DAV INSTITUTIONS

ODISHA

SUBJECT : BIOLOGY
CLASS : XII
TOPIC : EVOLUTION

DAV Public School,UNIT-VIII

Bhubaneswar,Odisha.
 Book Link: PDF format

NCERT TEXT BOOK IN BIOLOGY

CLASS-XII
CHAPTER-7
EVOLUTION
[Link]
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59fU/view?usp=drivesdk
LEARNING OBJECTIVES :
On reading this chapter the students shall be able to

➢ define variation, adaptations and evolution.

➢ understand different theories which explain
origin of life.
➢ explain the mechanism of adaptive radiation.
➢ analyze how fossils provide evidence of
evolution .
➢ Compare and contrast the similarities between
Australian Marsupials and Placental Mammals.
construct a mind map on evolution.
INTRODUCTION :
Evolution is the change in the heritable
characteristics of biological populations over successive
generations. Understanding evolution is very much
necessary for understanding [Link] is the most
accepted scientific explanation for diversity of life.
[Link]
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 Test on Previous knowledge
➢What is Evolution?
➢How life originated in our planet?
➢What do you mean by Paleontology?
➢What are the evidences for evolution?
➢Who was Charles Darwin and why he is
famous in Biology?
➢Do you think evolution is essential?
 CONTENTS :
Origin of life
Theories on origin of life
Evidences for Evolution
Adaptive radiation
Biological evolution
Hardy Weinberg principle
Evolution of plants
Evolution of animals
Origin and Evolution of human beings.
 ORIGIN OF LIFE :
➢ To understand the process of evolution we must know how
the origin of life,i.e. evolution of earth, stars and infact the
whole universe took place.
➢ The origin of life is considered a unique event in the history
of universe.
➢ The study of life forms on earth is called Evolutionary
Biology.

[Link]
 THE UNIVERSE
▪ Universe is about 20 billion years
old .
▪ The Big Bang theory explains
origin of universe which states
that the universe arose from a
huge explosion.

▪ This expansion caused decrease

in temperature.
▪ Hydrogen and helium formed
later.
▪ Gases condensed under
gravitation and formed galaxies.
▪ The earth was formed in solar
system of the milky way galaxy
about 4.5 billion years back .
 MILKY WAY

Top View Side View

 THE EARTH
➢ Earth was formed 4.5 billion years
before.
➢ Water vapour , methane , ammonia
and carbon dioxide were released form
the molten mass .
➢ The UV rays from the sun broke up
water into hydrogen and oxygen .
➢ The lighter hydrogen gas escaped
from the surface while oxygen
combined with other compounds (
methane , ammonia etc. ) to form
water , carbon dioxide etc.
➢ As water vapour cooled , the water fell Our Solar System
as rain and fill all depressions to form
oceans & other water bodies.
 THEORIES EXPLAINING ORIGIN OF LIFE

[Link]

[Link] GENERATION

[Link]

4. CHEMICAL EVOLUTION

[Link]
 THE THEORY OF PANSPERMIA / COSMOZOIC
THEORY

➢ Arrhenius postulated the theory of panspermia .

➢ According to this theory ‘protoplasm’ reached the
earth in the form of spores or germs or other simple
particles (panspermia)from some unknown part of
the universe with cosmic dust and subsequently
evolved into various forms of life.
 THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
➢ Experimentation by Francesco Redi in the seventeenth
century by showing that flies must have access to meat for
maggots to develop on the meat.

This theory states that life originated from non-living things in spontaneous
manner.
 LOUIS PASTEUR’S THEORY OF
BIOGENESIS

➢ It was believed that

living organisms (life)
arose from decaying
matter like straw .
➢ But Louis Pasture
demonstrated that life
can arise only from pre
– existing life .
He showed that in pre-sterilized
flasks microbial growth did not take
place
4. THEORY OF CHEMICAL EVOLUTION :
➢ This theory was proposed by
Oparin & Haldane .
➢ They proposed that first life
form could have come from
pre-existing non- living organic
molecules molecules (like RNA ,
proteins etc.) and that
formation of life was
preceded by chemical
evolution.
➢ The conditions on earth that
favored chemical evolution
were very high temperature ,
volcanic storms & reducing
atmosphere that contained
methane ,ammonia , water
vapour etc.
 Experimental proof for chemical evolution of
life…
➢ Stanley Miller & Urey created conditions similar to
the primitive atmosphere in the laboratory using
glass apparatus & tubes.
➢ They created electric discharge using electrodes in
a conical flask containing methane , ammonia ,
hydrogen & water vapour at 800 degree Celsius .
➢ The water containing chamber was heated to
provide water vapour .
➢ After a week , they observed the formation of amino
acids .
 Urey-Miller’s Experiment :

➢ They found that

organic molecules
could be spontaneously
produced under
reducing conditions
thought to resemble
those of early Earth.
Darwin’ key concepts for evolution:
 Biological or Organic evolution
➢ Biological or organic evolution, is the modification of
living organisms during their descent from common
ancestors.

➢ The major theories of evolution are

A ) THEORY OF SPECIAL CREATION
B) Lamarck theory of Evolution
C) Darwinism or Theory of Natural Selection.
D) Mutation theory of Hugo De Vries.
E) Modern synthetic theory of evolution.
Biological or Organic evolution
THEORY OF SPECIAL CREATION
➢Conventional religious literature talks about the
theory of special creation , according to which God,
the supernatural being created the earth , light,
plants and animals .
➢This theory has three connotations.
1. One, that all living organisms (species or types)
that we see today were created as such.
2. Two, that the diversity was always the same since
creation and will be the same in future also.
3. Three, that earth is about 4000 years old.
 Lamarck’s Theory Of Evolution :

▪ According to Lamarck , the

evolution of life forms had
occurred by the use and
disuse of organs.
▪ Organs that are used more
are developed more while
those that are not used,
become vestigeal in the
long run .
▪ The character / adaptation
developed by an organism
during its lifetime is passed
on to the progeny .
▪ He gave the long neck of
giraffe as an example.
 Darwinism
Darwinism is a theory of
biological evolution developed by the
English naturalist
Charles Darwin (1809–1882).

In the 1850s, Darwin wrote an

influential book called the Origin of
Species.

Darwin's theory is based on the

following five principles.
➢ Over production
➢ Struggle for existence
➢ Variation and their inheritance
➢ Survival of the fittest
➢ Natural selection and speciation.
 Darwin’ key concepts for evolution:
i)Natural selection depends
on the environment with
limited resources ,requires
existing heritable variation in
a group causing the traits to
increase in frequency over
generations.

ii)Branching descent:
It is defined as a process by
which new species originate
from a single common
descent.
Darwin’ key concepts for evolution:
 MUTATION THE CAUSE OF EVOLUTION :
Hugo de Vries proposed the mutation theory of evolution . based on his
experiment on evening primrose plant(Oenothera lamarckiana)
▪ He differed from Darwin in the following ways:
i. De Vries mutation are random & directionless , while Darwinian
variations are small and directional .
ii. De Vries believed that such large , single step mutation ( called
saltation ) caused speciation , but evolution for Darwin is gradual &
occur over a number of generations .
ModernSynthetic Theory of Evolution

➢The most accepted theory of evolution.

➢It was designated by Huxley in 1942.
➢According to this theory the origin of
species is based on the interaction of genetic
variation in a population, natural selection
and reproductive isolation.
EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION :
TYPES OF EVIDENCES FOR
EVOLUTION
PALAEONTOLOGICAL
EVIDENCE
EVIDENCE FROM
COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY

EVIDENCE FROM
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY

EVIDENCE FROM
COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY

EVIDENCE FROM
EMBRYOLOGY

EVIDENCE FROM
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES
 PALAEONTOLOGYCAL EVIDENCE :

➢ The study of fossils is known as palaeontology .

➢ The word fossil refers to the remains or traces of the ancient
organisms that have been preserved in the earth's crust..
IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF FOSSILS :

➢ Direct evidence of organic evolution .

➢ Establishes evolutionary relationships between organisms .
➢ Information about biological organisms that existed in past.
➢ Knowledge of kind of ancient life and the environment that
existed in past.
➢ Knowledge about extinction of species .
 EVIDENCES FROM FOSSILS

Fossil trace of leaf Fossil trace of Archaeopteryx

Fossil of a fish Fossil of wooly mammoth

 COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
➢ Comparative biochemistry and
Molecular biology are also
evidences of evolution.
➢ Similarities in proteins and
genes performing a given
function on diverse organisms
give clues to common ancestry.
➢ By comparing DNA and RNA we
are able to see how closely
related organisms are.
➢ It is the fact that sheep insulin
can be substituted for human
insulin is an example of
evolution based on
comparative biochemistry.
 EMRYOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

➢ Ernst Heckel proposed

embryological support for
evolution based upon the
observations of certain features
during embryonic stage
common to all vertebrates that
are absent in adults.
➢ This clearly shows Ontogeny
recapitulates phylogeny.

BIOGEOGRRAPHICAL STUDIES

Species restricted to a region develp unique

[Link],speciespresent in widely separated regions
show similarity in ancestry.
 Biogeographical studies

➢ The different geographical distribution of different groups of

organisms indicates common/shared ancestry in that restricted
region.
➢ Habitat isolation has probably restricted these organisms to
particular geographical region on the earth.
 COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY
HOMOLOGY :
➢ Homology is the relationship
among organs of different groups
of organism , that show
similarity in the basis of
structure and embryonic
development , but perform
different functions.
➢ Homology indicates common
ancestry.
Examples:
➢ Thorns of Bougainvillea and
tendrils of Cucurbita have same
basic structure(axillary bud) but
performs different functions. .
 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
▪ Comparative
anatomy has provided
evidence of common
descent, and has assisted
in the classification of
animals.
▪ Comparative
anatomy is an important
tool that helps determine
evolutionary
relationships between
organisms and whether
or not they share
common ancestors.
Homology in Class Mammalia
 HOMOLOGY SEEN IN ANIMALS

Homology is found in the bones of forelimbs of

whales , cheetah , birds , amphibians and human
which share similarities in the pattern of bones
of forelimbs.
All of them have humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals and [Link] these
organs perform different functions due to
adaptation to different [Link] is called
divergent evolution.
 ANALOGY
➢ Analogy is the relationship
among organs of different
groups of organisms which are
anatomically different but
performing the same function .
➢ Eg- Wings of butterfly & those of
bat; tubers of sweet potato (root
modified ) & those of potato
(stem modified).
➢ Due to same function different
structures evolve similarity.
➢ This is called convergent
evolution.
HOMOLOGOUS Vs ANALOGOUS ORGANS :
 Test Your Understanding
1)By studying analogous structure we look for
________________.
a) similarities in appearance and but differences in structure.
b) similarities in appearance but differences in function.
c) Similarities in cell make up .
d)None of the above.
2. Evidences of Evolutionary relationship is found in ___
a) atmosphere
b) fossils
c) ocean beds
d) rocks
3. Potato and sweet potato
a) have edible parts which are homologous organs
b) ) have edible parts which are analogous organs.
c)have been introduced in India from same place.
d) None of the above.
 ADAPTIVE RADIATION
The process of evolution of different species in a given
geographical area starting from a point and literally radiating
to other areas and habitats is called adaptive radiations

➢ Darwin's finches are a classical example of an adaptive

radiation.
➢ Changes in the size and form of the beak have enabled
different species to utilize different food resources such as
insects, seeds, nectar from cactus flowers as well as blood
from iguanas, all driven by Darwinian [Link] these var
➢ Another example is Australian Marsupials.A number of
marsupials,each different from the other evolved from an
ancestral stock but within the Australian island continent
➢ Adaptive radiation is the .relatively fast evolution of many
species are formed from a single common ancestor.
Adaptive Radiation
Adaptive Radiation:- AUSTRALIA

HERIA
METAT
Adaptive Radiation:- AUSTRALIA

EUTHERIA
A CONVERGENT EVOLUTION:-
AUSTRALIA
A CONVERGENT EVOLUTION:-
AUSTRALIA
 A CONVERGENT EVOLUTION

➢ Convergent evolution is a process by which unrelated or

distantly related organisms evolve similar body forms, organs
and adaptations .

➢ When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have

occurred in an isolated geographical area(representing
different habitats),this is called convergent evolution.
➢ A group of organisms evolve into two distinct but similar
lineages and continue to adapt in similar ways for a long
period of time, often in response to a similar environment
.
 A PARALLEL EVOLUTION:-
AUSTRALIA & SOUTH AMERICA
 HOME WORK

a)Write observations on the variations seen in

the Darwin’s finches shown above.
b)How did Darwin explain the existence of
different varieties of finches on Galapagos
Islands?
 EVIDENCES TO PROVE NATURAL SELECTION

A. INDUSTRIAL MELANISM :
▪ In a collection of moths made in 1850s ( before industrialization)
it was observed that there were more white- winged moths on
tree than dark-winged or melanised moths .
▪ White – colored lichen covered the trees – in that background
the white winged moth could camouflage themselves thus
survived but the dark-coloured moth were easily picked out by
predators .
▪ However , collection carried out from the same area , but after
industrialization , i.e., in 1920, there were more dark winged
moths in the same area .
▪ During post industrialization period , the tree trunk become
dark due industrial smoke . Under this condition the white –
winged moth could not protect them from their predators , dark-
winged or melanised moth camouflage themselves in the dark
background and survived.
 B. ANTHROPOGENIC ACTION:
➢ Use of pesticides/ insecticides has resulted in resistant varieties of
organisms in a less time , e.g., DDT resistance in mosquitoes .
➢ It is also true for microbes (bacteria) ; many antibiotic resistant varieties of
disease causing bacteria are appearing in a very short period .
➢ These are examples of evolution due to anthropogenic actions (produced by
human) .
➢ This also tells us that evolution is a stochastic process based on chance
events in nature and chance mutation in the organisms.
 Activity

What do these pictures ‘a’ and ‘b’ illustrate with

reference to evolution? Explain.
Ans.
[Link]
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 ARTIFICIAL SELECTION:
▪ Man has domesticated many wild animals & plants .
▪ He has also selected any plants & animals and carried out intensive
breeding programs to rise new varieties of plants and animals for
agriculture , horticulture , security.
 Hardy – Weinberg Principle:

▪ This principle states that under certain conditions of stability , the alleleic
frequencies of a population are stable & remain constant from generation to
generation in sexually reproducing organisms , this stability called genetic
equilibrium or Hardy-weinberg equilibrium .
▪ The sum total of all the allelic frequencies is one and it is represented as :
• Let there be a hypothetical gene in a diploid organism with two allele A and
a
p = frequency of allele A
q = frequency of allele a
• Since the population is diploid, their three combinations possible are – AA,
aa and Aa
• Frequency of each of these individuals is as follows:
AA = p2
aa = q2
Aa = 2pq

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 {Binomial expansion of (p+q)2}

▪ Disturbance in the genetic equilibrium is considered as evolutionary change.
▪ [Link]
 FACTORS AFFECTING HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM
• Five factors affects Hardy –Weinberg equilibrium namely
i. Gene Migration
ii. Genetic Drift
iii. Mutation
iv. Recombination
v. Natural selection

Gene Migration
▪ when some individuals of a
population migrate to other
populations , or when certain
individuals come into a
population, the gene frequencies
of the given population change ,
i.e., some genes are lost in the
first case & added to the second .
▪ If migration occurs a number of
times , gene flow occurs .
 Genetic Drift
➢ Random changes in the allele
frequencies of a population
occurring by chance , constitute
genetic drift .
Founder effect
➢ The change in allele frequency
may become so drastically
different that they form new
species .
➢ The original drifted population
becomes the founder & the
change in the phenotype &
genotype of the progeny ,
constitute the founder effect
 Mutation
▪ Mutations are random & occurs
at very slow rate .
▪ They create considerable
genetic variation for speciation
to occur .

Recombination
▪ New combination of genes in c
occur due to crossing over in
meiosis during gametogenesis .

Crossing over brings recombination

 Natural selection

The struggle for

survival in the Favorable
Survival of
natural characters
the fittest
environment individual with
are passed
living organism favorable on to future
face many characteristics generations
problems are better and become
adapted to more
Sexual their common
reproductio environment
n results in Genetic variation
genetic
Individuals
variation
with less
favorable
Some
characteristics
characters
are more may not
favorable in survive or
helping an breed
individual to
survive
▪ Natural selection process depends
on the traits favored & produce
one of the three following effects .
1. Stabilization – in which more
individuals acquire mean
character value , i.e., variation is
much reduced .
2. Directional change , in which
more individual acquire value
other than the mean character
value .

1. Disruption , in which more

individuals acquire peripheral
character value at both ends of
the distribution curve.
Operation of Natural Selection
 HISTORY OF EVOLUTION OF PLANTS :

▪ Some of the single organisms that appeared 2000 million years ago had
pigments to capture solar energy and release oxygen , in the process of
photosynthesis .
▪ Bryophytes were the first plants to colonise lands ( plants colonised the
land much before animals )
▪ Sea weeds & few plants existed around 320 million years ago.
▪ About 200 million years before , giant ferns ( pteridophytes ) were
present , but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.
▪ Herbaceous lycopods & arborescent lycopods evolved from
Zosterophyllum of palaeozoic era.
▪ Psilophyton is the common ancestor of horsetails , ferns & gymnosperms
.
EVOLUTION OF PLANTS
EVOLUTION OF PLANTS
 HISTORY OF EVOLUTION OF ANIMALS :

➢ About 2000 million year before , the first cellular form of life appeared
in earth
➢ Slowly these single – celled organisms evolved into multicellular
organisms .
➢ Invertebrates were formed around 500 million years before.
➢ About 350 mya some fishes with strong fins and stout could move to
land.
➢ Discovery of Coelacanth fish(Lobefins) provides evidence of links
between fishes and terrestrial life forms..
➢ The amphibians evolved into reptiles who were better adapted to land
habitat.
➢ Some of these land reptiles moved back to water to evolve into fish like
reptiles ( Ichthyosaurs) at around the same time ( 200 millions year
ago ) .
Cont.. .
➢ The land reptiles i.e.,
dinosaurs suddenly
disappeared from the
earth (mass extinction)
about 65 million years
ago , while some small A fish which was thought to be
sized reptiles continue extinct
to exist today like birds
, crocodiles etc.
➢ When the reptiles
disappeared mammals
started dominating the
earth .
➢ The first mammal was
like shrew . Tyrannosaurus
HISTORY OF EVOLUTION OF ANIMALS
 HUMAN EVOLUTION
➢ The common ancestor of apes and man is a primate
Dryopithecus, that lived 15 million years ago .
➢ At the same time , another genus Ramapithecus also existed .
➢ Both Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus were hairy and walked
like gorillas & chimpanzees ; Dryopithecus was more Ape like
, but Ramapithecus was more man-like and is the forerunner
of hominid evolution
 Australopithecines
▪ They probably lived 2 million years
ago , in the east African grass lands .
▪ They has brain capacity of 450-600
cc.
▪ They hunted with stone weapons but
essentially ate fruits.

Homo habilis
▪ This is called first human like being ,
the hominid .
▪ They had brain capacity of 650 -800
cc.
▪ They probably did not eat meat .
 Homo erectus :
▪ Their fossils were found in Java
(Java man) in 1891.
▪ They probably lived about 1.5 mya.
▪ They had a brain capacity of about
900cc.
▪ They probably ate meat .

Homo sapiens
▪ Their fossils were found in near East
Central Asia .
▪ He must have lived between
1,00,000 – 40,000 years before
▪ Neaderthal man (Homo sapiens
neanderthalensis) had a brain
capacity of about 1400 cc.
▪ They used hides to protect the body
& buried the dead.
▪ They moved across continents &
developed into distinct races .
 Homo sapiens sapiens ( Modern man )
▪ Homo sapiens sapiens arose
during ice age between
75,000 – 10000 years ago .
▪ He spread all over the globe &
learnt to cultivate plants &
domestic animals .
▪ Pre-historic cave art developed
about 18,000 years before
▪ Agriculture started around
10,000 years back.
▪ Human settlements and
cultivations started .
SUMMARY OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
 CONCEPT MAP
Natural selection Survival of the fittest
New Change over time
species

Occurs through Artificial Breeding

the process of selection

Darwin Established by Evolution

Naturalist Supported by
Molecular DNA
evidence
Who travelled to the Anatomical
Galapagos and evidence whale
observe Fossil evidence bones

Tortoises
vestigial Homologous
Finches with with structure structure
different different
beaks shaped shells e.g. forelimbs of
e.g. ear pinna
Bats and whales
 LEARNING OUTCOME
On the completion of chapter the students shall
be in a position to
➢ learn about various theories of evolution.
➢ understand the process of Natural selection and
its significance.
➢ explain molecular process underlining genetic
equilibrium . .
➢ analyze impact of anthropogenic actions on
nature.
➢ compare evolutionary trends of animals and
plants.
➢ construct a flow chart about sequence of
evolution of different animals.
Links for Worksheets and Model Question Paper
➢ Worksheet 1 (Basic)
[Link]
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➢ Worksheet 2 (Standard)
[Link]
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➢ Worksheet 3 (Advanced)
[Link]
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➢ Model Question Paper
[Link]
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➢ Marking Scheme
[Link]
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 LEARNING OUTCOME :
On the completion of chapter the students shall be in a position to
➢ define the terms variation,evolution and adaptive radiation.
➢ understand the causes, mechanism and significance of evolution.

➢ explain evolutionary significance of homologous structures.

➢ compare the anatomical and molecular homologies.

➢ evaluate the differences between homologous and analogous

structures. the concept of adaptive radiation.
➢ design a mind map on evolution.