝑃𝑖​ − 𝑃𝑏​ = 𝑃𝑓​

Hence, mechanical efficiency is:

𝑃𝑏​​
η𝑚​ = 𝑃𝑖
​

Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)

Mean Effective Pressure is a conceptual measure of the average pressure acting on the
piston during the power stroke. It provides a way to compare engines of different sizes because it
relates to torque rather than displacement.

Instead of comparing power directly, use mean effective pressure as a normalized measure.

𝑃𝑖​ = 𝑝𝑚𝑖 ​⋅ 𝑉𝑑​⋅ 𝑛

𝑃𝑏​ = 𝑝𝑚𝑏​⋅ 𝑉𝑑 ​⋅ 𝑛

where 𝑝𝑚𝑖​​ and 𝑝𝑚𝑏 are indicated and brake mean effective pressures (IMEP and BMEP), 𝑉𝑑​is
displacement volume, and 𝑛 is the number of working cycles per second.

BMEP is commonly used to gauge the efficiency of the combustion and mechanical
processes. A higher BMEP means the engine extracts more work from each cycle, signifying
strong performance for a given displacement.

Torque relates to BMEP as:

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𝑝𝑚𝑏​⋅ 𝑉𝑑​​
𝑇= 2π

MEP values help compare engines of different sizes by normalizing power per unit displacement.

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP) – represents theoretical pressure from the
combustion process inside the cylinder.

Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP) – represents usable output at the crankshaft after
accounting for friction and mechanical losses.

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)

BSFC measures how efficiently an engine uses fuel to produce power. It is defined as the
amount of fuel consumed per unit of brake power output per hour. Engineers use BSFC maps to
identify the most efficient operating regions of an engine.

Lower BSFC values indicate better fuel efficiency. The minimum BSFC point often
corresponds to the most thermodynamically favorable combination of air-fuel ratio, ignition
timing, and engine load.

Modern techniques like machine learning prediction models (Yun et al., 2023) and hybrid
combustion strategies (Liu et al., 2021) have been used to optimize BSFC and reduce emissions
simultaneously.

The Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) is a commonly used measure of fuel
efficiency in engines. It is defined as:

ṁ𝑓​
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 = 𝑃𝑏

where:
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●​ ṁ𝑓​is the mass flow rate of fuel (kg/h or kg/s),​

●​ 𝑃𝑏 is the brake power (in kW, or W)​

Thus, BSFC has units of e.g. kg / (kW·h). A lower BSFC indicates a more fuel-efficient
engine (less fuel required per unit of output power).

Some authors use specific fuel consumption (SFC) in a generalized sense, but often that
term is qualified as BSFC (based on brake power) or ISFC (based on indicated power).

Relation to Brake Thermal Efficiency

𝑃𝑏 1
η𝑏​ = ṁ𝑓​· 𝐿𝐻𝑉
= 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 · 𝐿𝐻𝑉

Where LHV (Lower Heating Value) represents the usable energy per mass of fuel.​
Thus, minimizing BSFC directly improves brake thermal efficiency.

Experimental studies (Rosdi et al., 2025) show that BSFC reaches a minimum at
mid-load and mid-speed regions. Similarly, tests comparing biodiesel and diesel indicate that
biodiesel’s lower LHV results in higher BSFC (~19% increase), confirming fuel property
influence.

Volumetric Efficiency (ηv)

Volumetric efficiency (VE) describes how effectively the engine fills its cylinders with air
during the intake stroke. It is the ratio between the amount of air actually inducted and the
theoretical maximum based on cylinder volume.

Factors that improve VE include:

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●​ Proper valve timing and lift (e.g., Variable Valve Timing)​

●​ Smooth air intake paths​

●​ Turbocharging or supercharging (forced induction)​

●​ Lower intake air temperature (denser air)​

Higher VE indicates better engine “breathing,” resulting in increased torque and power.

Volumetric efficiency η𝑣​is a measure of how effectively the engine draws in (or traps)
the theoretical ideal volume of air (or mixture) compared to its displacement. It is defined as:

ṁ𝑎, 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
η𝑣​ = 𝑝𝑎 𝑉𝑑 𝑛

where:

●​ ṁ𝑎, 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 is the actual mass flow rate of air entering the cylinders,​

●​ 𝑝𝑎 is the density of air under intake conditions,​

●​ 𝑉𝑑 is displacement per cycle,​

●​ 𝑛 is the number of intake cycles per unit time.​

If η𝑣​= 1.0 (or 100 %), the engine draws in exactly its displaced volume of air at ideal
density (no losses). In reality, ηv ​< 1 due to pressure drop, flow restrictions, valve timing,
reversion, etc. (for naturally aspirated engines), or sometimes ηv​> 1 in boosted engines.
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Volumetric efficiency is strongly tied to torque and power, because the more air (and
hence fuel) you can bring into the cylinder, the more work is possible.

Typical Behaviors and Influencers

●​ ηv typically varies with engine speed. At low rpm, intake flow inertia and friction cause
losses; at high rpm, flow restrictions and valve timing limit filling.​

●​ The shape of intake and exhaust ports, valve timing (opening/closing), cam profiles,
intake manifold design, and air filters all affect volumetric efficiency.​

●​ In engines with forced induction (turbocharging or supercharging), effective volumetric

efficiency can exceed 100% (in terms of air mass above ambient), though
compressibility, heat, and pumping losses reduce gains.​

Effect on Performance

Since the amount of fuel is generally proportional to the air mass (via the desired air-fuel
ratio), a higher volumetric efficiency allows for more power output at the same displacement and
speed. Conversely, low volumetric efficiency is a limiting factor in low-end torque.

Efficiency Types

An engine’s overall efficiency is not single-dimensional; it is composed of multiple

constituent efficiencies. Understanding these breakdowns helps pinpoint where losses occur and
where improvement efforts should focus.

Thermal Efficiency
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Thermal efficiency refers to how effectively the engine converts fuel’s chemical energy
into mechanical work. It depends on compression ratio, combustion temperature, and heat losses.
Modern research focuses on advanced thermodynamic cycles and waste-heat recovery systems to
enhance it (Dahham et al., 2022).

Thermal efficiency (also called fuel conversion efficiency) is defined as:

𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)

η𝑡ℎ​ = 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

For an engine, the “useful mechanical work” is often taken as brake power, giving brake
thermal efficiency 𝑛𝑏​. If one considers indicated power, one may define indicated thermal
efficiency 𝑛𝑖.

The total fuel energy input is ṁ𝑓 · 𝐿𝐻𝑉 , so:

𝑃𝑏
η𝑏​ = ṁ𝑓 𝐿𝐻𝑉

1
As noted earlier, η𝑏​ = 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 · 𝐿𝐻𝑉

The ideal thermodynamic efficiency is bounded by the ideal cycles (Otto, Diesel) and the
second law (Carnot limits) given temperature ratios, specific heat ratios, compression ratio, etc.

Combustion Efficiency

This indicates how completely the fuel-air mixture is burned. Poor combustion leads to
unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions. Enhancing mixture turbulence and
optimizing injection strategies improve combustion efficiency.
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Combustion efficiency η𝑐​quantifies how completely the chemical energy in the fuel is
converted into usable heat in the combustion chamber (i.e. how little unburnt fuel, CO, or
intermediates remain). Losses include incomplete combustion (unburnt hydrocarbons) or partial
oxidation.

Often:

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

η𝑐​ = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

In practical engines, η𝑐​ is high (e.g. > 98 %) under good conditions, but can drop under
lean/rich mixtures, poor mixing, low temperature, or high speed where there is insufficient time.

Gas-Exchange (or “Open-Cycle”) Efficiency

This measures how effectively exhaust gases are expelled and fresh charge enters the
cylinder. Better gas exchange improves volumetric efficiency and combustion quality.
Techniques like variable geometry turbocharging (VGT) and electronic valve actuation enhance
this parameter.

Some of the “useful work” is undone or reduced because work must be expended to
intake fresh air (charging) and expel exhaust gases (pumping). The gas-exchange efficiency η𝑔​
(sometimes called charging efficiency or open-cycle efficiency) accounts for these losses.

Mechanical Efficiency

Mechanical efficiency compares brake power to indicated power, accounting for losses
due to friction in pistons, bearings, and auxiliary components. It can be improved with
low-friction coatings, optimized lubrication, and lightweight materials.

As introduced above, mechanical efficiency η𝑚 accounts for friction, bearing losses,

auxiliary drives (oil pump, water pump), and losses in moving parts:
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𝑃𝑏
η𝑚 = 𝑃𝑖

Overall Efficiency Composition

Overall efficiency reflects the combination of all previous efficiencies and the drivetrain’s
ability to convert engine output to useful vehicle motion. Engineers aim to balance this with
emission control and durability. Fuel efficiency, often evaluated through BSFC or real-world
mileage, remains a practical measure of engine performance.

A commonly used relation is:

η𝑏​ = η𝑐​⋅ η𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐​⋅ η𝑔​⋅ η𝑚​

or equivalently, in terms of closed-cycle (combustion + thermodynamic) and open-cycle (gas

exchange) efficiencies:

η𝑏​ = η𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 ​⋅ η𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 ​⋅ η𝑚​

Where ɳ𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = ɳ𝑐 · ɳ𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 · ɳ𝑔 · ɳ𝑚

In practical engines, losses occur due to:

●​ Heat transfer from combustion gases to cylinder walls​

●​ Exhaust gas energy not converted​

●​ Pumping losses (intake/exhaust)​

●​ Friction and mechanical losses​

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●​ Incomplete combustion​

Thus, the achievable “brake thermal efficiency” is always significantly below the Carnot
or ideal cycle limit.

Fuel Efficiency

Sometimes fuel efficiency is used more loosely to denote how well the engine (or
vehicle) uses fuel to produce work or to move the vehicle. In many cases, it is synonymous with
fuel economy (e.g., km per liter) in automotive context. In engine discussions, fuel efficiency is
often implicitly the same as maximizing thermal efficiency / minimizing BSFC.

Factors Affecting Efficiency

The performance and efficiency of an internal combustion engine are influenced by

multiple interrelated factors that affect combustion quality, energy conversion, and mechanical
losses. Among the most significant of these is the compression ratio (CR), which directly
impacts thermodynamic efficiency. A higher compression ratio generally improves the thermal
efficiency of ideal cycles by allowing a greater pressure rise during combustion. However, in
spark ignition (SI) engines, excessively high compression ratios may induce engine knock,
whereas in compression ignition (diesel) engines, high compression ratios are inherent to their
operation.

Another crucial factor is the air–fuel ratio (AFR). Operating near the stoichiometric or
slightly lean mixture often yields optimal combustion and fuel economy. When the mixture
becomes too lean, combustion slows and power output decreases; conversely, overly rich
mixtures waste fuel and increase emissions. Similarly, ignition timing (for SI engines) and
injection timing (for CI engines) play an essential role in determining where the peak pressure
occurs within the engine cycle. Proper timing ensures that maximum cylinder pressure aligns
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closely with the optimal crank angle to achieve the greatest mechanical work. Timing that is
either too advanced or too retarded can reduce efficiency or even cause knocking.

The design of valve timing and cam profiles, including systems like variable valve
timing (VVT), also influences volumetric efficiency. By adjusting the timing of valve opening
and closing events, the engine can improve air intake and exhaust flow across varying speeds and
loads. Similarly, optimized intake and exhaust designs enhance air movement through the
engine, promoting smooth flow and efficient scavenging. Techniques such as tuned intake
runners, resonance tuning, and exhaust headers can harness pressure waves to boost volumetric
efficiency.

Forced induction systems, such as turbocharging and supercharging, can significantly

increase an engine’s effective volumetric efficiency, often exceeding 100%. These systems
compress the intake air, allowing more oxygen and fuel to be burned per cycle, resulting in
higher power output. However, they also introduce added heat, mechanical complexity, and
potential efficiency losses due to compressor inefficiencies and back pressure.

Friction and mechanical losses are another primary limitation on efficiency, reducing
the mechanical efficiency (η ) of an engine. Engineers mitigate these losses through
low-friction coatings, optimized lubrication systems, and lightweight materials. Additionally,
heat transfer and wall losses diminish thermodynamic efficiency by dissipating combustion
energy to the cylinder walls and coolant. Strategies such as improved insulation, optimized
cooling, and reduced surface area exposure can minimize these effects.

Intake air temperature also plays an important role; cooler and denser air increases
volumetric efficiency and allows for greater power output. Systems such as intercoolers or
charge-air coolers are therefore common in modern engines to reduce intake temperatures.
Moreover, combustion quality, influenced by turbulence, mixture preparation, and in-cylinder
air motion (swirl or tumble), affects combustion efficiency (η𝑐). Technologies like direct fuel
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injection, stratified charge combustion, and advanced turbulence control improve combustion
completeness and reduce unburned fuel losses.

Engine efficiency and performance also vary with operating conditions, particularly
load and speed. Engines typically achieve their highest efficiencies at moderate-to-high loads
near their “best BSFC” (Brake Specific Fuel Consumption) point. At low loads, friction and heat
losses dominate, while at very high loads, excessive enrichment or heat buildup can occur.
Finally, fuel properties—including heating value, volatility, and stoichiometric ratio—directly
affect performance parameters. Fuels with higher heating values or better vaporization
characteristics tend to reduce BSFC and improve thermal efficiency. The use of fuel additives
and alternative blends can further influence combustion characteristics and emission profiles.

Recent studies, such as those by Dahham et al. (2022), emphasize that modern efficiency
improvements rely on integrating multiple advancements. These include optimizing gas
exchange processes, employing advanced thermodynamic cycles (e.g., Miller or Atkinson), using
waste-heat recovery systems, and applying precise combustion control strategies. Collectively,
these developments push thermal efficiency higher while maintaining or improving overall
engine performance.

Strategies to Improve Performance and Efficiency

1.​ Variable Valve Timing / Lift

-​ Adjusting valve opening/closing times helps maintain better volumetric efficiency
across a wider rpm range.
-​ Late intake valve closing can reduce pumping loss in part-load
2.​ Boosting / Downsizing
-​ Use turbochargers or superchargers to increase effective volumetric filling
without increasing displacement.
-​ Coupling with downsizing (smaller displacement) reduces friction and pumping
losses under light load.
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3.​ Intake & Exhaust Tuning / Scavenging

-​ Use tuned intake runners, plenum design, and exhaust headers to exploit pressure
waves (ram effect).
-​ Proper exhaust scavenging improves gas-exchange efficiency.
4.​ Advanced Combustion Modes
-​ Concepts like homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI), partially
premixed combustion (PPC), or reactivity-controlled compression ignition
(RCCI) aim to reduce heat losses and improve thermodynamic efficiency.
-​ These modes require precise control of mixture, temperature, and timing.
5.​ Waste Heat Recovery
-​ Capturing heat from exhaust or coolant using e.g. Organic Rankine Cycles (ORC)
or combined cycles can reclaim some energy otherwise lost.
-​ Also, turbo compounding can recover energy via a turbine on the exhaust stream.
6.​ Friction Reduction
-​ Use low friction coatings, optimized piston ring design, lighter moving parts,
roller bearings, and advanced lubrication.

7.​ Air Charge Cooling / Intercooling

-​ Cooler intake air is denser, improving volumetric efficiency. Intercoolers
(afterturbo) and charge cooling help.
8.​ Precise Fuel Injection & Control
-​ High-pressure direct injection, multiple injection strategies, and precise control
over timing and fueling reduce incomplete combustion and improve ηc\eta_cηc​.
-​ Advanced control algorithms may optimize in-cylinder pressure profiles via
feedback (recent research uses Bayesian optimization for calibration)
9.​ Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) Engines
-​ Dynamically adjusting compression ratio based on load and speed helps approach
optimum thermodynamic behavior across the operating map.
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10.​Hybridization / Electrification
-​ Though stretching beyond the pure ICE, utilizing electrification (e.g. mild-hybrid
assist) allows the engine to run closer to its efficiency sweet spot and avoid
inefficient regions.
11.​Optimized Part-Load Operation (Downspeeding / Load Shifting)
-​ Operating at higher load, lower rpm (if torque permits) often gives better BSFC.
-​ Use transmissions or gearing to shift the engine to efficient zones.​
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VII.​ FUEL TYPES AND PROPERTIES

​ Engine fuels are combustible substances that are usually in liquid or gas form that are
burnt or consumed in an engine during combustion to produce power or energy. The engine fuels
vary depending on engine design, cost, availability, and emission controls.

Conventional Engine Fuels

​ Conventional Engine fuels are petroleum-based fuels that are commonly used in internal
combustion engines. They are called “conventional” because they have been considered as the
standard or traditional energy sources for vehicles and machines since the early 20th century.
Conventional engine fuels include Gasoline (Petrol), Diesel fuel, and Kerosene.

Gasoline

Gasoline is also known as petrol. It is a volatile, flammable liquid, and it is composed of

hydrocarbons. It is refined from crude petroleum and is characterized by a boiling point. This
fuel is considered as a non-renewable resource because of its limited natural resources, and this
type of fuel is difficult to refine regularly. To meet the engine and environmental requirements,
gasoline is commonly blended with performance enhancing additives such as detergents,
antioxidants, oxygenates, corrosion inhibitors, and anti-knock agents. Additionally, it is usually
used as a fuel in a spark-ignition internal combustion engine (Masuk et al., 2021).

According to Srivastava & Hancsók (2014), there are different types of gasoline such as.

(1)​Unleaded Gasoline - Any gasoline which has no lead has been intentionally added and
which contains not more than 0.013 gram lead per liter.
(2)​E85 fuel - a blend of hydrocarbons and ethanol in gasoline with 75%-85% of ethanol.
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(3)​M85 fuel - A blend of hydrocarbons and methanol in gasoline where the methanol is
nominally 70%-85%
(4)​Racing Gasoline - it is a special automotive gasoline that is usually of lower volatility,
has a smaller boiling range, a higher antiknock index, and it is free of substantial amounts
of oxygenates. It is specifically designed for use in racing vehicles having high
compression engines.

Similarly, gasoline is classified through octane ratings or research octane number

(RON)— Regular (91 RON), Premium (95 RON), and Premium plus (97 RON). The gasoline
with 91 octane rating is considered as the base-grade, it meets the minimum standard for most
vehicles which have standard compression engines, and it is cheaper and widely available. For
the gasoline having an octane rating of 95, it is considered to be a mid-grade gasoline, it is
usually used for engines that require higher compression, and it offers better resistance to engine
knocking, enabling a potential smoother performance. As for the gasoline having an octane
rating of 97, it is commonly used for high performance or luxury vehicles, or when the engine is
made for high-octane fuel.

Diesel Fuel

​ Another commonly used transportation fuel is diesel fuel. It is usually used for
compression-ignition engines (diesel engines), such as trucks, buses and heavy machineries.
Diesel fuel is a middle distillate stream in refineries. Its boiling range is 160-380 °C. It consists
mainly of 75 % aliphatic hydrocarbons and low percent of aromatic hydrocarbons. The most
considerable compound in the diesel range is Benzothiophene and dibenzothiophene. The usage
of diesel fuels in diesel engines is cost effective and fuel efficient, but on the other hand due to
the complex fuel injection system of diesel engines, it causes higher maintenance cost (Betiha et
al., 2018).
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Kerosene

​ Kerosene is a versatile hydrocarbon liquid, it is originally used in heating and lighting, it

is also used as a diesel fuel. It serves as a component in blending aviation fuels (Gad & Pham,
2014). Kerosene is also a petroleum-based fuel that undergoes distillation to be purified and
separated from crude oil.

Alternative Engine Fuels

​ Alternative fuels are non-petroleum-based fuels used to power vehicle engines and other
energy systems. These are fuels that are based on renewable or synthetic sources. And it serves
as a substitute for conventional fuels. They are developed to reduce environmental impacts,
enhance energy security, and for diverse fuel sources. Alternative Fuels includes Compressed
natural gas (CNG), Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), Alcohol fuels such as ethanol and methanol,
and biodiesel,

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

​ Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a common fuel mainly composed of propane,

propylene and butanes. When LPG is stored in liquid form, it has an energy density that is
similar to other liquid hydrocarbon fuels. LPG combustion can also result in lower emissions of
controlled pollutants and greenhouse gases than the common liquid hydrocarbon fuels.
Additionally, LPG is usually relatively low cost and it is usually applied on spark-ignition
engines (Morganti et. al, 2013).

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

​ Compressed natural gas (CNG) is produced by compressing natural gas to less than 1%
of its volume at standard atmospheric pressure. CNG is used in a wide range of
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applications—light, medium, and heavy-duty. A vehicle that utilizes CNG almost gets the same
fuel economy as a conventional gasoline vehicle and this kind of fuel usually applies on
spark-ignition engines or dedicated CNG engines (U.S. Department of Energy).

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is an alternative for the conventional petrodiesel in compression-ignition

engines. It is made from mono-alkyl esters, commonly methyl esters, of vegetable or animal fats
or other materials that are mainly composed of triacylglycerols. The fatty acid esters that mainly
comprises biodiesel significantly determines important fuel properties. Also, it is renewable and
biodegradable, it reduces carbon monoxide emissions, is non-toxic, and also improves engine
lubrication. On the other hand, it is not recommended under cold weather as it can gel up and it
can degrade over time when not stored properly. This type of fuel applies on
compression-ignition engines (Vishnuram et al., 2025).

Ethanol

​ In biodiesel vegetable and animal fats are the main components of a biodiesel. In ethanol,
it is mainly from plant materials such as corn, sugarcane, and another biomass. This type of
alcohol fuel is primarily used to blend with gasoline. It is used in internal combustion engines
(spark-ignition engines), especially in cars designed for flex-fuel use (Vishnuram et al., 2025).

Methanol

​ Methanol is a sufficient fuel that produces less nitrogen oxide and particulate matter
emissions than gasoline. Since methanol is not containing Sulphur, thus it does not produce any
sulfur oxide emissions. Methanol can be either mixed with gasoline or completely replaced. On
the other hand, in terms of acidity, methanol is more acidic than gasoline and it requires
significant infrastructure enhancement for storing it. This type of fuel applies on spark-ignition
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engines. Additionally, consuming methanol is harmful for a person’s health (Vishnuram et al.,
2025).

Hydrogen

The potential of Hydrogen to drastically reduce carbon emissions in the transportation,

residential, and industrial sectors has drawn a lot of interest from a variety of stakeholders,
including researchers, environmentalists, polymakers, and automakers. Hydrogen is becoming
more and more popular due to its potential as a solution to climate change challenges. It is also a
viable option for energy storage and transportation since it is one of the lightest elements and it
has the most energy accessible out of all known fuels. On the other hand, due to its low density
and difficulties in producing, storing, and transporting it have hindered it from being used widely
as the fuel source. Overall, hydrogen has a low impact on the environment because it does not
produce emissions other than water vapor at the place of usage (Vishnuram et al., 2025).

Fuel Properties and Engine Performance

​ Fuel is needed for an engine to operate and produce work. Internal combustion (IC)
engines are classified by how fuel is ignited—Spark ignition (SI) or Compression ignition (CI).
The effects of various fuel properties depends upon the specific parameters of the engine and the
fuel’s combustion method, also it depends on what type of engine is operated.
​ According to Mueller et al. (2015), In spark-ignition engines, fuels must be able to resist
premature ignition in order to avoid knocking that causes reduction in engine efficiency and can
also wear or damage the engine components. The octane rating of the fuel serves as a
measurement of this resistance. SI engines can run at greater compression ratios because of
high-octane fuels, which increases power output and thermal efficiency. Moreover, fuels with
high volatility are suitable for SI engines where immediate vaporization is required for efficient
ignition. On the other hand, compression-ignition engines depend on the capacity of the fuel to
autoignite under pressure. The cetane rating of the fuel is the primary basis at this point. Higher
 Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
[Link], MANILA- MAIN CAMPUS
Department of Mechanical Engineering

cetane rated fuels burn more smoothly, perform better in cold starts, and produce less emissions
because it ignites quicker. Additionally, CI engines are more suitable with fuels having lower
volatility, which enables controlled combustion and reduces premature ignitions.
​ In summary, analyzing and understanding the relationship between the fuel properties and
combustion methods of different Internal combustion engines is crucial, as this provides how to
operate the engines effectively and efficiently. It also serves as a valuable insight for the design
of future engines and innovations.
 Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
[Link], MANILA- MAIN CAMPUS
Department of Mechanical Engineering

VIII.​ CONCLUSION

This review focuses on the fundamental concepts of engines. The Internal Combustion Engine
(ICE) is a type of engine that burns fuel to generate combustion and includes various types, such
as gasoline and diesel engines. These types have some differences and similarities in terms of
components, mechanical processes, and thermodynamic [Link] review includes detailed
analysis regarding the four-stroke cycle, comprising intake, compression, combustion, and
exhaust. This also examines the quantitative measures and parameters used to determine engine
efficiency and performance. The review also includes strategies and methods that apply
theoretical calculations and concepts to real-world applications. Additionally, the study discusses
different fuel types and their significance to overall engine operation.
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POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
[Link], MANILA- MAIN CAMPUS
Department of Mechanical Engineering

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[Link], MANILA- MAIN CAMPUS
Department of Mechanical Engineering

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