2.11.
Radiation from Accelerating Charges
Larmor Formula (non-relativistic):
P=q2a26πε0c3P = \frac{q^2 a^2}{6\pi \varepsilon_0 c^3}P=6πε0c3q2a2
Dipole Radiation Pattern: sin2θ\sin^2\thetasin2θ dependence.
Electromagnetic Momentum Density:
g=ε0E×B\mathbf{g} = \varepsilon_0 \mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{B}g=ε0E×B
2.12. Relativistic Electromagnetism
Four-Vectors:
Aμ=(ϕc,A)A^\mu = \left( \frac{\phi}{c}, \mathbf{A} \right)Aμ=(cϕ,A)
Field Tensor:
Fμν=[0−Ex/c−Ey/c−Ez/cEx/c0−BzByEy/cBz0−BxEz/c−ByBx0]F^{\mu\nu} = \begin{bmatrix}
0 & -E_x/c & -E_y/c & -E_z/c \\ E_x/c & 0 & -B_z & B_y \\ E_y/c & B_z & 0 & -B_x \\ E_z/c
& -B_y & B_x & 0 \end{bmatrix}Fμν=0Ex/cEy/cEz/c−Ex/c0Bz−By−Ey/c−Bz0Bx−Ez/cBy−Bx
0
Maxwell’s equations can be compactly written as:
∂μFμν=μ0Jν\partial_\mu F^{\mu\nu} = \mu_0 J^\nu∂μFμν=μ0Jν
and
∂λFμν+∂μFνλ+∂νFλμ=0\partial_\lambda F_{\mu\nu} + \partial_\mu F_{\nu\lambda} +
\partial_\nu F_{\lambda\mu} = 0∂λFμν+∂μFνλ+∂νFλμ=0
5.6 GR tests & implications
• Perihelion precession of Mercury: GR corrects excess ~43″/century.
• Light deflection by Sun: Δθ≈4GM/(bc2)\Delta \theta \approx 4GM/(b
c^2)Δθ≈4GM/(bc2) where bbb is impact parameter.
• Gravitational redshift: Pound–Rebka experiment.
• Gravitational waves: Transverse, travel at ccc; observed by LIGO (binary black hole
mergers).
• Cosmology: Friedmann equations derived from Einstein eqns for FRW metric.
5.7 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
Klein–Gordon (KG) equation (spin-0)
Start from pμpμ=−m2c2p^\mu p_\mu = -m^2 c^2pμpμ=−m2c2 and substitute pμ→iℏ∂μp^\mu
\to i\hbar \partial^\mupμ→iℏ∂μ:
(□+μ2)ϕ=0,□≡∂μ∂μ=−1c2∂t2+∇2,μ=mcℏ.(\Box + \mu^2)\phi = 0,\quad \Box \equiv \partial_\mu
\partial^\mu = -\frac{1}{c^2}\partial_t^2 + \nabla^2,\quad \mu =
\frac{mc}{\hbar}.(□+μ2)ϕ=0,□≡∂μ∂μ=−c21∂t2+∇2,μ=ℏmc.
• Solutions include negative-frequency components; interpretation as field theory required
for probability density positivity issues.
Dirac equation (spin-½)
Linearize relativistic energy relation: seek matrices γμ\gamma^\muγμ satisfying
{γμ,γν}=2ημν\{\gamma^\mu,\gamma^\nu\}=2\eta^{\mu\nu}{γμ,γν}=2ημν. Dirac eqn:
(iℏγμ∂μ−mc)ψ=0.(i\hbar \gamma^\mu \partial_\mu - mc)\psi = 0.(iℏγμ∂μ−mc)ψ=0.
In standard Dirac representation:
γ0=(I00−I),γi=(0σi−σi0).\gamma^0 = \begin{pmatrix} I & 0\\ 0 & -I \end{pmatrix},\quad
\gamma^i = \begin{pmatrix} 0 & \sigma^i\\ -\sigma^i & 0 \end{pmatrix}.γ0=(I00−I),γi=(0−σi
σi0).
Properties and consequences:
• Predicts antiparticles (negative-energy solutions interpreted by hole theory).
• Spin naturally included; magnetic moment g≈2g\approx2g≈2 (corrected by QED loops).
• Conserved current jμ=ψˉγμψj^\mu = \bar\psi \gamma^\mu \psijμ=ψˉγμψ with j0=ψ†ψj^0
= \psi^\dagger \psij0=ψ†ψ positive definite.
5.8 Quantum Field Theory (brief overview)
Fields & particles
Quantum fields ϕ^(x)\hat\phi(x)ϕ^(x) have mode expansions with creation/annihilation operators
a†,aa^\dagger, aa†,a. Particles are quanta of these fields.
Lagrangian density & quantization
Example: scalar ϕ4\phi^4ϕ4 theory
L=12∂μϕ∂μϕ−12m2ϕ2−λ4!ϕ4.\mathcal{L} = \tfrac12 \partial_\mu\phi\partial^\mu\phi - \tfrac12
m^2\phi^2 - \tfrac{\lambda}{4!}\phi^4.L=21∂μϕ∂μϕ−21m2ϕ2−4!λϕ4.
Quantize fields (canonical or path-integral), compute S-matrix elements with Feynman diagrams.
Feynman rules (sketch)
• Propagator for scalar: (i)/(p2−m2+iϵ)(i)/(p^2 - m^2 + i\epsilon)(i)/(p2−m2+iϵ).
• Vertex −iλ-i\lambda−iλ.
• External lines, loop integrals, conserve 4-momentum at vertices.
Renormalization
Loop integrals often divergent; renormalization absorbs infinities into redefined parameters
(mass, coupling). Renormalizable vs nonrenormalizable theories.
5.9 Particle physics — Standard Model (SM) overview
Gauge group
SU(3)C×SU(2)L×U(1)YSU(3)_C \times SU(2)_L \times U(1)_YSU(3)C×SU(2)L×U(1)Y
• SU(3)C_CC: QCD — strong force (gluons).
• SU(2)L×_L\timesL× U(1)Y_YY: Electroweak — W±, Z^0, photon via spontaneous
symmetry breaking (Higgs mechanism).
Matter content
• Fermions: three generations of quarks and leptons (each generation: (u,d),(c,s),(t,b)(u,d),
(c,s), (t,b)(u,d),(c,s),(t,b) quarks; (e,νe),(μ,νμ),(τ,ντ)(e,\nu_e), (\mu,\nu_\mu),
(\tau,\nu_\tau)(e,νe),(μ,νμ),(τ,ντ) leptons).
• Bosons: photon (γ), W±, Z^0, gluons (g), Higgs boson (H).
Yukawa interactions & mass generation
Higgs field acquires vev vvv → fermions and weak bosons gain mass via Yukawa couplings and
covariant derivatives.
5.10 Scattering theory, cross sections & decay rates
(relativistic)
S-matrix and transition probability
From initial state ∣i⟩|i\rangle∣i⟩ to final state ∣f⟩|f\rangle∣f⟩:
Sfi=δfi+i(2π)4δ(4)(pf−pi)Mfi.S_{fi} = \delta_{fi} + i(2\pi)^4 \delta^{(4)}(p_f - p_i)
\mathcal{M}_{fi}.Sfi=δfi+i(2π)4δ(4)(pf−pi)Mfi.
Differential cross section (2→2)
In CM frame:
dσ=14(p1⋅p2)2−m12m22 ∣M∣2 dΦn,d\sigma = \frac{1}{4\sqrt{(p_1\cdot p_2)^2 - m_1^2
m_2^2}}\, |\mathcal{M}|^2\, d\Phi_n,dσ=4(p1⋅p2)2−m12m221∣M∣2dΦn,
where dΦnd\Phi_ndΦn is n-body final-state phase space measure.
For 2→2 with identical masses, differential cross section:
dσdΩ=164π2s∣pf∣∣pi∣∣M∣2.\frac{d\sigma}{d\Omega} = \frac{1}{64\pi^2 s} \frac{|\mathbf
p_f|}{|\mathbf p_i|} |\mathcal{M}|^2.dΩdσ=64π2s1∣pi∣∣pf∣∣M∣2.
Decay rate (1→n)
Total decay width:
Γ=12EA∫∣M∣2dΦn.\Gamma = \frac{1}{2E_A} \int |\mathcal{M}|^2 d\Phi_n.Γ=2EA1∫∣M∣2dΦn.
Lifetime τ=ℏ/Γ\tau = \hbar/\Gammaτ=ℏ/Γ.
Example: muon decay (tree-level)
μ−→e−νˉeνμ\mu^- \to e^- \bar\nu_e \nu_\muμ−→e−νˉeνμ. Using Fermi 4-fermion effective
interaction one finds:
Γμ=GF2mμ5192π3 (phase space factor)(1+radiative corrections).\Gamma_\mu = \frac{G_F^2
m_\mu^5}{192\pi^3} \, (\text{phase space factor})(1 + \text{radiative corrections}).Γμ
=192π3GF2mμ5(phase space factor)(1+radiative corrections).
