AN ADVANCED

EFFECTIVE
LEARNER’S GUIDE

SCIENTIFl C
TO BETTER ENGLISH

WRITING

ALETH B0LT & WALTER BRUINS

VU University Press
Effective Scientific Writing
An Advanced Learner's Guide to Better English

Aleth Bolt & Walter Bruins

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VUUniversity Press
Example sentences and texts
Themaiertycieample sentences and teas have been taken from published arid
and may have been adapted by us.

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VU University Press
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0 Aleth Bolt & Walter Bruins

Design jacket: Marcel Bakker, Amsterdam

T pesetting: Yolande Verhoef, Amsterdam (boekopmaaknl)

ISBN 978 90 8659 617 1

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The examples cited in this book have been derived from a range of different sources.
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Contents

Preface

1 Get started 11

1.1 Formulate a research question and hypothesis 11

1.2 Consider your audience 13

1.3 Structure your thoughts 13
1.4 Structure your text 15

2 Write the article 17

2.1 Choose the Title 18

2.2 Write your Abstract 19

2.3 Write your Introduction 20

2.3.1 Move 1: Establish a territory 22

2.3.2 Move 2: Establish a niche 24

2.3.3 Move 3: Occupy the niche 24

2.4 Describe your Methods and Materials 27

2.5 State your Results 30

2.6 Write your Discussion and Conclusion 31

2.7 Cite sources correctly 33

2.7.1 How to refer and quote 34

2.7.2 Recognise and avoid plagiarism 35

2.7.3 Know when to cite 40

2.7.4 Use the correct citation style 41

2.8 Useful phrases per section of your article 47

2.8.1 Introduction 47

2.8.2 Literature review 49

51
2.8.3 Methods
2.8.4Results 52

2.8.5 Discussion 53
3 Write paragraphs
3.1 English paragraphing
3.2 Create paragraph
coherence 57

Organise your ideas to create coherence 57

3.2.1
coherence
3.2.2 Use language to create
3.3 Recognise and avoid flawed
arguments 65
words and phrases
3.4 Useful vocabulary: linking
68

4 Write sentences
4.1 Basic English word order
4.1.1 Clauses: subject, verb and object
4.1.2 Adverb placement
4.2 Effective use of sophisticated word order
4.2.1 End focus and end weight 76

4.2.2 Word order in passive constructions

78
80
4.2.3 Switching
80
4.2.4 Presentatives
81
4.2.5 It-clefts and wh-clefts
4.2.6 Clause combining 83

4.3 Check your punctuation 83

4.3.1 Commas 84

4.3.2 Commas in relative clauses: restrictive vs. non-restrictive 88

4.3.3 Colons and semicolons 89

4.3.4 Hyphens 92
4.3.5 Dashes 93
4.3.6 Inverted commas 93

4.3.7 Apostrophes 95
4.3.8 Common punctuation mistakes 97
4.4 Connect your clauses to convey meaning 98

4.4.1 Use sentence length effectively 98

4.4.2 Combine clauses to convey meaning 104

4.4.3 Summary: sentence length and clause combining 106

4.5 Use word order for effect 107
4.5.1 Provide end focus 107
4.5.2 Use non-standard word order 108
4.5.3 Make lists 109
5 Check your grammar, style and vocabulary 111

5.1 Check your basic grammar 111

5.1.1 Check subject-verb agreement 111
5.1.2 Check your articles 115
5.2 Check your tenses 118
5.2.1 Check your present tense 119
5.2.2 Check your past tense 120
5.2.3 Check your present perfect 121
5.2.4 Check your reference to future time 122
5.2.5 Tenses used in the Introduction 122
5.2.6 Tenses used in the body of your paper 127
5.2.7 Tenses used in the Discussion and Conclusion 128
5.3 Check your conditionals: using if and when 130
5.4 Check your style 131
5.4.1 Check the passive 132
5.4.2 Express tentativeness 135
5.4.3 Express conviction 140
5.4.4 Write concisely 142
5.5 Check your vocabulary 143
5.5.1 Check your word choice 143
5.5.2 Check your spelling 146
5.5.3 Check your numbers and dates 151
5.6 Useful vocabulary 153
5.6.1 Simplify your language 153

5.6.2 Check your prepositions 155

References 157

Subject index 158

 Preface

Effective Scientific Writing: An Advanced Learner's Guide to Better English addresses

the challenges that many non-native speakers of English face when writing a
scientific article. It seeks to give non-English researchers and graduate students
(Master's and PhD) practical advice, clear explanations and useful language
input. The aim of the book is to provide the essential linguistic know-how for
writing a scientific article in English that is well organised, grammatically correct
and idiomatically and stylistically appropriate.

The first chapter of the book gives a quick overview of how to get started and
how to draft a rough outline of a scientific article. The second chapter offers
information on the main sections of a typical scientific paper and contains
writing tips and useful phrases for each section. Chapter three shifts the focus
from text organisation and typical phrasing to writing well-structured and
coherent paragraphs. Chapter four then discusses word order patterns in English
and shows how word order can add extra meaning dimensions to a text. Chapter
five concludes the book with aspects of English grammar, style and vocabulary
that are specific to academic writing.

This book owes its inspiration to the many participants of our English language
training courses, who stimulated us with their comments and questions, but
most of all with their ambition to become proficient writers of English. We
would also like to give the highest acknowledgement to Taalcentrum-VU for
offering a highly effective and conducive environment to teaching language and
communication skills and for giving us the opportunity to write this book.

Our lasting gratitude also goes to numerous English language trainers and
colleagues who contributed to the knowledge used for this book, in particular
Mike Hannay (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam), Laetis Kuipers and Catriona Ester.
Finally, we are grateful to Paul Rueckert, Eline van Straalen, Reshma Jagernath,
Toby Adams and Aimée Hardy for their valuable comments on earlier editions.

Finally, we would like to thank you, the reader. For our words to work, we need
an audience to work for. Our efforts, then, are aimed at you.

Aleth Bolt & Walter Bruins

May 2017
1 Get started
Writing can be seen as a problem-solving process. After you identify the
intended reader and formulate a focused research question and hypothesis, it
helps to think of a rough outline of your message before you start writing. You
need not bother with the detailed formulation of your text at this stage: that
part of the problem can be solved later. The first step is to prepare.

We will assume for the moment that you want to write a research paper
rather than, for example, a literature review. The structure of your paper will
then reflect the structure of the actual research, which in turn should follow a
systematic approach that can be divided into four stages.

Four stages of research:

1. Ask a clear and straightforward question: your research question.
2. Use that question to formulate your hypothesis.
3. Test your hypothesis with the aid of an experiment.
4. Draw conclusions about the hypothesis on the basis of the results of the
experiment.

1.1 Formulate a research question and hypothesis

Formulate a research question

A research question typically begins with why, who, where, when, how or what.
It links the experiment to the initial objectives of the research. The best way to
start formulating your research question is by asking yourself:

• What have other people written about the subject?

• What are the gaps in current research?
• Are there any contradictions in what researchers have said about the subject?
• What is the benefit of answering your research question?
• Who will benefit from this answer?

The answers to these questions will provide a starting point for the careful
formulation of a focused research question, which will lead directly to your
hypothesis.

11
1 • Get Started

EXAMPLE
Researchquestion:
What factors influence coordinated foraging activity in honeybees?

Formulate a hypothesis it is a specific, yet

A hypothesis is what we might call an educated guess:
tentative, prediction of exactly what you expect to happen in your experiment.
A hypothesis typically says something about the relationship between two or
more factors or variables.

EXAMPLE
(i.e. odours)
Factor 1: Olfactory cues activity
Factor 2: Coordinated foraging

Hypothesis:
Olfactory cues may play an important role in coordinated foraging
activity in honeybees.

For a statement to become a scientific hypothesis, it must meet two important

requirements: it must be testable and it must be falsifiable. Testability means
that your hypothesis is formulated in such a way that its validity can be tested
by either qualitative or quantitative methods. In other words, your hypothesis
should propose a relationship between two (or more) variables that can be
measured. One aspect of testability is falsifiability. For a hypothesis to be
considered scientific, there must be a test that could prove the hypothesis is
false. To give an example, to test the hypothesis "All objects fall at the same
rate of acceleration," simply drop many objects of different shapes, sizes or
material from the same height and time their fall. This will demonstrate that
the hypothesis is falsifiable: at least two objects (e.g. a feather and a book) will
fall at different speeds. If it is not possible for a scientist to prove or disprove a
statement, then it is not a hypothesis.

EXAMPLE

Example of a non-falsifiable statement:

The Loch Ness Monster exists.

This statement is not falsifiable because it cannot be proven false. No

matter how many researchers fail to find the Loch Ness Monster, the

12
 1.3 • Structure your thoughts

fact that it has not been found does not mean it does not exist
(it may
just be hiding). "The Loch Ness Monster exists" is therefore not a good
scientific hypothesis.

A clear research question and hypothesis will help structure both your research
and your writing. They will guide your research and will help you decide which
information to include in your writing.

1.2 Consider your audience

Once your research is under way, it is time to think about the writing task that is
ahead. Doing research and writing scientific articles can be such solitary activities
that it is easy to forget about your audience, but having a specific audience in
mind will give your paper the necessary direction. It helps if you start by asking
yourself who will be most interested in your message. In other words: who is
your audience?

Your intended audience may influence your choice of arguments, tone and style.
Your audience may even play a pivotal role in deciding what level of information
to include and what words you choose. Being aware of your audience may
therefore help speed up your writing process.

Try to get a good impression of who your audience may be by considering the
following questions:

• Who will read your paper?

• What do they already know about the subject?
• Why would they want to read the paper?

1.3 Structure your thoughts

Drafting an outline will help you structure both your research paper and the
underlying research itself. You can start preparing an outline while you are doing
your research by putting down your first broad ideas and formulating a main
theme. The outline will help you to shape your own ideas logically and to put
them down on paper in a form that the reader can readily follow. To create an
outline of your work, you can do the following:

13
1 • Get Started

title
Think of a working
Your working title does not have to be your final title, but it willthe
givemain "peg"
you aideas
a main theme, on which to hang byyour article. Then write down
about your subject, for example brainstorming and clustering.

Use brainstorming
Write down everything that comes to mind about your subject. Do not consider
at this stage.
whether your ideas are suitableset Evaluate what you have written,
then them down in a list.
select the good ideas and
Start clustering
Write down the paper's main subject in the middle of the page and circle it.
Think of ways of sub-dividing the subject, jot down these subtopics around the
hub and circle them, and then connect them with arrows. Write down other
topics in the same way.

WRITING TIPS
Flower (1989) discusses four strategies to help you overcome problems
text:
you may experience in producing

Brainstorming:
Write down ideas that come to mind and work on those, instead of trying
to produce perfect sentences.

Using the WIRMI technique:

Make a concise statement of the point you are trying to make by saying to
yourself "What I Really Mean Is ..."

Using notation techniques:

Visualise your ideas by transforming them into drawings. Use arrows,
boxes, tree structures, etc.

Accepting imperfect writing:

Do not look for the best expression. Try again when you start revising.
(From: Flower, L.S. (1989). Problem-solving strategies for writing. New York:
HarcourtBrace Jovanovich.)

14
 1.4 • Structure your text

1.4 Structure your text

In general terms, research papers do not differ structurally from most other
planned texts: they have a beginning, a middle and an end. In the first part, you
tell the reader what you are going to say; in the body of the paper, you say it; and
in the final part you sum up what you said and consider the broader implications
of your research.

In more specific terms, scientific research papers may be expected to follow

a conventional format that includes a title, an abstract, a reference section,
appendices and the components of the so-called IMRAD structure, the dominant
structure used for research articles across disciplines.

WRITING TIPS
The structure of a research article:

IMRAD

Introduction What question / problem was studied and why?

Review of the literature, niche, aim of the paper, research

question, hypotheses and outline of the paper.
Methods How was the problem studied?

Materials, sample, variables, procedure, design and statistical

treatment

Results What were the findings?

Presentation of tables and figures, highlighting of significant

features

And

Discussion What do these findings mean?

Hypotheses confirmed or disproved, alternative

interpretations, theoretical or practical implications of
results, strengths and limitation of the study, possible
discussion of future research

The Discussion in the IMRAD structure often contains the conclusions, though
these may also be given separately in the Conclusion section.

15
 i isporta at this eatly sage that you famiorse yaself wih yaurtang
joumals style requsirements Your research supervisons may also have carg
about such matters as the layout of tables and the use of footnotes, eas
2Write the article
Scientific articles generally have the same format, with distinct sections that
each have a particular function and contain particular information. Readers
of academic works expect a certain level of conformity, and meeting their
expectations will play an important role in the overall effectiveness of your
communication. Adherence to academic standards does not preclude personal
style. Rather, it enhances the readability and scannability of your text, allowing
your reader to find the information they are looking for.

Scientific papers typically comprise these sections:

• Title
• Abstract
• Introduction
• (Literature Review)
• Materials and Methods
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• (Acknowledgements)
• References

• Appendices

the standard, Chapter 2 deals with

Taking a typical empirical research paper as
in terms of structure, vocabulary
the specifics of the main sections of a paper
for each section of an
and style. Because working on specific vocabulary
part of writing with confidence, this
academic paper is such an important
for each of the sections of a scientific
chapter ends with lists of useful phrases
must always include proper source
paper. In addition, good scientific writing on citing sources and avoiding
references, so Chapter 2 also provides information
plagiarism.

17
2 • Write the article

2.1 Choose the Title

The Tite is the most important single phrase in your paper, so make sure itis
follows:
effective. The function of your Title is as

• to identify the field of study,

• to distinguish your paper from all others in the field.

WRITING TIPS

- On average, a reader will only absorb three salient details from your
Title, so keep it as short and as simple as possible.
It is useful to write down the key words of your article first. Is
there one
word or phrase that sums up your article? Does your paper use specific :
terminology?

If readers do not understand your Title, they

may not bother even reading your
paper, so think about what the readers know and
what they do not know when
considering the Title for your article. A good rule of
thumb is to keep it crisp or
your readers will lose interest.

Make your Title concise and specific to your

study. Since the Title often also
needs to be comprehensible to
readers outside your field, try to
abbreviations. Titles often have to be presented avoid specialist
in title case: all words are
capitalised except for prepositions (in, of,
at, etc.), articles (the, a, an)
conjunctions (e.g. and, or, but). and

While some academics dislike

the idea of a Title
approach can be effective: a followed by a subtitle, this
while a subtitle can add short, snappy Title can
vital information. If you attract the reader's attention,
can use a colon to opt for this
separate the two halves of combination, you
the Title, as in the
next page.
examples on the

EXAMPLES
- Getting Heavier,
Younger: Trajectories of
- Moving Words:
How Action Effects CauseObesity over the Life Course
Motion Congruency
Note that these titles
use a subtitle
a colon. All
words have been separated from the main
capitalised except for the title by
articles and
conjunctions. prepositions,

18
 2.2 • Write your Abstract

2.2 Write your Abstract

All academic papers should begin with an Abstract. Abstracts are entered into
databases and are presented to search engines for indexing, and their purpose
is to provide a condensed version of your article, highlighting its major points
only. To help your readers find your Abstract, make a list of carefully selected key
words to improve findability for search engines.

Remember that the purpose of the Abstract is not only to introduce your
research question but also to summarise the whole of your research and to invite
your audience to read the details. It is therefore essential that your Abstract is
concise and complete: it should establish the topic of your research and state
your research question, then briefly explain the methodology, present the main
results and finally give the main conclusions.

WRITING TIPS
The Abstract should address the following questions:

BACKGROUND Why have you done what you are writing about?
OBJECTIVES What did you try to do?
METHODS How did you do it?
RESULTS What did you find?
CONCLUSIONS What does this mean?

Before you start writing the Abstract, find out how long it should be by checking
journal requirements. Abstracts in academic journals generally do not exceed
words. This
250 words, but some journals have a limit of 200 or even 150
maximum word limit is not just a recommendation: abstracts that are too long
are often rejected.

Concise writing does not mean you can write bad English to save words:
abstracts are written in complete, fully grammatical sentences, either with or
without explicit subheadings (check journal requirements). Fight the urge to
write in telegram style, but instead think about combining clauses and choosing
words carefully to keep your abstract succinct.
completed your
Whether you start with your Abstract or write it after you have
can help
paper is a matter of personal preference. Writing your Abstract first
structure and
structure your text, but writing the article first may give you the
abstract. You can also
language you need to write a well-structured and concise

19
 thearticle
2 • Write

doboth:useapreliminaryversionofyouyourhaveAbstract
finishedasthe
abluarticle.
eprintforyourarticle
and then revise it thoroughly after

WRITINGTIPS

- Make your abstract clear and complete (the abstract is often read
without the rest of the paper).
Use clear and concise wording.

- Be complete but do not include detailed background information.

- Avoid repeating the wording of the title (the abstract will be read with
-Do not use abbreviations, trade names, acronyms and symbols in your
abstract.
Do not include references to the literature.

2.3 Write your Introduction

A good, well-structured Introduction is indispensable to the success of your
research paper: the Introduction is your chance to get your reader interested in
what you have to say. In most cases, busy researchers will only skim through the
Title, the Abstract and the Introduction of a research paper; they will not read
further unless your Introduction suggests that the rest of the paper contains
something they need to know.

WRITING TIP

The main question your reader should be able to answer after reading
your Introduction is "Why was the problem studied?"

Introductions to academic articles are mostly written in a MOVE-Step pattern.

The MOVE-Step model devised by Swales (1990) is well known in academic
writing. If it looks complex or daunting, just realise that it is not so much a
limiting rule as it is a recipe for success: if you follow the MOVE-Step pattern, it is
likely that you will include all the information you need in your Introduction.
The
following model is adapted from Swales (1990).

20
 2.3 • Write your Introduction

MOVE 1: Establish a territory

Step 1 Claiming centrality and/or (optional)
Step 2 Making topic generalisations and/or (optional)
Step 3 Reviewing items of previous research (obligatory)

MOVE 2: Establish a niche (obligatory)

Step 1a Counter-claiming or
Step 1b Indicating a gap or
Step 1c Question-raising or
Step 1d Continuing a tradition

MOVE 3: Occupy the niche

Step 1a Outlining purposes or
_ (obligatory)
Step 1b Announcing present research
Step 2 Announcing main findings (optional)
Step 3 Indicating structure of paper (optional)

Introduction as inverted pyramid

The inverted pyramid pictured below is a helpful visual representation of
the MOVE-Step approach: the information you provide in your Introduction
becomes progressively more specific to your own research project.

MOVE 1
Give a general background
Give specific background
Mention previous research

MOVE 2
Look for a niche

MOVE 3
Introduce your
own paper

State your
research
aims

21
2 • Write the article

Note that the MOVE-Step model is not necessarily related to paragraphing:

although a typical Introduction may have a roughly even distribution, any Move
can use as little as a few lines to as much as a few paragraphs. The specific nature
of your research and paper will decide how much detail you will want to provide
for any Move or Step.

a territory
2.3.1 Move 1: Establish
give as much background
In the first part of your Introduction, you should
information as the reader needs to place your argument, main issue or problem
you can do the following:
in a larger context. In Move 1,
• state the area in which you are working,
to use in your argument,
• define key terms that you wish sound,
your research is fundamentally
• persuade your reader that
state of research),
• make topic generalisations (current
• review previous research.

Move 1, Step 1 - Claim centrality (optional)

the research
Centrality claims (Step 1) are appeals to the reader to accept that
research
you are reporting on is part of a lively, significant or well-established
forms: you can focus on the
area. Centrality claims may take a number of
interesting nature or importance of the issue addressed; you can point out that
or you can
it is a long-established, widely studied or central topic of research;
active in this field.
mention that many other investigators are currently

EXAMPLES
Useful phrases for Move 1, Step 1 (claiming centrality):
- The explication of the relationship between ... is a classic problem
of ...
- Knowledge of ... is highly relevant for ...
- A central issue in ... is the validity of ...
- In recent years, applied researchers have become increasingly
interested in ...

- Recently, there has been wide interest in ...

- The study of ... has become an important aspect of ...
- The theory that ... has led to the hope that ...
- The effect of ... has been studied extensively in recent years.
- The relationship between ... and ... has been studied by many
authors.

22
 2.3 • Write your Introduction

Move 1, Step 2 - Make topic generalisations

(optional)
Topic generalisations (Step 2) represent a more neutral kind of
general statement
than centrality claims (Step 1). Topic generalisations can take a variety of forms:
they can express in general terms the current state of the research or they can
refer to certain key phenomena.

EXAMPLES

Useful phrases for Move 1, Step 2 (making topic generalisations):

- The aetiology and pathology of ... are well known.
- A body of evidence support the hypothesis that ...
- A standard procedure for assessing ... has been ...
- Education core courses are often criticised for ...
- ... is a common finding in patients with ...
- An elaborate system of ... is found in the ...
- Modern English is rich in words derived from Latinate and several
Germanic languages.

Move 1, Step 3 - Review previous research (obligatory)

The third step in establishing a territory is the review of one or more items of
previous research that are relevant to your study. By using reporting verbs such
as show, demonstrate, establish, propose, examine or suggest, you can tell the
reader what has been found (or claimed) and who has found it (or claimed it).

EXAMPLES
Useful phrases for Move 1, Step 3 (reviewing previous research):
- Many linguists have argued that ...
- It has been demonstrated that ...
- Previous studies have reported ...
- The relationship between ... and ... has been widely investigated.
- Several studies have revealed that it is not just ... that
- acts on ...

- Jones et al. (2001) measured the components of ...

- Brown (1998) performed a similar series of experiments
- that...
- Smith and Jackson (2010) used a survey to assess ...
- Ahmathalan (2003) found that as levels of ... rise ...

23
2 • Write the article

2.3.2 Move 2: Establish a niche

InthesecondpartoftheIntroduction,
youindicatethepresenceofanicheor
raisesomequestionsaboutpreviousresearch
[Link],forbyquestioningorchallenging
experimentaltechniqueswereexcellent,butthatexample, thatanauthor's
theresultsraisequestions
from limitations.
that a study suffers or
Tocommunicatetoyourreaderthatyou
wanttoindicateaniche,youcanuse
contrastwordssuchashowever,unfortunately,
canalsobesignalledbyverbs(suffer,is nevertheless,yet,[Link]
limited to),adjectivesoradjectivalphrases
(time-consuming,expensive,notsufficientlyaccurate), ornegation(cannottreat).
EXAMPLES

Useful phrases for Move 2 (establishing a niche):

- To date, however, little attention has been
devoted to ...
- Few reports have discussed
- Few discussions have
addressed ...
- Most studies have only focused
on ...
- These studies have
produced only estimates ...
- The current body of
research is controversial...
- To date, there has been
little agreement on ...
- Both ... and ...
suffer from the
- No research dependency on .
has addressed the
- While ... was problem of ...
successful in ..., it fails to ...
- To date, however,
few studies have
- It is desirable to examined ...
perform test calculations
- A key problem is ... that avoid ...
- However, there
have been no studies
which compare ...

2.3.3Move3:
After giving Occupy theniche
background information
(Move 2), you occupy (Move 1)and
(Move 3). Inother the niche you identifying the main
words, Move 3 is announced by stating your researchproblem
where you start
talking aboutyour aims
work.

own
Move3,Step1-
Step1,which Outlinepurposeor
outlines themain announceresearch
take one of two focusof theresearch, (obligatory)
Move 3. It can
isan
forms: obligatoryelementof

24
 2.3 • Write your Introduction

• Step 1a Indicate your main purpose

or purposes, or
• Step 1b Announce the content of your paper.

EXAMPLES

Useful phrases for Move 3, Step 1 (occupying the niche):

- The aim of the present paper is to determine / examine / evaluate /
validate ...
- This paper reports on the results obtained from ...
- This paper reviews the research conducted on ...
- In this paper, we present preliminary results of ...
- The present work extends the use of the last model to ...
- The main question addressed in this paper is...
- The main purpose of the experiment reported here was to ...
- This study was designed to evaluate ...

Move 3, Step 2 - Announce main findings (optional)

In some disciplines, authors announce their principal findings (Step 2) in the
Introduction to encourage the reader to continue reading or because they do
not want to keep their readers in suspense about the outcome of their research.

EXAMPLES

Useful phrases for Move 3, Step 2 (announcing findings):

- Our results indicate that this new method ...
- Based on the significant differences we found between ..., this paper
argues that ...
- The statistical results of this research show that there is a great
advantage in ...

Move 3, Step 3 - Indicate the structure of the paper (optional)

In some research fields, it is common practice to give an outline of the structure
of the study in the Introduction (Step 3) so that readers have a clear idea of what
to expect from the rest of the paper. Note that such an outline may not always
be necessary, especially in shorter papers.

25
 2 • Write the article

EXAMPLES
(indicating structure):
Useful phrases for Move 3, Step 3

Outline of main points: this paper are ...,... and

- The main issues addressed in
- This paper first gives a brief overview of the recent history of ... and
then discusses ...

of paper:
Explicit outline of structure
- This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with...
examine / assess
- The first section of this paper will
- The review begins by laying out the theoretical dimensions of the
research .... It will then go on to ...

WRITING TIPS
When to write your Introduction
If you write your Introduction after you have written the rest of your
paper, you will have a clearer picture of your main objectives, and you will
already have the arguments you need to support your claims. This will
make it easier to establish the context in which your paper should be read
and to announce what you will discuss in your paper.

Ask for feedback

It might be a good idea to ask someone who is not a specialist in your field
to read the Introduction and to comment on it. Is it easy to follow? Does
it cover all the relevant points? Does it make the reader want to read the
rest of the paper?

Hook your audience

You can start your Introduction with a literary device that helps to make
it more gripping. For example, you can start with one of the following
elements:
- a quotation;
- a concession: mention opinions that are
different from your own;
- a paradox or other striking
statement:
"Before 1960, Baker's theory of ... was regarded as absurd.
Nowadays,
however, ...
- a short narrative or anecdote;
- an interesting fact or
statistic;
- a definition that is important
for your study.

26
 2.4 • Discribe you Methods and Materials

Vocabulary
Please refer to the end of this chapter (Sections 2.8.1 and 2.8.2) for lists of useful
phrases that can help you write your Introduction.

2.4 Describe your Methods and Materials

The body of your article typically consists of a Materials and Methods section
and a Results section. It contains a detailed description of the work you did: both
how you did it (Materials and Methods) and the results you obtained (Results).

WRITING TIP
The main question your reader should be able to answer after reading
your Methods section is "How was the problem studied?"

Methods
Following the IMRAD-structure, materials are included in the Methods section
of a research article. Some researchers, however, prefer to use the name Materials
and Methods. Note that there are no fixed rules about what elements you need
to include in the Methods section or in what order you should do so: this may
vary per discipline, but the list below is quite conventional and provides you with
a reliable standard model. In the Methods section of your article, you state what
happened and how it happened, so you:

• give an overview of the experiment (optional),

• describe the sample (e.g. human test subjects and animals),
• describe the sample restrictions and/or limiting conditions,
• describe the sampling technique,
• describe the materials you used,
• describe how the independent and dependent variables were operationalised,
had to do and
• describe the procedure(s) (i.e. explain what your participants
how you collected data),
• describe the type of design used in the experiment,

• describe the statistical analysis (but do not discuss the results)

logical flow of your methods.

Organise your text so your reader understands the
headings (e.g. "sample
Many disciplines allow subsections with appropriate
restrictions" and "materials"), which help the reader to scan through the article
albeit in a superficial way,
and glean enough logical information to understand,
the main line of the message.

27
2 • Write the
article

The key criteria you must bear in mind while writing the Methods section are
replicability and validity. The information you give in this section should allow
your readers, i f they so desi re, to repl i c ate your study and thus test the credi
therefore crucial to include all essential information,
of your study results. It isdetails.
b i l i t y
while omitting irrelevant

Materials
Materials refers to any items you used to carry out an experiment and may fall
categories:
into any of the following

1. All sorts of materials (e.g. natural, fabricated or structural materials, chemicals).

reactions).
2. The treatments you used (e.g drugs, nutrition, chemical
3. Any instruments employed (including laboratory or field equipment,
surveys, questionnaires, tests, computer and mathematical models).
Human or animal test subjects may also be classified as materials, but they are
often presented as a separate category.

While you do not need to mention supplies such as test tubes, pipettes, beakers or
any other standard lab equipment, do make sure you provide all the relevant details
ifyou use specialised chemicals, biological materials, or any equipment or supplies
that are not commonly found in laboratories. If you have measuring equipment
specially made for the purposes of your study, you should, of course, describe
that in much greater detail. For more common measuring equipment such as a
spectrophotometer or a pH meter, mention at least the make and type number.

EXAMPLE

Notice the elements that have been included in the Methods section of
a study from the field of bilingual education.

Use of a Writing Web-Site by Pre-Master's Students on an English for

Academic Purposes Course
A.J. Gillett, University of Hertfordshire

Method

[Overview of the experiment:] Two groups of international students

on a one-year Pre-Master's English for Academic Purposes
course,
each comprising 50 students, were taught academic writing by
different methods and compared. [Sample:] In each group
there were
50 students from five different academic
departments - computer
science, business, engineering, life sciences and law. [Sample
restriction:] The subjects were selected from the second semester -
28
 2.4 • Discribe you Methods and Materials

Semester B - of the University of Hertfordshire International Bridging

Programme in the 2004-2005 academic year. [Sample restriction:] This
programme accepts only students from a narrow English Proficiency
band (IELTS 5.00 - 5.5). [Sample restriction:] A comparable language
level among the test subjects was thus insured.
[Sampling technique:] The subjects were selected from the 250
students in the International Bridging Programme on the basis of
performance at a satisfactory level in the Semester A examination.
[Sample restriction:] Students who had performed below the
minimum level of the semester A examination were excluded. [Sample
restriction:] This criterion was employed to ensure competent
understanding of the task and adequate motivation.
[Procedure:] One group - Group A - studied English writing in the
traditional way in a class with a teacher. [Procedure:] This class met for
2 hours each week in a classroom for 12 weeks and was supplemented
with written homework assignments given by the teacher each week.
[Procedure:] The second group - Group B - met together in a class
with a teacher for one hour per week for 12 weeks and were assigned
a homework task of spending one hour per week doing exercises from
the UEfAP web-site (Gillet, 2005).
[Materials:] The test instrument employed in this study was a revised
version of the University of Hertfordshire English Language Writing
Test (Roberts, 1997), which permits the assessment of academic
written language performance. [Materials:] It consists of an academic
reading text and comprehension questions, followed by a discursive
essay on the subject of the reading text.
[Procedure:] Both groups A and B were given the same written
examination at the end of the semester. The students took the
examination under standard university examination conditions as
part of their end of semester examination. [Procedure:] The tests
were marked using the following categories: task achievement;
communicative quality; organisation; ideas, content and relevance;
and grammar and vocabulary, by two experienced writing examiners
and moderated in the standard way to ensure reliability. [Variable:] It
was thus possible to identify the relationship between the students'
main academic subjects, and the improvement in their writing ability
depending on the teaching method.
[Statistical treatment:] A 3 x 5 analysis of variance was used to
test for academic department, method of teaching and language
achievement differences.
(Adapted from: Gillet, A. Genres in academic writing: research report methods.
Retrieved July 2, 2012, from [Link]

29
2 • Write the article

Please refer to the end of this chapterprocess.

Vocabulary
(Section 2.8.3) for a list of useful phrases
your research
that can help describe

2.5 State your Results

After a detailed description in the Methods section of how you conducted your
research, an obvious next step is to report what you found. In the Results section,
explain where they came from.
you therefore show your results and
Aim to present your results logically. Depending on the nature of your results,
approaches:
the following
you could consider one of
most to least important, or
• present your results from
to complex ones, or
go from simple results
• present data in chronological order, paralleling the order in which the
methods were applied.

WRITING TIP
The main question vour reader should be able to answer atter reading
the findings?"
your Results section is "What were

The Results section should point your readers to the most relevant findings, so
it may help to provide them with a conceptual framework by reminding them of
your research question. Any interpretations of your findings should be delayed
until the Discussion section.

Tables and figures

Tables and figures (graphs, charts, diagrams, photographs and drawings) are
effective means for helping the reader to grasp the main lines of your results at
a glance; however, you should also summarise your main findings in text form.
Tables and figures can be used for a number of reasons:

• to summarise and emphasise key points,

• to reduce narrative length,
• to simplify information,
• to improve the conciseness and clarity of the text,
• to add visual appeal to a text.

30
 2.6 • Write your Discussion and Conclusion

A typical Results section consists of text that guides the reader through the
tables and figures provided, but of course only where tables and figures are
appropriate.

WRITING TIPS

Consider the following when you want to use a table or figure:

- Is an illustration necessary?

- Does the illustration fit the purpose?

- Does it meet the journal requirements?
- Can it be understood independently?
Does it correspond with the context provided by the text?

Any figure or table you decide to include should not contain raw data or
intermediate calculations. Instead, tables and figures should summarise clearly
and concisely any primary and relevant research findings. Rather than just
repeating the same information, your text then complements the figures and/or
tables you provide.

Figures and tables should always bear a title. Titles are usually positioned below
a figure and above a table. Remember that figures and tables are also numbered
successively. When you refer to tables and figures in the running text, make sure
these words are capitalised (e.g. Figure 1 [or Fig. 1) and Table 2).

Vocabulary
The vocabulary appendix at the end of the chapter (Section 2.8.4) contains
example sentences that help you refer to tables and figures and comment on
statistical findings in a clear and concise manner.

2.6 Write your Discussion and Conclusion

Discussion
The Introduction and the Discussion of your research paper frame the body of
well as
your text and form a bridge between your thoughts and your reader as
between the "bigger context" and your research. If the Introduction serves to
make a good first impression on your readers and to encourage them to keep on
reading, an effective Discussion should leave the reader with a lasting impression
of the quality of your research, the cogency of your analysis of your experimental
results and the relevance of your work to the field.

31
2 • Write the article

WRITING TIP
The main question your reader should be able to answer after reading
do the findings mean?"
your Discussion is "What

While the Discussion should draw attention to your most signifcant results,
you should take care not to repeat what you have written in the Results section,
One of the biggest mistakes budding researchers make is to present a superfcial
analysis in the Discussion that more or less repeats the content of the Results
do is interpret your results: explain to the reader
section. What you do need tomean.
results
what you think your

Many academic journals require submitted papers to combine the discussion

check journal
and conclusion under the heading Discussion (always
requirements). In general, this combined Discussion section can be divided into
three parts:

1. Restate the focus of your research, echoing the formulation you have
provided in the Introduction.
2. Show how your experimental results tie in with the research question.
3. Make suggestions for further research or action.

If we zoom in on the three parts of a Discussion in more detail, we can say that in
the Discussion you gather and interpret what you have said in the Introduction
and the body of the text. Go beyond the boundaries of your paper and help
the reader to appreciate the broader implications of your research by raising
questions to be addressed in further studies, recommending a course of action
or proposing a solution to a given problem. Make sure your Discussion contains
at least the following elements:

• refer to the purpose of your research (see Move 3 of the Introduction);

• restate or summarise your findings;
• interpret your findings:
- explain (with reasons) the extent to which your original research question
has been answered;
- state whether and how the data support your hypotheses;
- account for results that differ from your expectations;
• show how your results fit into the bigger picture: compare your findings with
other studies and explain whether they are consistent with what other resear-
chers have reported;
• discuss the strengths of your study (e.g. explain what is new in your work and
why it is important);

32
 2.6 • Write your Discussion and Conclusion

• discuss the limitations of your methods

and findings;
• state the implications of your results for specific
issues or the discipline as a
whole;
• make recommendations for future research.

Conclusion
Depending on journal requirements and research field, the Conclusion is either
a separate section of your paper or a final paragraph (or paragraphs) in
your
Discussion. The Conclusion should provide a logical ending to your article, tying
together the most prominent parts of your paper to communicate the unity
of your writing. A Conclusion typically provides the implications of the points
made in your Discussion, suggestions for future research and/or forecasts of
subsequent possible trends. Note that while the Conclusion should not contain
any new information, it does need to rise above the level of a mere summary.

WRITING TIPS
If the Conclusion forms a separate section in your paper, make sure it
contains at least the following information:
- the main implications of your work,
- recommendations for future research.

Remember that the Conclusion is the last part of the paper people read,
so you want to leave a lasting impression.

The main questions your reader should be able to answer after reading
your Conclusion is "What does the paper add to the body of knowledge
in your research field and what does it imply for future research or
professional practice?"

Vocabulary
Please refer to Section 2.8.5 for some useful phrases and sentences that can help
you write your Discussion and Conclusion.

2.7 Cite sources correctly

Discussion, it is
When drafting your Introduction, Literature Review and
important to think about the wider context of your work. As you write these
sources, and when
sections, you will need to refer to and quote from external
you do so, you should do so correctly. This section deals with referring, quoting
and avoiding plagiarism.

33
 article
2 • Write the

referandquote
2.7.1Howto
Convincing argumentation -an important ingredient in clear texts that
show coherent thinking - builds on the effective use of evidence. Much of
this supporting information comes from other studies or other parts of your
own text. To this end, referring and quoting are useful means of establishing
credibility, demonstrating your knowledge and refuting opposing arguments.
If you refer to a source, you can use both direct and indirect quoting. Direct
quotes are another person's exact written or spoken words and should be placed
between inverted commas without alteration (1). Indirect quotes, sometimes
referred to as paraphrasing, refer to someone's words without using the exact
words of that person (2).

1. It was pointed out by Edmonds (1997) that "nongerund clauses will appear
only in extraposition and in topicalized NP positions" (p. 127). (direct quote)
studies of predictive validity have been
2. Kendell (2009) observes that fewquote)
mounted in psychiatry. (indirect

Indirect quotes often take the form "Person X + claims / states / observes / etc. +
that + paraphrase." Some common reporting verbs are particularly useful in such
sentences:

- maintain
- acknowledge
- believe - mention
- note
- claim
- observe
- comment
- conclude - predict
- declare - propose

- explain
- report

- imply - speculate
- indicate - state

- insist - suggest

One of the most common mistakes made when quoting is when a writer uses
another author's exact words without enclosing them in inverted commas. Some
writers seem to feel it is sufficient to simply cite the source even when using
the source's exact wording. However, doing so amounts to plagiarism. A related
problem is using inverted commas for paraphrases: paraphrases are not the
source's words and should not be presented as such.

In addition to quoting a source, you can also simply refer to other authors (3).
Such references are often used to support your own claims, for example by

34
 2.7 • Cite sources correctly

showing that the argument you made in your paper has

also been put forward
by others.

The same point has been made by others,

notably Jesperson (1983).
(reference to another author)

Section 2.8.2 offers example sentences that can be used for

general and specific
references to other studies.

WRITING TIPS
1. Separate long quotations from the running text and
indent them,
if you wish both to the left and the right. Inverted commas are not
needed for such long, separated quotations.
2. If you leave out part of a direct quotation use an ellipsis (three dots →
...) in its place. Additions to quotations, for instance to clarify
pronoun
reference, must be placed between square brackets → [].
3. If you want to alter a quote, for example by adding emphasis to a word
or phrase (i.e. using italic script), include the phrase "emphasis added"
or "my italics" in between square brackets → [emphasis added], [my
italics]
4. If there is a mistake in the quote (e.g. in grammar), then stick to the
original and add the word "sic" (meaning "thus") between square
brackets to indicate you have not misquoted → [sic]

2.7.2 Recognise and avoid plagiarism

Scientific authors cannot avoid referring widely to the work of others; however,
they should do so without plagiarising, which is widely considered to be a serious
academic offence. The Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines the verb to
plagiarise as "to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own;
use (another's production) without crediting the source." In addition, plagiarism
also occurs when an author imitates the source's syntactic (sentence) structure.
Plagiarism, in other words, is literary theft, which is why you should do your
utmost to avoid it.

Most plagiarism is likely to be unintentional and occurs when authors

inadvertently fail to acknowledge a source, do not use inverted commas for
quotes or fail to paraphrase correctly. This unintentional plagiarism may occur
when your notes are unorganised or when you do not fully understand what
constitutes plagiarism. Still, whether intentional or unintentional, plagiarism may

35
 article
2 • Write the

have serious consequences, so it is important that you are able to recognise and
avoid it.

Enclose borrowed words in inverted commas and attribute

source
information to the
Consider the following examples. Sentence (2) and (3) are correct references to
and (6) constitute plagiarism:
the original (1), while sentence (4), (5)
[Link]: "Young adults who survive childhood or adolescent cancer
are clearly at risk for early cardiac morbidity and mortality not typically
recognised within this age group. Such individuals require ongoing clinical
monitoring, particularly as they approach ages in which cardiovascular
prevalent."
disease becomes more

retrospective analysis of the Childhood Cancer Survivor cohort. BM), 339:b4606)

2. J According to Mulrooney et al., "such individuals require ongoing clinical

monitoring, particularly as they approach ages in which cardiovascular
disease becomes more prevalent" [3).

3. V Mulrooney and colleagues believe that young adults who were treated for
cancer as children or adolescents will be "at risk for cardiac morbidity and
mortality not typically recognised within this age group" (Mulrooney et al,
2009).

4. X It has become apparent that "young adults who survive childhood or

adolescent cancer are clearly at risk for early cardiac morbidity and mortality
not typically recognised within this age group."

(Borrowed words enclosed in inverted commas, but there is no source

reference.)

5. X This review of recent studies shows that young adults who survive
childhood or adolescent cancer are clearly at risk for early cardiac morbidity
and mortality not typically recognised within this age group.

(Borrowed words are not enclosed in inverted commas and information is not
attributed to the source [but to "recent studies"])

6. X The study by Mulrooney et al. (2009) concluded that young adults who
survive childhood or adolescent cancer are clearly at risk for early cardiac

36
 2.7 • Cite sources correctly

morbidity and mortality and will need to be

as they reach ages generally
followed closely, particularly
associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular
disease.

(The first part ["young ... mortality"] should

be in inverted commas. As it is
worded here, this seems to be the author's own original
work, while in fact the
first part is a direct quote and the second part is
paraphrased.)
Attribute idea to the source
The example below (8) shows what can go wrong if an idea is not attributed to
the source. Although the author has rewritten the
text in his/her own words,
the idea originally came from Mulrooney et al.
(2009) and should therefore be
referenced. This point is possibly debatable, but students should be careful to
reference everything that is not their own idea. Later on in their
professional lives
they will have more credibility.

7. Original: "Young adults who survive childhood or adolescent cancer

are clearly at risk for early cardiac morbidity and mortality
not typically
recognised within this age group. Such individuals require ongoing clinical
monitoring, particularly as they approach ages in which cardiovascular
disease becomes more prevalent."

8. X Young adults who survived treatment of cancer as children or adolescents

should be carefully monitored throughout adulthood as they are at greater
risk of cardiac disease.

Is paraphrasing plagiarism?
Paraphrasing means expressing what someone has written in another way. If you
do end up using the source's exact words, you will have to use inverted commas
to avoid plagiarism.

9. Original: "Young adults who survive childhood or adolescent cancer

are clearly at risk for early cardiac morbidity and mortality not typically
recognised within this age group. Such individuals require ongoing clinical
monitoring, particularly as they approach ages in which cardiovascular
disease becomes more prevalent."

10. J Mulrooney and colleagues (2009) propose that ongoing clinical

monitoring is required in children and adolescents who have had cancer
therapy.

37
2 • Write the article

("Ongoi
standardngphrase
clinicalinmoni oring" could be put in inverted commas but is quite a
thistfield.)

[Link] Young
risk foradults
cardiacwho surviveand
morbidity cancer in theirnot
mortality youth or adult life are evidently
commonly
age group. Such persons need ongoing clinical monitoring,identihed in the
especially when
they reach ages in which cardiovascular disease become mores prevailing
(Mulrooney et al., 2009).

(The author does not copy the exact words of the original text, but closely
parallels Mulrooney et ali's sentence structure and phrasing by replacing words
with synonyms. This still constitutes plagiarism.)

Paraphrasing can be a powerful tool. It helps you to integrate interesting or

important information into your paper such as explanations, evidence and a
researcher's argument or line of reasoning. In doing so, you are enhancing your
paper by making it more persuasive and convincing. However, paraphrasing is
not an easy task as you are expected to accurately convey the meaning of the
original text without using the same wording and sentence structure. Take the
following example of an original text:

The lost-wax casting process (also called cire perdue, the French term) has
been used for many centuries. It probably started in Egypt. By 200 BCE
the technique was known in China and ancient Mesopotamia and was
soon after used by the Benin peoples in Africa. It spread to ancient Greece
sometime in the sixth century BCE and was widespread in Europe until
the
eighteenth century, when a piece-mold process came to predominate
(Stokstad, M. (1995). Art History. New York: Prentice Hall, Inc. & Harry Abrams, Inc.)

Now consider this paraphrase (College Board, 2005):

The lost-wax casting process is an ancient method for making metal

sculpture. While the ancient Egyptians appear to have been its first
practitioners, other cultures around the world also developed or imported
the technique. Introduced to Europe by the ancient Greeks in
the sixth
century BCE, lost-wax casting remained an important artistic method up
to
the eighteenth century (Stokstad, 1995).

Rather than simply restating the source text, the author of the paraphrased
text
above reworks the words to draw out a particular idea, leaving out the
irrelevant
details. To add extra clarity, the author includes a short definition of
the lost-
wax method in the opening sentence (College Board, 2005). Notice that to avoid

38
 2.7 • Cite sources correctly

plagiarism, the author has cited the source and has refrained from imitating both
the source's exact words and the source's syntax (sentence structures).

When paraphrasing, make sure that the reader is able to differentiate between
your own ideas and those of your sources. You can do so by introducing your
paraphrases with identifying tags (or introductory phrases) and appropriate
documentation, as shown in the following examples:

12. According to Halliday (1994), grammatical metaphors may be inherently

complex.
13. Grammatical metaphors may in fact be inherently complex, notes Halliday
(1994).
14. Although grammatical metaphors may not be inherently value-laden,
observes Halliday, they may nevertheless be inherently complex (1994).

The second and the third example show that identifying tags need not always
be placed at the beginning, but can also be placed in the middle and at the end.
To avoid monotonous sentence structure, vary the placement of the identifying
tag: do not always put the identifying tag at the beginning of a paraphrase, quote
or summary. In addition, use different verbs to introduce ideas you have taken
from a source instead of repeating the same words over and over again (suggest,
acknowledge, predict, report, affirm, explain, note, propose, indicate, point out, etc.
[see 2.7.1]). (These remarks on the integration of sources into your writing also
hold for summaries and quotes.)

Is summarising plagiarism?
Whereas in a paraphrase you restate a source's main ideas in detail, reflecting the
sources patterns and emphasis, a summary contains only the main idea or ideas
of a passage or article, expressed in your own words and leaving out the details.
Because a paraphrase includes (nearly) all the content of the original, it is about
the same length as the original. A summary, however, is much shorter because it
only contains the key points.

Summaries should accurately present the source's ideas and should not include
sure you do
your own opinions or interpretations. To avoid plagiarism, make
not imitate the words or sentence structures of the original. If, however, you
source text, enclose them
feel it is necessary to use words and phrases from the
you should
in inverted commas. Keep in mind that whether or not you quote,
always cite your source. Failing to do so constitutes plagiarism.

39
 2 • Write the article

to cite
2.7.3 Know when
Makesureyoukeeptrackofyourreferencesfromthebeginning
[Link]-takinand keepyour
g,youmayno
lparaphrase
onger knoworonce youofstart
a copy writing your
the original. paperdoubt,
To avoid whether e to enteris a theclose
givensablpassage
it isaadvi
exactwordsoftheoriginaltextintoyournotesininvertedcommas,
[Link]
cluding
you decide to quote or paraphrase.
when

WRITING TIPS
You do not want your readers to think that your paper is merely a
collection of quotes. Therefore, you should not quote too extensively. The
question then is: when should you quote?
-Quote when a source's wording is so distinctive that a summary or
paraphrase would diminish its impact.
- Quote when a source's words lend authority to your argument (i.e. if a
writer is a recognised expert on the subject).
- Quote when a writer's words are so concise that paraphrase would
create long, clumsy, or incoherent passages or would change the
meaning of the original.
Quote when you disagree with a source. Using a source's exact words
assures the reader you are being fair.

(From: Kirszner, L. G., & Mandell, S. R. (2008). The Wadsworth Handbook. United
States: Thomson Wadsworth.)

WRITING TIPS
DO cite:
- direct quotations;
- opinions, ideas, observations and insights of others that you
summarise or paraphrase;
- information that is open to dispute;
- tables, figures and statistics taken from a source;
- information that is not widely
known.
(From: Kirszner, L. G., & Mandell, S. R. (1999). The Holt Handbook. United States:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers.)

40
 2.7 • Cite sources correctly

DO NOT cite:
Common knowledge
You do not have to credit facts that are common knowledge if stated
in
your own words, for example information that can be found in general
reference books, encyclopaedias, newspapers and magazines. These
need not be cited:
- Jonathan Swift, one of the foremost prose satirists in the English
language, wrote A modest proposal and Gulliver's travels, two works of
political and social satire.

Your own ideas, observations and conclusions

Facts or ideas that are your own do not need citation; however, if the fact
or idea you refer to has already been published elsewhere, you do need to
cite that paper, so readers can find additional information there,

2.7.4 Use the correct citation style

Every academic paper should list references to the sources that have been
consulted, summarised, paraphrased or quoted in the paper. Several professional
associations have formulated standard citation styles that are widely used in
academic writing, though there are many variations. As their rules are all highly
detailed and vary to some extent, it is worthwhile to become familiar with the
most important rules for the prominent citation style in your field. Always check
style requirements of the journal in which you wish to publish

In addition to learning the rules of the citation style used in your field, it may
pay to invest in reference management software or at least become familiar with
an online citation generator. By way of example, the rest of this section includes
examples of the four main reference styles listed below.

• APA (American Psychological Association):

sciences.
typically used in psychology, education and other social
• MLA (Modern Language Association):
rypically used in literature, arts and humanities.
• AMA (American Medical Association):
typically used in medicine, health and biological sciences.
• Chicago (Chicago Manual of Style):
typically used in history, social sciences and humanities.

41
 2 • Write the article

In-text citations
The purpose of in-text citations is to refer the reader to the reference list (also
called works-cited list [AMA] or bibliography (Chicago)) at the end of the artide
Depending on the journal style sheet being used, in-text citations usually list at
least the author of the work and a page number, or the author and the year of
publication.

MLA in-text citations are usually made with a combination of identifying tags (or
introductory phrases) and parenthetical reterences. An identitying tag indicates
that a quotation, summary or paraphrase is about to be presented, and typically
includes the author's name. The parenthetical reference
cited.
normally includes at
the material
least a page number and comes after

1. As Keijzer states, "another limitation of the ... investigation lies in its

synchronic research design" (286).
Zwaan showed that genre expectations have an impact on the way texts are
represented in memory (1994).
Swift's writings have much relevance to the modern world (Smith and
Woods 72).

In the following example, the first parenthetical reference includes the date of
publication. The reason for this is that the reference list contains two works by
Halliday and only one by Matthiessen.

4. The term grammatical metaphor fulfils certain important needs in discourse

and text (Halliday, 1994: 120), including opening up a new dimension of a
semantic space (Matthiessen 54).

Readers can consult the alphabetised reference list where they will find the title
of the work and other information alongside the author's name.

The APA's in-text citation rules call for at least the author's surname and the date
of publication. For direct quotations — and usually also for paraphrases that
refer to a long, complex passages — a page number is given as well.

5. As Keijzer (2007) states, "another limitation of the ... investigation lies in its
synchronic research design" (p. 286).
6. Zwaan (1994) showed that genre expectations have an impact on the way
texts are represented in memory.
7. Swift's writings have much relevance to the modern world (Smith and
Woods, 1995).

42
 2.7 • Cite sources correctly

The alphabetised reference list, which appears at the end of a paper, provides
readers with publication information for the sources that were cited.

AMA in-text citations usually contain a reference number (indirect quotes

and summaries) or a reference number and, within round brackets, the page
numbers from which the text was taken (direct quotes).

8. This argument was refuted in another study.' (Place the reference number
after commas and full stops.)
9. The inclusion criteria were as follows*S ... (Place the reference number before
colons and semicolons.)
10. Supercritical assisted atomisation (SAA), frst proposed in 2002,' is one of
the applications in which supercritical CO2 (SC-CO2) is used to improve the
atomisation process.
11. Other studies*» corroborate these findings.
12. Numerous observational studies'3-5ª have reported vitamin E to reduce
the risk of cardiovascular disease. (Multiple sources cited which are not all
consecutive.)
13. He points out that although these works are at risk for traumatic injuries,
noise-induced hearing loss and infectious diseases, l6 (p3) respiratory illness is
the most recognised occupational risk. (When citing a source more than once,
re-use the original reference number, but include a page references in round
brackets.)
14. "Public health evidence must also cover organisation, implementation and
feasibility, which are less commonly covered by research evidence." (p18)

Chicago in-text citations contain a reference number, a superscript numeral,

after a summary, quote or paraphrase. This number corresponds to a numbered
note either at the bottom of the page (footnote) or at the end of the text
(endnote).

In the text:

15. These selfish genes are a universal feature of life with pervasive effects,
including numerous counter-adaptations.'3

In the note:

16. Robert Trivers, Genes in conflict (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press,
2006), 67.

The bibliography at the end of the paper provides all relevant publication details.

43
2 • Write the article

Reference list
Making a reference list can be a meticulous task without purpose-built soltware
to help you out. Before compiling your reference list, always check the citation
style requirements of the journal in which you wish to publish. This section offers
some example for all four of the following citation styles: APA, MLA, AMA and
Chicago.

Journal article, one author

APA Haig, D. (1996). Placental hormones, genomic imprinting and
maternal-fetal communication. Journal of Evolutionary Biology.
9, 357-380.
MLA Haig, David. "Placental Hormones, Genomic Imprinting, and
Maternal-Fetal Communication." Journal of Evolutionary Biology 9
(1996): 357-380.
AMA Haig D. Placental hormones, genomic imprinting, and maternal-fetal
communication. j Evol Biol, [Link]-380.
Chicago 2. David Haig. "Placental Hormones, Genomic Imprinting, and
Maternal-Fetal Communication," Evol Biol. 9 (1996): 359. (end note)
Haig, David. "Placental Hormones, Genomic Imprinting, and
Maternal-Fetal Communication," J Evol Biol. 9 (1996): 357-80.
(bibliography)

Journal article, more than one author

APA Smith, M. A., Brandt, J., & Shadmehr, R. (2000). Motor disorder
in Huntington's disease begins as a dysfunction in error feedback
control. Nature, 403, 544-549.
MLA Smith, Maurice A., Jason Brandt, and Reza Shadmehr. "Motor Disorder
in Huntington's Disease Begins as a Dysfunction in Error Feedback
Control." Nature 403 (2000): 544-549.
AMA Smith MA, Brandt J, Shadmehr R. Motor disorder in Huntington's
disease begins as a dysfunction in error feedback control. Nature.
2000;403:544-549.
Chicago 3. Maurice A. Smith, Jason Brandt, and Reza Shadmehr. "Motor
Disorder in Huntington's Disease Begins as a Dysfunction in Error
Feedback Control," Nature 403 (2000): 550. (end note)
Smith, Maurice A., Jason Brandt, and Reza Shadmehr. "Motor Disorder
in Huntington's Disease Begins as a Dysfunction in Error Feedback
Control," Nature 403 (2000): 544-49. (bibliography)

Book, one author

APA Trivers, R. (2006). Genes in conflict. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.

44
 2.7 • Cite sources correctly

MLA Trivers, Robert. Genes in Conflict. Cambridge: Harvard University

Press, 2006.
AMA Trivers R. Genes in Conflict. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press;
2006.
Chicago 4. Robert Trivers, Genes in Conflict. (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard
University Press, 2006), 98.
Trivers, Robert. Genes in Conflict. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University
Press, 2006.

Book, more than one author

APA Crow, J. F., & Kimura, M. (1970). An introduction to population genetics
theory. New York: Harper & Row.
MLA Crow, James F., and Motoo Kimura. An Introduction to Population
Genetics Theory. New York: Harper & Row, 1970.
АМА Crow JF, Kimura M. An Introduction to Population Genetics Theory.
New York: Harper & Row; 1970.
Chicago 5. James F Crow and Motoo Kimura, An Introduction to Popular
Genetics Theory. (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2006),
54. (end note)
Crow, James F., and Motoo Kimura. An Introduction to Popular
Genetics Theory. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2006.
(bibliography)

Parts of books
the
APA Cheverud, J. M., & Moore, A. J. (1994). Quantitative genetics and
in behavioral
role of the environment provided by relatives
evolution. In C.B.R. Boake (Ed.), Quantitative genetic studies of
behavioral evolution (pp. 67-100). Chicago: Chicago University
Press.
Genetics and
MLA Cheverud, James M., and Allen J. Moore. "Quantitative
the Role of the Environment Provided by Relatives in Behavioral
Evolution." Quantitative Genetic Studies of Behavioral Evolution.
Ed. Christine B.R. Boake. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1994.
67-100.
and the role of the
AMA Cheverud JM, Moore AJ. Quantitative genetics
behavioral evolution. In: Boake
environment provided by relatives in
evolution. Chicago:
CBR, ed. Quantitative genetic studies of behavioral
Chicago University Press; 1994:67-100.
"Quantitative Genetics and
Chicago 6. James M. Ceverud and Allen J. Moore,
by Relatives in Behavioral
the Role of the Environment Provided
of behavioral evolution, ed
Evolution," in Quantitative genetic studies
Press, 1994), 67-100. (end note)
C.B.R. Boake (Chicago: Chicago University

45
 2 • Write the article

Cheverud, James M., and Allen J. Moore. "Quantitative Genetics and

the Role of the Environment Provided by Relatives in Behavioral
Evolution." In Quantitative genetic studies of behavioral evolution,
ed. C.B.R. Boake, 67-100. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1994.
(bibliography)

Published dissertations
APA Tavecchio, L. (2010). Sentence patterns in English and Dutch: a
contrastive corpus analysis (Doctoral dissertation, Vrije Universiteit
Amsterdam).
MLA Tavecchio, Lotte. Sentence Patterns in English and Dutch: A
Contrastive Corpus Analysis. Diss. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam,
AMA Tavecchio L. Sentence patterns in English and Dutch: a contrastive
corpus analysis (dissertation). Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; 2010.
Chicago 7. Lotte Tavecchio, "Sentence Patterns in English and Dutch:
A Contrastive Corpus Analysis"(Ph.D. diss., Vrije Universiteit
Amsterdam, 2010). (end note)
Tavecchio, L. "Sentence Patterns in English and Dutch: A Contrastive
Corpus Analysis." Ph.D. diss., Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 2010
(bibliography)

Citing material from websites

Rules for citing websites are not always consistent. A reliable rule of thumb is to
mention the name of the site, the URL, the date of publication for articles and
journals, and the date you accessed it on the web, as shown below:

APA Minton, J. W., Pickett, K. E., & Dorling, D. (2012). Health,

employment,
and economic change, 1973-2009: repeated cross sectional
study (2012). BMJ, 340. Retrieved June 12, 2012, from
[Link]
[Link]/content/344/bmj.e2/[Link]
MLA Minton, Jonathan William, Kate E. Pickett, and
Danny Dorling
"Health, Employment, and Economic Change, 1973-2009:
Cross Sectional Study." BMJ 344. 9 May Repeated
2012. 12 June 2012
AMA <[Link]
Minton, IW, Pickett, KE, & Dorling, D. Health, employment,
and
economic change, 1973-2009: repeated cross sectional
study BM).
2012;340:1-9. Available at: [Link]/content/344/bmj.e2/316
html. Accessed June 12,
2012.
Chicago Jonathan William Minton, Kate E, Picket, and
Danny Dorling
"Health, Employment, and Economic Change, 1973-2009:
Cross Sectional Repeated
Study," BMJ 344 (2012): 2,
"[Link]
content/344/bmj.e2/[Link]" (accessed June 12, 2012).
46
 2.8 • Useful phrases per section of your article

Minton, Jonathan William, Kate E. Picket, and Danny

Dorling
"Health, Employment, and Economic Change, 1973-2009:
Repeated
Cross Sectional Study." BMJ 344 (2012): 1-9.
[Link]
content/344/bmj.e2/[Link] (accessed June 12, 2012).

Whichever documentation style you use, always make sure you consult their
guidelines for documentation of print, electronic or other sources carefully.

2.8 Useful phrases per section of your article

This section provides an overview of useful phrases and sentences for each of the
sections of an academic paper. You are encouraged to go beyond simply noticing
typical phrases and, instead, to pay special attention to how language is used for
communicative effect: good writing is a combination of word choice, grammar,
punctuation and style, and the sentences below give a broad idea of how native
speakers combine these elements in academic writing. In all sentences, words
are phrases that are useful to remember are printed in bold, and key verbs are
underlined. Note that key verbs which are also part of key phrases are both
underlined and in bold.

Some sentence elements may require your special attention, such as the use
of verb tenses (see Ch. 5), punctuation (see Ch. 4) and the precise meaning of
frequently used discourse linkers.

2.8.1 Introduction

Move 1: Establish a territory

Examples of useful phrases for Move 1, Step 1 (Centrality claims):

1. In recent years, applied researchers have become increasingly interested in ...
2. Recently, there has been wide interest in ...
3. The well-known ... have been favourite topics for analysis in ...
4. Knowledge of ... has a great importance for ...
5.
The study of ... has become an important aspect of ...
6. The effect of ... has been studied extensively in recent years.
7. Many investigators have recently turned to ...
8. The relationship between ... has been studied by many authors.
9. A central issue in ... is the validity of ...

Examples of useful phrases for Move 1, Step 2 (Topic generalisations):

10. The aetiology and pathology of ... are well known.
47
2 • Write the article

11. There is now much evidence to support the hypothesis that ...
understood.
12. The properties of ... are still not completelybeen ..
for assessing... has
13. A standard procedure
14. Cognitive-behavioural conceptualisations are often criticized for ...
15. ... is a common discovery in patients with ...
16. An elaborate system of ... is found in the ...
shifts.
17. English is rich in words exhibiting stress

Examples of useful phrases for Move 1, Step 3 (Review previous research):

18. Many historians have argued that ...
19. It has been demonstrated that a high intake of ... results in damage to ...
20. Previous studies have reported
21. The relationship between ... and ... has been widely investigated
22. Several studies have revealed that it is not just ... that acts on ...
23. Jones et al. (2001) measured both components of the ...
24. Brown (2009) performed a similar series of experiments that ...
25. Smith and Jackson used a survey to assess the various ... (2010).

Move 2: Establish a niche

Examples of useful phrases for Move 2 (Establishing a niche):

26. Few reports have discussed / addressed ...
27. Most studies have only focused on ..
28. These studies have produced only estimates ...
29. The current body of research is controversial ...
30. Both ... and ... suffer from dependency
on ...
31. While ... was successful in ..., it failed to ...
32. Their holistic analysis does not take into account
the complexities of ...
33. The method used in our study eliminates many of
the limitations ...
34. It is desirable to perform test calculations
that avoid ...
35. However, the results of these studies
are controversial, and there is no
general agreement about ...
36. However, there have been no
studies which compare ...
37. To date, most studies have examined
... ; few have examined ...

Move 3: Occupy the niche

Examples of useful phrases for Move 3,

Step 1 (Occupying the niche):
38. The aim of the present paper
is twofold: ...
39. The objective of this paper is to determine / establish whether ...
40. This paper critically
assesses / analyses / reviews ...
41. The purpose of this paper
is to review recent research
into ...

48
 2.8 • Useful phrases per
section of your article

42. The aim of this paper is to account for ...

43. The present work extends the use of this model to ...
44. This paper reports on the interaction of ...
45. The main purpose of the experiment reported here was to …..
46. This study was designed to evaluate ...

How to announce your research aims

47. The purpose of the present investigation was to compare the sealing ability
of the N-system with that of the traditional system.
48. This study examined the impact of different kinds of stressful marital
situations on individual levels of distress.
49. The objective of the present study was to observe the response of the pulp
to mechanical exposure in the same rats.
50. The present report describes the management of root resorption in a group
of patients who had undergone treatment.
51. This investigation concentrates on this second aspect of pitch.
52. This paper reports a preliminary investigation into the pitch correlates of
politeness formulae.
53. What we are mainly concerned with here is the use of "well" in situations of
repair.
54. More specifically, this study addresses the facilitating and inhibiting effect
of context and assimilation on word recognition.
55. This paper presents a solution to this problem.
56. The two major aims of the current study are ...
57. This research sets out to evaluate Gove's sex-role theory.
58. In the present study, we compared energy expenditure of both groups.
observed
59. Our objective was to determine whether the effect of nicotine
during rest was also present during activity.
60. To determine whether such an in vitro / in vivo disease-oriented screening
programme is feasible, we have examined a number of technical questions
which are fundamental to in vitro systems.

2.8.2 Literature review

How to refer to others: general references to other research

is more important than
Many investigators have maintained that structure
individual attainment.

49
 2 • Write the article

2. While researchers might acknowledge that attainment occurs within

specific structures, critics have charged that this body of work ignores the
dependence of attainment processes on the structure of positional inequality.
3. In recent years, empirical research has sought to redress the imbalance.
4.
Much of this research purports to show that individual achievement is a
function of structural factors such as class and authority.
5. Writers have provided plausible theoretical explanations but, to date, the
empirical tests have proved equivocal.
6. Such studies have shown that various crime indices are sensitive to
unemployment rates that are lagging behind.
7. A number of exogenous factors cited by earlier researchers are for all
practical purposes held constant.
8. Sociological theory provides us with an understanding of employment
variables.

9. Some sociologists have made contributions to the study of utilitarian

perspectives on crime.
10. Studies of the unemployed have documented the deleterious effects of
unemployment on self-esteem and morale.
11. The effects of selected nutrients on SNS activity have been examined in
several clinical studies.
12. The study of mass communication in modern culture has often been
regarded as peripheral to the core concerns of sociology and social theory.
13. Social theorists have tended to neglect the role of mass communication in
modern media.

14. There is a tendency among some social theorists to view mass

communication as part of'the culture industry' which numbs the masses
into a state of subservience.
15. When social theorists have sought to analyse
the role of mass
communication, they have generally approached the relevant issues in a
restricted way.
16. This approach provides a framework for considering
the impact of mass
communication on modern culture.

How to refer to others: specific

references to other studies
17. A complete description of the survey is found in Brooke and Jones
(2010).
18. Research indicates that the group brainstorming process
in its effectiveness as an idea-generating may be suspect
Bouchard procedure (Bouchard, 1969;
and Haire, 1970).
19. A more extensive discussion is
available in Shadish (2008).
20. This is essentially the argument
advanced by Marshall (2007).

50
 2.8 • Useful phrases per section of
your article

21. Some of the assumptions of the modernity school can be seen

in the work
of Cohen and Till (2006) and Armer and
Schnaiberg (1999; 2003; 2008).
22. This conclusion has been widely quoted and paraphrased in textbooks and
other publications. However, the data reported
by Glenn et al. (2004) do
not adequately support that conclusion.
23. This discovery is consistent with that of Hofstetter
et al. (1987), who found
no difference in the basal metabolic rate of smokers.
24. As Kendell notes (2011: 40), reliability is just a means to an end
25. A clearly different position is taken by Simpson (1998).
26. As I have demonstrated elsewhere (Tieken, 1997:206),
Elphinston's
linguistic observations with regard to the auxiliary do are not always
accurate.

27. The same point has been made elsewhere, notably in Jesperson (2012).
28. The methodology of the survey has been described in detail elsewhere
(Baker, 2009; Braithwaite and Biles, in press).
29. Sociologists (e.g. Labov, 1972b; Hymes, 1972; Ervin-Tripp, 1972) have
shown that communication systems are heterogeneous and multilayered.
30. Following the suggestion of Stack and others (2011), my measure of income
inequality focuses on both ends of the income distribution.
31. Renewed interest in the effect of coronary perfusion pressure on myocardial
oxygen consumption (mVO2) dates back to the observation of Gregg (13).

2.8.3 Methods

How to describe a process

Notice the many passives in the examples below:

1. To enable the subjects to see the computer screen clearly, the laptop was
configured with ...
2. In order to identify the T10 and T11 spinous processes, the subjects were
asked to...

3. For the purpose of height measurement, subjects were asked to stand ...
4. Responses were gathered and scored from 0 to 5.
5. The subjects were instructed to fill in the sheets while listening to the tape.
6. A statistical analysis was performed on the complete set of 30 items.
7. These data were subjected to a three-way analysis of variance.
8. Blood samples were obtained, with consent, from 256 Caucasian male
patients...

9. Cultures were set up and tested for their antibacterial activity.

10. There is a method of analysing the data that can answer both these
questions.

51
 2 • Write the article

11. The experimenter verified whether the subjects had filled in the sheets in
accordance with his instructions.
12. Prior to the study, ethical clearance was sought from ...
to ...
13. After collection, the samples were shipped back
14. Following this, the samples were recovered and stored ...
15. The subjects were then shown a film and were asked to ...
16. 15 subjects were recruited using email advertisements requesting healthy
students ...

17. The data was recorded on a digital audio recorder and transcribed using
a ...

18. Using the X-ray and looking at the actual ..., we were able to identify...

2.8.4 Results

How to refer to tables and figures

1. Table 1 shows ...

2. As shown in Figure 3, ...
3. As can be seen in Table 2 / Figure 2 / Chart 3, ...
4. As can be deduced from Figure 4, ...
5. Figure 3 illustrates this correlation.
6. These data are presented in Table 1.
7. Figure 2 provides the data necessary for these inquiries.
Tables Ga and 7 present the predictions and the relative errors per grade.
8.

9. The observed flow data are shown in Figure 1a. Figure 2b takes these flow
data and reinterprets them as a vacancy-driven
process.
10. Comparison of Figures 1 and 2 shows that...
11. Table 1 also relates intra and interpersonal situations and
triad
elements of the
12. Energy expenditure was greater for smokers receiving nicotine
than for
smokers receiving a placebo during both the activity and the rest sessions
(Table 2 and Fig. 1).
13. Table 1 shows the
classification of toxic substances..
14. There was a significant A effect (F(5, 486) = 8.5,
p<.001), which did nor
interact with any other factor, despite (or because of) the considerable
variability evident in Fig. 1.

How to report on statistical

findings
15. A significant correlation was found between
joint laxity (r = 0.787, p WOMAC scores and knee
<0.01).

52
 2.8 • Useful phrases per section of your article

16. Analyses of variance performed on the data revealed a

significant effect
of A, F(3,72)=4.15, p<.001.
17. In an analysis of variance, this was reflected in a highly significant
interaction between the effects of A (proactive vs. retroactive) and B
[F(4,32)=21.1, p<.001].
18. A repeated measures ANOVA showed that ... was significant. More
importantly, however, the A condition by B interaction was not significant
(F< 1), indicating that ...
19. The interaction between reading attitudes and L2 general proficiency was
marginally significant (p<.10).
20. Neither the difference between groups nor the difference between low and
high socioeconomic status was significant.
21. No other effects even approached significance.
22. Averaging over the two groups, subjects detected 83% of the
mispronunciations in condition A and 80% of the mispronunciations in
condition B, a nonsignificant difference [F(1,38)< 1].
23. There was a significant main effect of looks, F(2, 36) = 426.78, p<.001.

2.8.5 Discussion

How to summarise and conclude

1. In summary, it appears that indicators of job-related stress and strain are

primarily affected by job-related sources of support.
2. The conclusion as to the effect of context on word recognition, then, is that
one cannot make generalizing statements such as:
non-native listeners make
more use of context than native ones.
3. We are led to the conclusion that CS is a constant factor.
4. In summary, all these examples involve reinterpretation in a structure
containing an empty category of one kind or another.
let me again
5. To round off my comments about the work under discussion,
book.
express my opinion that it is an excellent
In short, the results of this study both support and contradict our
hypotheses.
7. This study has uncovered several important factors that are
associated
with membership in mature groups in the classroom.
8. This study developed a comprehensive and
utilitarian instrument for
measuring group consensus.
does indeed
Evidently, perceived freedom to participate in decision making
lead to stronger support for the group decision.

53
2 • Write the article

10. We have seen that an 'abstract' approach is perfectly capable of being

phonetically sophisticated.
11. essential
The evidence we have examined suggests that knowledge of rreliability is
to an understanding of these effects.
12. This study makes several contributions to the literature. First, ...
13. The present study makes several noteworthy contributions to the feld of ...
14. This study provides additional evidence with respect to ...
15. Our findings provide unique evidence that ...
16. Our study confirms previous findings that ... and contributes to a greater
understanding of...
17. Our study contributes to the literature in two ways. First, ...

How to make suggestions for future research

18. This issue deserves further empirical study.

19. It is true that in this paper I have not made a point-by-point analysis of
GMLE. This would be the subject of an entirely worthwhile research
project.
20. Additional research is needed to specify more precisely the conditions
under which the relationship between life change and mental health is linear
or curvilinear.

21. Another promising line of research would be

to carry out the same analysis
on left-branch languages.
22. A challenging task for further research
is the specification of conditions
under which these roles occur.
23. These results have implications for
future studies.
24. The results of this pilot study point
to a compelling need to test the
instrument both with a larger sample and
with a variety of groups.
25. Further research should provide the
evidence necessary for confidently
accepting or rejecting the instrument tested
and defended in this article.
Note: Some of the example phrases and
- 2.6, 2.8) have been inspired by the sentences in Chapter 2 (Sections 2.3
Academic Phrasebank (The University of
Manchester), an excellent resource for
academic writers that contains phrases
commonly used in academic writing, which are organised under
such as introducing works, describing clear headings
findings. Please methods, reporting results and discussing
refer to
useful phrases. [Link] more

54
3 Write paragraphs
After you have drafted a rough outline of your text and considered what
information will go in which section of your article, it is time to commit your
thoughts to paper. This again requires an organised approach because your
reader will have certain expectations about how you structure your text within
each section of your paper. In addition to possible subsections within a section, a
basic unit of organising your writing is the paragraph. Chapter 3, then, deals with
the paragraph as a key element for organising your text. The chapter focuses
on both structure and coherence, the latter having been divided into implicit
coherence (clear argumentation and logic) and explicit coherence (clear writing
and effective use of language).

3.1 English paragraphing

The basic idea behind English paragraphing is that one paragraph deals with one
single topic: when you come to a new topic, you need to start a new paragraph.
Thankfully, the definition of topic in this sense is quite broad. For example, a
topic could be X, or Y, or a comparison between X with Y, or the causal relation
between X and Y, etc. Perhaps a better way of phrasing this idea of one topic,
then, would be to say that paragraphs should show unity.

The paragraph structure conventions for English academic prose are quite
simple, and it is advisable to stick to them closely. A typical paragraph starts
off with a topic sentence, a sentence containing the main idea of the paragraph.
The direction set by this topic sentence is then developed in the body of the
paragraph; that is, supporting sentences explain or prove the topic sentence by
giving more information about it. There are several kinds of supporting details,
which include statistics, quotations, illustrations and expert opinions.

One optional way to end a paragraph is to make a final statement that contains
the point of the argument presented in the elaboration of the paragraph (e.g. It
follows that ...). This is especially useful for long paragraphs or paragraphs that
are complex in either content or structure. The concluding sentence may serve
the next
as a bridge between the elaboration and further argumentation in
paragraph. In summary, this is what you do in a paragraph:

55
 3 • Write paragraphs

• say what the paragraph is about (topic

sentence),
• develop the point of the topic sentence (elaboration),
• state the point of the argument presented in the elaboration (optional)

EXAMPLE
This example of a typical paragraph starts with some background
information (sentence 1), followed by the topic sentence (sentence 2,
underlined), supporting sentences, and then a sentence that states the
point of the argument (final sentence, in italics):

Every year, approximately 900,000 adults worldwide experience

major cardiac complications after surgery, which are associated
with increased mortality and hospital stay. These complications may
be prevented by preoperative non-invasive cardiac stress testing, This
strategy detects underlying ischaemic heart disease and identifies
individuals who might benefit from preoperative interventions,
aggressive intraoperative haemodynamic management, closer
postoperative surveillance, or avoiding surgery. Additionally, the
results of stress testing can guide the use of perioperative ß blockade,
which has greatest benefit in patients with inducible ischaemia.
Given these benefits, the American College of Cardiology and American
Heart Association guidelines recommend preoperative non-invasive
stress testing, but only in individuals with clinical risk factors for cardiac
complications.
(Adapted from: Wijeysundera, D. N., Beattie, W. S., Fraser, R., Autin, P.
C., Hux, J. E., &
Laupacis, A. (2010). Non-invasive cardiac stress testing
before elective major non-
cardiac surgery: population based cohort study. BMJ
2010;340:b5526.)

English paragraphs are divided by indenting the first line or by adding a

white
line between paragraphs. Some languages may allow a
single paragraph to
contain a succession of related thoughts that, though distinct to a
certain extent.
still belong to the same overall idea. In such languages, these
sub-thoughts can
be put in sub-paragraphs, which are clearly marked by the layout (for example by
indentation). Please note, however, that formal English does not allow this layour
with sub-paragraphs.

56
 3.2 • Create paragraph
coherence

WRITING TIPS
- English paragraphs never have only one sentence
and typically have
no fewer than three sentences.
Check journal requirements before you edit your text.
There is a strong
preference in British English for indentation as a paragraph boundary
marker rather than the American block paragraph system (with white
lines, as used in this book).
The paragraph at the beginning of the text or the
beginning of a new
section is typically not indented in British English journals;
it is in
American English journals.

3.2 Create paragraph coherence

In addition to clear structure, English paragraphs should show coherence.
The Latin verb cohere means "to hold together," and a paragraph is coherent
if each sentence flows smoothly and logically into another. In addition to the
information on coherence in this chapter, Chapter 4 provides more information
on how you can connect your sentences.

Writing well-structured and coherent paragraphs will not only keep you on
track as a writer, but it will also help your reader follow the details of your
argumentation. Two qualities in particular can help you create transparency and
precision in your paragraphs: implicit coherence and explicit coherence. Implicit
coherence is closely tied with paragraph unity; one form of implicit coherence
is the overall organisation of your ideas in a paragraph (e.g. chronology or
comparison). Explicit coherence means showing coherence with the language
you choose to use, for example by using pronouns such as this or they to refer to
items or people you mentioned previously.

3.2.1 Organise your ideas to create coherence

In order for you to demonstrate coherence to your reader, your paragraphs
to having a clear
need to be intrinsically coherent. This means that, in addition
understanding of the overall organisation of your paper, you need to be aware of
the implicit logic of the individual paragraphs that make up your paper.
your ideas
To write logical, coherent paragraphs, you could, for instance, organise
cause to effect or
from general to specific, from accepted to
controversial, from
you
in chronological order. This general organisation guides the order in which a
information to create
present your information and the way you connect the

57
 3 • Write paragraphs

clear storyline. With this implicit coherence in place, you can then use language
to make the organisation and logical connections explicit to your reader (see
3.2.2).

Present your arguments by example

You can give specific examples as evidence to support your arguments. The most
straightforward ways of giving examples are to simply state that something is an
example (an example of this is ..., as is exemplified by ..., etc.) or to list the points
concerned. You can create in-text lists by using linking words such as firstly and
secondly or you can create bulleted, lettered or numbered vertical lists. Consule
journal style requirements to find out what is allowed and what is common in
your field; unfortunately, the rules for lists are not always clear-cut.

Other ways of exemplifying are making a point and stating that items belong to
a certain class. You can make a point by using words and phrases like
moreover,
furthermore and it should be mentioned that .... Class membership can be
expressed by such phrases as among them are ..., the most common of which are
... and as is illustrated by .... Refer to Section 3.4 ("Signalling exemplification") for
more useful words and phrases.

WRITING TIPS
- The abbreviation of for example and for
instance in English is e.g.
(Latin: exempli gratia].
E.g. is not typically used in running text, but rather
in examples or
references between brackets or in footnotes (e.g. as in this example),
Please note that f.e. (for example) or f.i. (for instance) simply do
not
exist in English, and so do not use them.

Use chronology
The use of chronology (expressions of time) in a scientific
paper is another
straightforward and widely used way of presenting your work and establishing its
value. Note how this is done in
the following passage:

EXAMPLE

Tuberculosis had, for many years, been identified

as a major
health problem in East Timor, From 1996, two TB programs public
in parallel: one run by the Indonesian Ministry of Health and operated
one run by
an externally funded church-based organization (Caritas East Timor).

58
 3.2 • Create paragraph coherence

Following the referendum and associated violence,

many health staff
left East Timor or were unable to continue
working, and TB services
were severely disrupted. The magnitude of the TB
epidemic in East
Timor is believed to have increased in 1999. Within a
few months of
the September events, people from many different
organizations
contributed to the establishment of a National Tuberculosis Control
Program that conformed to WHO's DOTS strategy. In its first 5
years,
the TB program diagnosed and commenced treatment for 17,210
patients. [...] There has been gradual progress in DOTS expansion,
with the TB program functioning in all 13 districts and accessible to
79% of the population of East Timor. Treatment results have improved,
and the treatment success rate is now consistently over 80%.
(From: Martins, N., Kelly, P. M., Grace J. A. & Zwi A. B. (2006). Reconstructing tubeculosis
services after major conflict: experiences and lessons learned in East Timor. PLoS Med,
3(10), e383.)

Compare and contrast information

Another effective argumentation pattern is the use of words and phrases that
express comparison and contrast. This helps show similarities and differences
between information elements. Make sure you compare and contrast explicitly,
so your reader can understand your reasoning (see the examples provided in
Section 3.4 under "'Signalling comparison" and "Signalling contrast").

EXAMPLE

It might be objected that Hong Kong is a special case, not relevant

why the
to other developing countries. Certainly there is no reason
resemble
export supply parameters for Hong Kong should necessarily
those of other countries. However, the parameters of demand for Hong
Kong's exports should be similar to those faced by other countries
exploring similar products. The price elasticity of demand for Hong
countries
Kong's exports may indeed be lower than for most other
greater than those
since Hong Kong's share in world markets is much
of most other developing countries. Therefore, if it can be shown that
of demand, and that
Hong Kong's exports face a high price elasticity
have a relatively weak
changes in the level of income in export markets
same holds for other
effect on export performance, then perhaps thewhose shares in world
LDC exporters of similar kinds of
manufactures
One major qualification,
markets are even smaller than Hong Kong's.
trade barriers may
however, is that Hong Kong's ability to circumvent

59
 3 • Write paragraphs

exceed that of other countries. However, this question is beyond the

scope of the present paper.
(From: Riedel, J. (1988). The demand for LDC exports of manufactures: estimates from
Hong Kong, The Economic
Journal, 98, 138-148.)

Use cause and effect

You can also develop your argumentation by exploring causes and predicting or
ddescribing effects. To establish clear causal relationships, use words and phrases
such as therefore, thus and consequently.

EXAMPLES
Cause and effect
- due to
- on account of

- several factors cause / account for / contribute to

- another major cause of ... is
- many of the causes can be traced to
- as a result of
- as a consequence
- for this reason

- one of the biggest effects of ... is

- this results from / in

See Section 3.4 for more words and phrases that signal cause and
effect.

3.2.2 Use language to create coherence

Explicit coherence helps make clear to your reader the implicit structure and
logic behind your writing. There are several linguistic tools that can help you
achieve explicit coherence.

Use linking words and phrases

One way of achieving explicit coherence is the use of linking words and phrases.
These words and phrases clarify the relationship among sentences or sentence
parts in a paragraph and help the reader follow the ideas expressed in and
between paragraphs.

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 3.2 • Create paragraph
coherence

Refer to Section 3.4 for an exhaustive list of linking words that can
help you
add variety to your writing by avoiding repetitious vocabulary. As an
added
bonus, diversity may also add precision to your writing, since a well-developed
vocabulary gives you a broader range of expression.

In the example presented below, each linking word or phrase shows how the
following sentence is related to the preceding one: for example, furthermore
signals addition, first and second signal sequence and on the other hand signals
contrast.

EXAMPLE
One difference among the world's seas and oceans is that the salinity
varies in different climate zones. For example, the Baltic Sea in
northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the Red Sea in the
Middle East. There are two reasons for this. First of all, in warm climate
zones, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, the concentration of salt is
greater. Second, the surrounding land is dry; consequently, it does not
contribute much freshwater to dilute the salty seawater. In cold climate
zones, on the other hand, water evaporates slowly. Furthermore,
the runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of
freshwater to dilute the saline seawater.
(From: Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing Academic English. New York: Pearson
Longman.)

Use reference words

Reference words, or pronouns, are words such as they, their, these, who, which, it,
her, etc. that refer forward or, more commonly, backward to words or ideas in
their close proximity (i.e. the antecedent). If the link between a pronoun and its
antecedent, the word it refers to, is clear, pronouns add to the overall clarity and
conciseness of your message.

EXAMPLE
loss of a
Individuals living in the United States and undergoing
and
language other than English tend to have simplified grammar
to paraphrase their
gaps in their vocabulary. They may attempt
structures from English.
speech or borrow words and morphosyntactic
Depending on the strategies they use, people can be slowed down
may eventually
considerably in their attempts to communicate, and
give up entirely due to linguistic insecurity (Anderson, 1982).

61
 3 • Write paragraphs

While language loss can be devastating to a community, it need

not be inevitable. Many dedicated people throughout the world
have undertaken the challenge of reversing language loss in their
communities. While these efforts vary in size, resources, goals, and
results, they share a dedication to specific heritage languages so that
they may be spoken by future generations.
(From: Haynes, E. (2010). What is language loss? Heritage briefs. Retrieved July 2, 2012,
from [Link]

Repeat key words and phrases

Some beginning authors may feel that good writing means to avoid repetition
of words. While it is certainly true that a broad range of expression often adds
clarity and precision to your texts, the power of repeating key words and phrases
should not be underestimated.

The literal repetition of key concepts shows both unity and coherence and is
therefore a powerful tool in creating clear paragraphs. It reminds readers of the
subject of a paragraph, as can be seen in the following example on the next page.
Two of the key concepts in this paragraph are comprehension and failure, and
the author makes good use of repetition of key words and strong synonyms to
communicate this to the reader.

EXAMPLE

Comprehension can misfire at any of the five levels depicted in Table

1. The cause of the misfire may be attributed to either deficits in the
reader (i.e., lack of knowledge or processing skill) or
the discourse
(e.g., incoherent text, unintelligible speech). The consequence of
a
misfire can range from a complete breakdown in
comprehension to
a modest irregularity that captures the
comprehender's attention.
The comprehender may do nothing,
which runs the risk of
comprehension failure. Alternatively, the comprehender a
to compensate for the misfire by using may attempt
information from other levels
of discourse, from prior knowledge, or from external sources
other people or technologies). For (e.g.,
example, the scenarios below
illustrate misfires at various discourse levels, along
consequences. with the resulting
(From: Graesser, A. C., & McNamara, D. S. (2011).
discourse comprehension. Computational analyses of multilevel
Topics in Cognitive Science,
3, 371-398.)

62
 3.2 • Create paragraph coherence

Keep in mind that a well-written paragraph should still show variety, so it is not a
good idea to just repeat words and phrases monotonously. Try to balance the need
for variety against your audience's need to understand what you have written. For
example, if you use two subtly different words for one concept, your audience may
think that you are talking about two slightly different concepts, especially if the
subject is new to them or if the words are specific to your research. A helpful rule
of thumb is to use repetition for important content words, while using variety (e.g.
synonyms) in function words such as linking words and pronouns. You can also use
variety for concepts that are widely known (e.g. the world, earth, our planet), and
often for verbs, but always be vigilant in making sure that the synonym you choose
fits the context and carries the intend meaning

Repetition of key words can also be used to reinforce the connection among
several paragraphs. Consider the following example:

EXAMPLE

Mental models have several characteristics (cf. Johnson-Laird, 1983).

First, they consist of representations of entities (usually persons or
objects). Because there is no action at a distance, the entities are
potentially in contact with one another. That is, spatial relations among
the entities are an important component of the mental model. Entities
that are in contact can have a mutual influence. Mental models are
labile. As entities contact one another, they alter their relations. Finally,
mental models are limited. This is not a natural constraint on mental
models; it is a characteristic of the human cognitive system. In brief,
a mental model is a representation of the current understanding
of a situation, whether that situation is described by the perceptual
apparatus or whether that situation is described by a text.
Limitations forced on models by the cognitive system have
several implications. First, models cannot be exact analogs of real
situations. Instead, the entities in the model are more akin to pointers
to collections of information in long-term store (LTS), as suggested
by Sanford and Garrod (1981). Thus, when thinking about, say, an
and
airplane, the model consists of an entity representing an airplane
depending on the context, some salient features such as wings. This
airplanes in LTS so that
entity points to or activates information about
information is available to control manipulation of the entity (how the
( ...]
airplane moves) in the model and reasoning about the entity.
we can
Limitations on models also help us to understand how
be surprised to
so easily hold contradictory beliefs. I wouldn't
find out that my inchoate representation of an airplane's engine
3 • Write paragraphs

is incompatible with my notions of how lift is generated. Because

these models and sub models are separately constructed and do not
themselves interact, l never "notice" (Glenberg & Langston, 1992) the
contradiction.
(From: Glenberg, A. M., Kruley, P., & McNamara, D. S. (1994). Analogical processes in
comprehension: simulation of a mental model. In M. J. Traxler & M. A. Gersbacher (Eds.),
Handbook of psycholinguistics (pp. 610-611). San Diego: Academic Press.)

The three paragraphs form a tightly-knit unit. One of the characteristics of

mental models, as is stated in the first paragraph of the cluster, is that "mental
models are limited." In the succeeding paragraphs, each topic sentence starts
with a variation of the word group "mental models are limited," repeating or
echoing the key words "limited" and "mental models." In the remainder of
the paragraphs, some form of the key word "mental models" occurs, further
reinforcing the connections among and within the paragraphs.

Use grammatical parallelism

The fourth and final tool for explicit coherence that we discuss here is the use of
grammatically parallel constructions, Parallelism creates coherence by creating
"clusters" or "segments" of information that clearly show the reader what
information belongs together. The use of grammatically parallel constructions
adds emphasis and reinforces the relationships among ideas.

The following example shows that the repeated use of similar grammatical
patterns goes hand in hand with the repetition of certain phrases, and it clearly
shows the relation between the statements. Note, for example, the
repeated use
of "X can understand." Zooming out a little, we can distinguish several segments of
information: the first dealing with "we can talk about," the second dealing with "X
can understand" and the third segment dealing with remarks about "how."

EXAMPLE

Comprehension is a fuzzy term. We can talk about

comprehending
a word, a phrase, a sentence, or a discourse. We can
talk about
comprehending systems, like the economy. At the same time, people
can have various levels of comprehension. A student can understand
the mathematical operations that go into an
equation, but not
understand why the t statistic given by the equation is meaningful;
another can understand why t is meaningful, but not understand
why it is not meaningful when the
assumptions of the
violated; and the instructor can understand all of thetest are
above, and not
 3.3 • Recognise and avoid flawed
arguments

understand what degrees of freedom are all about. How is

that we
can comprehend in these ways? How is it that we can be so
certain
that we understand at one level (why t is meaningful)
when surely that
understanding is deficient if we do not understand a fundamental
component (degrees of freedom)? Is there anything that these forms
of comprehension have in common? How can
we, at times, be so
wrong about what we comprehend (Glenberg, Sanocki, Epstein, &
Morris, 1987)?

(From: Glenberg, A. M., Kruley, P., & McNamara, D. S. (1994). Analogical processes in
comprehension: simulation of a mental model. In M. J. Traxler & M. A. Gersbacher (Eds.),
Handbook of psycholinguistics (p. 609). San Diego: Academic Press.)

3.3 Recognise and avoid flawed arguments

As an academic, you are expected to identify faulty argumentation in both your
own work and that of others. This may not be as simple as it sounds because
some argumentation errors are common and persistent. It may help to be aware
of typical errors in reasoning that undermine the logic of an argument. If you
learn to recognise such flawed arguments, or logical fallacies, you might be able
to avoid them in your own work. In addition, an understanding of common
fallacies can be the basis of a critique.

The following list presents the most common logical fallacies:

Hasty generalisation
A hasty generalisation, also called jumping to a conclusion, occurs when a
conclusion is drawn on the basis of too little evidence.

1. I had to read two plays by Shakespeare this semester. They were so boring! !
know that | will never like Shakespeare.
many
2. The Norwegian who killed over 70 youths at a political retreat played
violent video games. Obviously, these games glorify and incite violence and
should be banned.

Sweeping generalisation
general statement too
A sweeping generalisation is a statement that applies a
broadly and that cannot be supported.

3. Men are systemisers and women are sympathisers.

4. Everyone should do sports.

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3 • Write paragraphs

Equivocation
Equivocation occurs when a key word or phrase is used in different senses at
different stages of an argument; that is, the meaning of this word or phrase is
shifted during an argument.

5. A feather is light. What is light cannot be dark. Therefore, a feather cannor

6. All heavy things have a great mass; Jim has a heavy heart; therefore jim's
heart has a great mass.

Non sequitur (does not follow)

This fallacy occurs when a conclusion does not logically follow from what comes
before.

7. Mary grew up in poverty and therefore will be a good politician.

8. He was born with a silver spoon in his mouth, so he must be happy.

Slippery slope
The slippery slope fallacy is an argument that postulates that taking a relatively
small step leads to a chain of events with unintended consequences, without
showing the causal connection. This fallacy is often used to scare people.

9. If we allow our country to be overrun with immigrants, our welfare

system
will not be able to support our own people.
10. Sex education in primary schools will result in sexual promiscuity.

Either/or fallacy
The either/or fallacy occurs in a situation in which only
two alternatives are
considered when in reality there are more
options.
11. Either we stop using cars, or we
destroy the earth.
12. The university's new enrolment programme will either make things
students or result in total chaos. easier for

Post hoc argumentation (false cause)

The post hoc ergo propter hoc ("after this, therefore
because of this") fallacy is
based on the incorrect inference that event A caused event
preceded event B.
B because event A

13. A butterfly flapped its wings in Peru.

The world's climate changed
14. He became Prime Minister in 2013. Since then, crime
rates have doubled

66
 3.3 • Recognise and avoid
flawed arguments

False analogy
A false analogy is an argument that is based on a very weak, superficial,
misleading or implausible comparison. The things (or people) being compared
are portrayed as being similar, while they are in fact very dissimilar.
15. Obama did not serve in the military, and so having him as the commander
in chief of the armed forces of the United States is like
having a child issuing
instructions to governmental departments to introduce
budgetary cuts.
16. Just as the government has the right to decide who is allowed to vote and
who is not, it has the right to decide who can and who cannot
get married

Begging the question / circular reasoning

This fallacy occurs when a debatable premise is stated as if it were true.

17. Stem cell research should never be legalised because it is inherently evil.
(Note: the premise is that stem cell research is evil - but no evidence has been
given to support that view.)

Begging the question is related to (and often said to be the equivalent of)
circular reasoning in which a statement is supported by simply repeating the
statement in different words.

18. Freedom of speech is important because it gives everyone a voice.

19. Obama was the best candidate for the presidency simply because he was
better than any of the other candidates.
20. Inflation is causing prices to rise.

Red herring (smoke screen)

The red herring fallacy occurs when a writer changes the subject and introduces
an irrelevant topic to distract the readers from the central issue.

21. He may be a bully at work, but he is a very good father.

22. It is true that these cuts will affect the poorest and most vulnerable the
hardest, but don't forget that the government has done some good work for
this country.

Argument to the people (ad populum)

This fallacy occurs when a writer appeals to certain values or prejudices shared
by a large number of people and attempts to win acceptance of a proposition
by asserting that many people believe it to be true rather than by
building
simply
an argument.

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 3 • Write paragraphs

23. The Bible says "Thou shalt not kill," so no one who believes in God can think
abortion is right.
24. Strong, decisive and knowledgeable. A church-going, tax-paying citizen, a
American. He deserves your vote!
family man, a patriotic
25. Everybody says so, so it must be
right.

Argument to the person (ad hominem)

Arguments to the person focus on the person and ignore the real issue at stake.
26. We should never have adopted Obama's health care plan, because he and his
staff are just a bunch of socialists.
27. Just ignore what she said about family values. After all, she's been divorced
three times!

Bandwagon
This type of argument to the people occurs when a writer tries to establish that
something is true because everyone believes it is true.

28. It is just common sense that as Dutch borrows words from English, the
Dutch stock of native words will diminish.
29. Everybody knows that drinking soda and eating candy makes children
hyperactive.

3.4 Useful vocabulary: linking words and phrases

Listing and signalling class membership

- among them / these are
- consist of
- first(ly), second(ly),
third(ly)
- in the frst place, in the
second place
- fall into ... categories
- finally
- included (in ...) are
- may / can be divided into ...
groups
- may / can be classified according to // types
on
/ categories / classes
- may / can be the basis of / as / into / by
- may / can be
categorised according to / by / as
- there are twogrouped by / into / under
kinds of ... the first is ...
- the most
common of which are
the second is ...
- to begin with
-tothisgroup
belong

68
 3.4 @ Usetul vocabutary:
tnking words and phrases

Signalling sequence or addition

- again - furthermore
- another point that can be made is - in addition
- also - it should also be
mentioned that
- and - last(ly)
- as well as - moreover
- besides - next
- both ... and
- not only, ... but also
- finally - still
- first(ly), second(ly), third(ly) - too
- further - what is more

Signalling exemplification
- as - like
- an example (of this) is - specifcally
- as a first example, consider - such as
- by way of illustration - this may be illustrated by
- for example - to illustrate this point
- for instance - to take / use another example
- e.g. (= exempli gratia) (not in run-
ning text)

Signalling time
- after - in due course
- afterwards - in the meantime
- as soon as - later
- at first - meanwhile
- at last - next

- at length - now

- at present - over the years

- at the end - previously
- at the same time - prior to
- at this very moment - soon

- before - subsequently
- by the time (that) - then
- during - throughout
- earlier - to date
- eventually - until
-fnally - then

- following
- immediately

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 3 • Write paragraphs

Signalling comparison
- in the same
- also way
- just as ..., so
- as

- as well as
- like
- both ... and - likewise

- by way of comparison - not only ... but also

/ with - similar(ly)
- compared to - similar to
- comparable to
- there is a similarity
- identical (to) between ... and
- in comparison - the same (...) applies to
- the same as

Signalling contrast

- although - in spite of
- as opposed to - more / less ... than
- but - nevertheless
- by way of contrast - nonetheless

- contrary to - not as ... as

- on the contrary
- conversely
- despite - on the one hand ..., on the other
- differ from hand,
- different (from) - rather than
- dissimilar - regardless of
- even though - still
- however - unlike
- in comparison - where
- in contrast (to) - whereas
- in fact - while
- instead (of) - yet

Expressing cause and effect

- accordingly - the reason for ... is
- arise from
- this is why
- as
- this results from / in
- as a consequence (of) - this stems from
- as a result (of) - to affect
- because
- to cause
- because of
- to have an effect on
- consequently - to lead to
- due to
- to result from
- for this reason
- to result in

70
 3.4 • Userdt
Vlabuld y tmkiy woras
and pirases

- another major
- give rise to cause of ... is
- hence - can be ascribed
to / attributed to
- in view of - it can be inferred
from ...
- on account of - many of the causes can bethat
traced
- owing to to

- since - one of the major

effects of ... is
- several factors
- 50 cause / account for
- then / contribute to
- therefore - this becomes apparent from
- the cause of ... is

Signalling condition
- as long as - otherwise
- either ... or - providing
- (even) if - provided (that)
- in case (of) - regardless of
- in the event that - should
- in the event of - unless
- ... or (else) - whether ... or not

Signalling alternatives
- an alternative (solution to the
problem) would be
- the alternative is / would be
- alternatively
- or

- either ... or

Signalling concessions and insufficient reasoning

- although - in spite of
- admittedly - naturally
- after all. - nonetheless
- nevertheless
- but ….. still
- certainly - of course
- despite - regardless of
- still
- (even) though
- however - yet

Signalling narrowing of focus / reformulation

- or rather
- after all
- i.e. (= id est) (not in running text) - seen in terms of
- indeed - specifically
- in fact - to put it differently
- in other words - to put it simply
- in particular - that is to say

- more specifically

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3 • Write paragraphs

Making a point

- far more likely is the possibility that

- it is worth noting chat
- it should be noted that
- it should be recognised that
- it should be stressed that
- the importance of .. should not be
underestimated
- this is highly significant
- this is of primary / secondary importance
- we want to emphasise that
- what is striking about the data presented in Table 3 is
Concluding and summarising

- in conclusion
- in other words
- in short
- in brief
- in summary

- overall
- therefore
- thus

- to conclude
- to summarise
- this leads us to the conclusion that
- this may indicate / suggest that

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44 Write sentences
Sentences consist of words and word groups. How you order those words to
form clear sentences is an important part of successful communication. This
chapter starts with discussing the basic word order patterns of English and then
goes into how you can use word order to add extra meaning dimensions to your
text.

4.1 Basic English word order

Basic English word order is key to communicating your message effectively;
errors in basic word order may confuse your reader and obscure the
relation between information elements in your sentence. Moreover, a clear
understanding of the basics will save you writing time and allow you to be
precise about the meaning you want to get across.

4.1.1 Clauses: subject, verb and object

In English affirmative statements, the subject, verb and object (SVO) remain a
closely linked trinity.

Subject Verb(s) (Indirect object) Object(s)

(0) a report
John is writing
our subjects a small fee
We pay
(0) our ideas
These data support

Clauses are the

A combination of subject, verb and object is known as a clause.
can form a complete sentence.
smallest grammatical combination of words that
The smallest possible sentences in English are main clauses (or
independent
can also consist of
clauses) that comprise just a subject and verb (1). Sentences
of main clause and subclause
a combination
two or more main clauses (2 & 3) or subclauses, also known
(4& 5). Main clauses can stand alone as a sentence, while
clause to make grammatical
as subordinate or dependent clauses, need a main
sense.

1. They walked. (smallest possible type of main clause)

2. They walked, and they ate. (two main clauses)

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 4 • Write sentences

3. Our findings support the idea of Walker (2005), but they differ from recent
studies (Howards, 2009; Smith, 2010). (two main clauses)
4. They walked because they needed the exercise. (main clause + subclause)
5.
Our findings were unexpected as they suggest a relation between OSA5 and
FMS. (main clause + subclause)

Extra elements of information are often added to the basic trinity of subject,
verb and object. For example, phrases that reflect time and place typically
go
outside this trinity, either at the beginning or end (but notice they can also be
placed in mid position, see 4.1.2):

6. John writes his reports at home.

7. She has conducted research in Canada since April.
8. On Monday, I'm going to start the experiment

Particular kinds of words, notably adverbs such as always

and never, can separate
the combination of subject, verb and object (also see 4.1.2):

9. Our data are always double-checked.

10. Patients never participate twice.
11. Results will probably be published next week.
12. We usually pay our subjects a small fee.
13. This phenomenon has hardly ever been
noticed in other projects.

Note that the set trinity may also change in

sentences where word order is used
as a tool to express emphasis (see
4.2).

4.1.2 Adverb placement

Adverbs are words that can add meaning to your
("modify") the exact meaning of words, phrases orsentence: they change or specify
modify verbs (1), adjectives (2), other clauses. Adverbs can be used to
adverbs (3) or even entire clauses (4).
1. Patients usually
participate twice. (participate =
2. They used an impressively verb)
3. She almost never complete database. (complete = adjective)
complains. (never = adverb)
4. Regretfully, most patients had to
be excluded from this test. (most
... this test = clause) patients

The three basic positions for adverbs are front (5), middle
(6) or end (7). Placing an adverb between the (before the main verb)
verb and object often leads to the

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 basic enguish word
order

typical non-native mistake in (8), but can be correct if the object is long (see
4.2.3 for object-adverb switching).

5. Fortunately, there is a new treatment option available for patients with

Gaucher's disease, a rare genetic disorder.
6. Patients usually go home the same day.
7. John writes his report at home.
8. X Researchers work often in teams.
J Researchers often work in teams.

It is worth noticing that mid position typically means before the main verb,
except when the main verb is a form of "to be":

9. Researchers are often part of a team.

The difference between sentences (8) and (9) above is that in (8) the main verb is
"to work" whereas in (9) it is "to be."

Non-native authors who struggle with adverb placement may care to note that
the type of adverb often betrays where the adverb can be placed in a clause.
For example, adverbs of time typically start or end a sentence, while adverbs of
frequency (always, never) are common in mid position, before the main verb.
Unfortunately, there are many exceptions to the typical rules, so getting familiar
with correct adverb placement may take some effort.

Adverbs of time - front, mid or end position

Most frequently, adverbs of time, such as yesterday, since 2010 and last month,
are put at the end of the sentence (10) or at the beginning of the sentence (11).
A third possibility is to place adverbs of time before the main verb (12). Sentence
(10) is an example of the most neutral position, whereas (11) places more
emphasis on the adverb of time.

10. Smith has been working on this topic since 2006.

make it
11. Currently, the time constraints and scope of medical practice
difficult for practitioners to develop this skill.
12. We recently downloaded this program.

Adverbs of frequency - mid position

Adverbs of frequency are adverbs such as always,thenever, seldom and usually. They
the main verb (13), unless main verb is a form of "to be,"
are put directly before
that adverbs
(14). Notice
in which case the adverb is placed directly after the verb

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 4 • Write sentences

in mid position are placed before the main verb and after any auxiliary verb
("helping" verb) (15).

13. We always keep in mind that the cultural background of patients influences
how and when they present with illness.
14. Changing individual behaviour is never easy.
15. Scientists have frequently used highly diverse and controversial
nomenclature in the naming of MHC molecules.

Adverbs of manner - mid or end position

Adverbs of manner include slowly, carefully, selectively and powerfully. They may
be put in end position, behind the direct object or behind the verb if there is no
direct object (16). Another construction frequently used in academic writing is
to place them before the main verb (17).

16. Progress towards openness is being watched carefully

17. This facility allows users to generate refined enquiries, so that they can
selectively access data of interest.

Notice that if two or more adverbs occur in the same position in a sentence,
they
will appear in a basic order, sometimes called the Royal Order of Adverbs:

18. He walks carefully (manner) in the garden (place) every Saturday (frequency)
after lunch (time) to check for weeds (purpose).

4.2 Effective use of sophisticated word order

Appropriate choice of word order can help mark important information and
make your text more coherent. The trinity of subject, verb and object discussed
in Section 4.1 may therefore change in constructions where word order is
used
as a tool to express emphasis. The trinity itself can also be used to
full effect
based on informed choices about the general order of information
in a sentence.
This section discusses various means of giving prominence to sentence
through word order.
elements

4.2.1 End focus and end weight

Since sentences in academic texts are often long and contain much detailed
information, it is useful for your reader to know where
in each sentence to
expect the most important information. English sentences are based on the
principle of end focus, which means that native English speakers prefer to place

76
new information towards the end of the clause - preferably right at the end -
rather than at the beginning.

The English syntactic system allows for each sentence to link with the preceding
context by placing "old" or "given" information at the beginning of the sentence.
New information, which is often "weighty" and "long," is then placed at the end
This way of organising your information allows you to fit information elements
into their precise context: you can neatly knit the discourse together by creating
for your reader.
a clear flow of information

The "given-new" fow of information can be represented graphically as shown

below:

Sentence 1 Sentence 2

WRITING TIP
Put in the topic [= initial] position the old information that links backward
put in the stress [= final] position the new information you want the
reader to emphasize.

(From: Gopen, G.D. & Swan, J.A. (Nov-Dec. 1990). The science of scientific writing.
American Scientist, 78, 550-558.)

EXAMPLE

Of particular interest were any differences in the relation between IQ

and self-perceptions of social competence within three of the groups:
integrated gifted, self-contained gifted and random controls. The
random controls were assumed to be more representative of the
matched controls.
general population for these analyses than were the

The idea of end focus is closely related to the principle of end weight, which
prescribes that shorter textual components should be placed towards the
beginning of the clause and longer, more complex components towards the final
and end weight
position. There is often a strong connection between end focus
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4 • Write sentences

because you are more likely to elaborate on newly presented information than on
old information.

EXAMPLE
X The possibility that the patterns shown by our study persist because
of factors associated with the social structure of the delivery system is
far more likely.
Far more likely is the possibility that the patterns shown by our
study persist because of factors associated with the social structure of
the delivery system.

4.2.2 Word order in passive constructions

Passive constructions are sentences that focus on what was done more than on
who did it:

1. Organisms are often classified by genus or species. (passive) (cf. Biologists

often classify organisms by genus or species. (active])
2. The number of eggs per nest was counted. (passive) (cf. We counted the
number of eggs per nest. [active])

Sentences in the passive voice are popular in academic writing but do have their
limitations. Section 5.4.1 deals with the pros and cons of the passive in more
detail; the current section focuses on the effect of the passive on end focus and
end weight.

EXAMPLE

The passive voice is common in the Materials and Methods section:

All experiments were performed using recombinant mouse RAG1 and

RAG2; core RAG1 (residues 384-1,008) and either core (residues 1-387)
or full-length RAG2 were expressed from the pEBG vector.
RAG1 and
RAG2 were co-purified as glutathione-S-transferase fusion
proteins
from Chinese hamster ovary (RMP41) cells.
Recombinant human
HMGB1 was purified from Escherichia coli as previously described.
(Posey, J. E., Pytlos, M. J., Sinden, R. R., & Roth
D. B. (2006). Target DNA structure
plays a critical role in RAG transposition. PLoS Biol,
4(11), e350, doi:10.1371/journal
pbio.0040350)

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 4.2 • Effective use of sophisticated word order

There is a danger that passive sentences can become top-heavy, starting with a
long subject and ending with a short verb phrase. This problem, also known as
frontal overload (Hannay & Mackenzie 2009), can be avoided by splitting up the
subject, thus creating end weight. Compare the following (a) and (b) sentences:

3a. A number of major differences between the two best-selling stomach tablets
have been found. (frontal overload)
3b. A number of major differences have been found between the two best-
selling stomach tablets. (end weight)
4a. A suggestion that the solution might already have been found was made.
(frontal overload)
4b. A suggestion was made that the solution might already have been found.
(end weight)

Another way of rephrasing frontally overloaded passive sentences is by making

the sentences active, which often involves inserting a new verb. A useful way of
doing this is to use an active verb in the so-called locative subject construction.
This construction works with verbs such as discuss, report, describe, examine,
investigate, provide, give, present, reveal and show, and subjects such as study,
paper, chapter, section, table and figure.

Consider the examples of locative subject constructions below:

[Link] 2 provides the data necessary for these inquiries.

6. This investigation concentrates on this second aspect of pitch.
in a group
7. The present report describes the management of root absorption
of patients who underwent treatment.
of stressful marital
8. This study examines the impact of different kinds
situations on individual levels of stress.

WRITING TIPS
You can use locative subjects such as this
paper and Table 1 to make your
sentences more active:

- This paper addresses ...

- The program runs ...

the subject of an active verb does

English allows this construction where
of actually performing the activity
not have to be alive or even capable
seem alien to some non-native
expressed by the verb. While this may
is common in English
speakers of English, this use of abstract subjects
academic writing.

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4 • Write sentences

4.2.3 Switching
Hannay & Mackenzie (2009) note that you can give prominence to sentence
elements by switching their position. One of the standard positions for adverbs is
at the end of the clause:

1. We now need to specify these conditions more

precisely.

However, if the object of the sentence is rather long, you can give end focus to
the long, "weighty" object while still giving secondary prominence to the adverb
by placing the adverb between verb and object (object-adverb switching).
Compare the following sentences:

2. ? Similar inferences may be drawn for community mental health agencies,

although additional research is needed to specify the conditions under which
the relationship between life change and mental health is linear or curvilinear
more precisely
J Similar inferences may be drawn for community mental health agencies,
although additional research is needed to specify more precisely the
conditions under which the relationship between life change and mental health
is linear or curvilinear. (better end focus)

Note that object-adverb switching, a term derived from Hannay & Mackenzie's
(2009) object-adjunct switching, is a general term; other grammatical elements
can also be used for switching:

4. ? We are now in a position to put the features that have played a role in the
development of this research into context.
5. V We are now in a position to put into context the features that have played
a role in the development of this research. (end focus on object by switching
prepositional phrase)

4.2.4 Presentatives
Presentatives deviate from the normal structure of an
English sentence
because they have the subject at the end rather than at the beginning.
The first
constituent, which often contains an adjective, functions as a kind of staging
device for the new referent. Presentatives are frequently used in academic
writing in order to introduce more detail, as in the following
examples:

80
 ul supniatieated
nerd druer

1. To introduce new topics that you wish to expand upon.

a. Underlying this second argument, however, is the important
assumption that genre expectations affect sentence processing and
comprehension
b. A central problem until recently has been the lack of statistical
estimation of the second issue.
c. Of particular interest here is the method based on the Laplace
transformation.

2. To make additional points and present additional arguments.

a. An equally obvious problem is that simplifying assumptions seems to
direct the interpretation of dynamic models.
b. No less interesting is the finding that English sentences are more
complex than Dutch sentences.

3. To present lists.
a. To this group belong all appliances such as water turbines, steam
turbines, steam engines and boilers, gas producers, gas engines and
oil engines.
b. Among the questions that should be addressed is "What makes an
argument valid or invalid?"

Note, however, that the first constituent must either contain an explicit link to
the preceding context or strongly suggest such a link (e.g. for example, equally,
also, far more, of particular interest). This reference to the previous context is an
absolute requirement in English, which means you cannot say things like "Implicit
is the assumption that…..." or "Central is the question as to why..."

4.2.5 It-clefts and wh-clefts

Like presentatives, cleft sentences have a non-standard word order that can
provide special prominence to certain elements in your sentence, much like
you can use intonation for special prominence in spoken English. A common
distinction is between it-clefts and wh-clefts.

In the vast majority of English sentences, the element in sentence-final position

elements in
receives the most prominence. However, you may want to focus on
information. It-clefts do
sentence-initial position for variation or better flow of
at the start of a sentence,
precisely that: they put special focus on constituents
which contrasts with end focus (and is effective precisely because of that
contrast).

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4 e Write sentences

1. It is precisely this problem that the authors

neglected.
2. It was not until later that Smith came to the conclusion that...

It- lefts are formed by placing the focus word or phrase after an introductory it
and then adding a form of the verb to be followed by a clarifying relative clause.
The focus phrase should refer to the previous context and typically draws extra
attention to a topic that will be discussed in more detail in the sentences that
follow.

IT-CLEFTS: IT + form of "to BE" + FOCUS PHRASE + THAT/ WHO...

3. It is the issue of grammar that needs to be addressed.

4. It was Harrison (2011) who discovered this relation.
5. It was exactly because of this development that populists gained support.

It-clefts are reasonably rare, but more common in academic writing than in
conversation.

A wh-cleft is a sentence that starts with a wh-word, usually what, in which the
basic clause is split into two parts. The information presented in the focus phrase
is often quite long and leads to more information in following sentences (cf.
given-new). Similar to it-clefts, wh-clefts also serve to highlight a particular piece
of information, but the highlighted part comes at the end of the clause. The
focus phrase thus introduces new information, in line with end focus, and refers
to what will be discussed next. Wh-clefts typically have an announcing function
and are especially useful if you want to move on to a new topic (Siepmann,
Callagher, Hannay & Mackenzie, 2008).

WH-CLEFTS: WH-clause + form of "to BE" + FOCUS PHRASE

6. What we do not know yet is whether neurogenesis alone is sufficient for

depression recovery.
7. What is striking is that the expected results are consistently obtained
not only in the sample as a whole, but also within the sex, ethnic, and
diagnostic subgroups.
8. What Bukhari et al. (2012) have failed to consider is the impact of the test on
the supporting environment.

It is worth noting that while cleft constructions can be effective, they should be
used sparingly and with an understanding of their communicative effect. Their

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 4.3 • Check your
punctuation

grammar is complex, meaning that they are not always easy to construct. In
addition, their use is a style choice that is the source of ongoing debate among
native English authors.

4.2.6 Clause combining

Clause combining allows you to gather related information together in one
sentence. The way you combine the information is an important tool in making
the overall logic of your text explicit to your reader. By distinguishing important
from less important information, you can add extra dimensions of meaning to
the text.

Section 4.4 deals with clause combining in detail, building on the information on
punctuation provided in 4.3 below.

4.3 Check your punctuation

Good punctuation is essential in any form of writing, but especially so in academic
prose. Using too much, too little or incorrect punctuation will make it difficult for
the reader to follow your argument. Correct punctuation, however, is a powerful
tool for getting your message across and for making life easier for your reader.

The following pages are devoted to some of the most important punctuation
rules and common errors in academic writing. First, though, it will be helpful to
become familiar with the names of punctuation marks in English:

full stop (BrE) / period (AmE)

, comma

colon

; semicolon

apostrophe
double inverted commas (BrE) / quotation marks (AmE)
hyphen
- dash / em dash

() round brackets (BrE) / parentheses (AmE)

square brackets

ellipsis

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4 • Write sentences

EXAMPLE
Consider the following example. It shows what can go wrong if an
author fails to punctuate correctly:

A panda walks into a café. He orders a sandwich, eats it, then draws
a gun and fires two shots in the air. "Why?" asks the confused waiter,
as the panda makes towards the exit. The panda produces a badly
punctuated wildlife manual and tosses it over his shoulder. "I'm a
panda," he says, at the door. "Look it up." The waiter turns to the
relevant entry and, sure enough, finds an explanation. "Panda: Large
black-and-white bear-like mammal, native to China. Eats, shoots and
leaves."

(From: Truss, L. (2003). Eats, shoots & leaves: the zero tolerance approach to punctuation,
London: Profile Books.)

4.3.1 Commas
The comma is the most frequently used form of punctuation. Although there are
many different viewpoints on the correct use of commas in English, a number of
rules applying to commas in academic writing should be observed.

Commas are used to:

• separate linking words from the main idea of the sentence;

• separate main clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions;
• separate extra information from the main idea of the sentence;
• separate things, concepts, events, ideas, etc. in lists;
• separate quotations from the main discourse;
• improve legibility.

Separate linking words from the main idea of the sentence

Linking words and phrases are used to indicate and define a relationship
between either two sentences or between two parts of the same sentence.
Linking words and phrases are separated from the main sentence by a comma.

1.
Despite the success, the research group was not satisfied with the outcome.
2. Nevertheless, it was decided that the project should be continued
3. In addition, they could hire new staff.
4. Furthermore, new funds were made available
for the projects.
[Link] sum
up, they did all they could to improve future results.

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 utetn your
puncruation

WRITINGTIP
Remember that the following linking words and phrases, among many
others, are followed by a comma if they start the sentence:
- in addition
- furthermore
- moreover
- in the same way
besides - what is more

indeed - even so

- nevertheless - nonetheless
- however - on the one /other hand
- in other words - accordingly
- to sum up
- in conclusion
- in short - for example

If linking words occur in the middle of a sentence, they are isolated by two
commas:

6. Our findings, however, did not support these assumptions.

7. We could, of course, count on support from the entire team.
8. Our research students, for example, were eager to make the tests a success.

Final subclauses that begin with while, whereas or although are always preceded
by a comma, but because normally does not take a comma:

9. Our results were not spectacular, although they did show some significant
differences.
10. The number of accidents has increased, while the number of fatalities has
decreased.
11. Our findings need to be interpreted with caution because the cohort size
was small.

Separate main clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are also known as FANBOYS words (for, and, nor, but,
or, yet and so). They can be used to link two main clauses (see
4.1.1), and when
they do, they are preceded by a comma.

12. Johnson (2010) was the first to notice this effect, and Johnson & Watson
(2011) elaborate on its implications.
13. The disease can result, in part, from stress, but the importance of such
psychosomatic links has been overstated in the past.
14. They have studied average incomes before, so they can build on previous
knowledge.

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4 • Write sentences

Note that FANBOYS words take a comma if theyorlink clauses (subject + verb/
phrases:
object combinations) but not if they link words
15. They used both approximations and surrogate models to address
dimensionality issues.
16. It is difficult to determine whether stress is the cause or the result of these
factors.

WRITING TIPS

- A common mistake in writing is to put a comma after FANBOYS words.

incorrect in all but the rarest of situations.
This is
A common misunderstanding is that clauses that are joined with and
or but should not be separated by a comma; the grammar rules clearly
dictate that they should

Separate extra information from the main idea of the sentence

Extra information may be any kind of information that is not part of the main
idea of the sentence. It can be a linking word or a phrase that starts with a linking
word such as while, whereas, although or if. A typical item of extra information is
the introductory phrase:

17. After a carefully orchestrated coup, the rebels killed the democratically
elected president.
18. In the most remote areas of Russia, linguists have found rare phonological
constructions.

19. In the preface to their ground-breaking work on the role of feminism in

WWl, the authors state that ….

Extra information may also take the form of short specifications of time, place or
manner, or an example. Commas make it easier for your reader to separate the
core information from the extra information.

Place: In Britain, most researchers use this method.

Time: In 1900, Carter discovered the extrinsic period of incubation of yellow
fever.

Notice that, depending on the context of the sentence or for variation, you can
also place such items of information mid-sentence or at the end of a sentence
(see 4.5.1). The comma is omitted in
these cases:

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 4.3 • Check your punctuation

Place: Most researchers in Britain use this method.

Time: Carter discovered the extrinsic period of incubation of yellow fever in
1900.

The choice to separate an information element from the main message with
commas can have a marked effect on the meaning of a sentence, as elements set
off from the main message can be considered non-essential to the meaning of
the message. Section 4.3.2 below deals with this difference between essential and
non-essential information elements.

Separate things, concepts, events, ideas, etc. in lists

Items in a list are separated by commas. Whether the final element, preceded by
and, is also separated by a comma is a matter of regional preference and context.
In American English, it is common to place a comma before the final item in a
list, whereas in British English this comma is usually omitted.

20. American English:

The research combined a literature survey, empirical results, and a
philosophical analysis of the field.
21. British English:
The research combined a literature survey, empirical results and a
philosophical analysis of the field.

If, however, the last member of a list is rather long, or has a "last but not least"
flavour, then the final comma may be appropriate in British English as well.
The same comma before the final item in a list is also appropriate if it prevents
misreading.

22. Prices fell, interest rates fell, employment figures rose, consumer behaviour
changed, and the economy received a terrific boost.
23. This is a matter of logical relations, including chronology, correlation, and
cause and effect.

Separate quotations from the main discourse

A comma is normally used to set off quotes from the rest of the sentence.

24. "I was able," he answered, "to complete the experiment before the deadline."
25. According to Smith (1994), "interest rates will affect the company's budget."

Using a colon to set off quotes is reserved for when the quote follows an
independent clause and typically only if the quote is quite long.

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4 • Write sentences

26. Their main motivation comes from Smith (1994); "Interest rates will affect
the company's budget, which might result in long-term losses."

Prevent misreading
If you separate information from the core message of a sentence by means of a
comma, the reader can see it is not part of the corecomma:
information. The longer the
a
the need for
initial phrase or clause, the greater

27. After we had completed the study and the necessary experiments) we could
turn our thoughts to writing a report.

However, even if the introductory element is short, a comma might still prevent
misreading.

went to bed.
28. X After eating the children
29. V After eating, the children
went to bed

4.3.2 Commas in relative clauses: restrictive vs.

non-restrictive
The purpose of a relative clause is to say something about the noun that it
follows. Some relative clauses contain information that is purely additional,
while others are vitally important to the meaning of the noun. The presence of
commas makes all the difference for the interpretation of such relative clauses, as
may be clear from the following examples.

1. The students, who were late, could not get in.

(non-restrictive)
2. The students who were late could not get in.
(restrictive)

There is a marked difference in meaning between (1) and (2) above: in (1), all
students could not get in because they were late, while in (2) only those students
who were late could not get in. In sentence (1), the relative clause ("who were
late") is said to be non-restrictive, or non-essential, whereas in sentence (2) the
relative clause is restrictive, or essential, to the meaning of the noun "students"

Non-restrictive relative clauses are set apart from the main message by commas,
while restrictive elements are not separated from the main discourse. Thus
before placing your commas, you should consider carefully what you want to say
and whether certain information is additional or vital. If information is merely
additional, you might want to consider whether it is worth putting it in at all

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 4.3 • Check your
punctuation

The relative pronouns that, which and whose can be used to write about non-
humans, while who is reserved to refer to humans only. Note that that can only
be used in restrictive relative clauses.

Restrictive relative clause:

3. The study that/which reviews this principle most extensively is the one by
McMillan.
4. The researcher who reviews this principle most extensively is McMillan.

Non-restrictive relative clause

5. V The study by McMillan, which reviews this principle most extensively,
dates from 2005.
6. X The study by McMillan, that reviews this principle most extensively,
dates
from 2005.

WRITING TIP
You can mark the difference between restrictive and non-restrictive
relative clauses with just commas. However, you can further aid your
reader by consistently marking restrictive clauses with that and reserving
which for non-restrictive elements only.
The study by McMillan, which reviews this principle most extensively,
dates from 2005.
- The method, which has been developed by Grant, can ...
- The study that reviews this principle most extensively dates from 2007.
- The method that has been developed by Grant can ...

4.3.3 Colons and semicolons

The colon
Colons separate a general statement from a specific one, where the latter
explains or elaborates on the former. The colon may introduce a list, an
explanation or a longer quotation:

1. There are four types of plate boundaries; divergent boundaries, convergent

boundaries, transform boundaries and complex plate boundaries.
2. We discussed the plan in great detail; from the project's initial planning
stages up to the ultimate tests.
"the more
3. One young participant seemed to have understood the exercise;
to do by myself at home."
we work together in class, the less I have

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Most quotes are separated from the introductory phrase with a comma. If,
however,
that the quotation
the colon is introduced
should always by a complete clause, use a colon. Notice
be preceded byacomplete main clause, rendering
a sentence like (4)
below incorrect:

4. * The fruit bowl included; apples, pears and oranges.

The fruit bowl included apples, pears and oranges.
The fruit bowl included the following: apples, pears and oranges.

The information following the colon does not typically begin with a capital letter,
aexcept
if that information starts with a proper noun or if a formal quote forms
complete clause. Notice that quotations usually follow the capitalisation of
the source: if the source you quote uses a capital letter, so should you.
manuals do not agree on the rules on capitalising independent clauses Reference
after a
colon, so check the reference style of the journal you are writing for.
The examples of colon use above show that the clause preceding the colon is
aalways a main (independent) clause. The clause following the colon can also be
main clause, but it does not have to be, as is clear from the example
sentences
in this section (1, 2, 4): these examples show a colon followed by a phrase or a
group of words that do not form a clause.

The semicolon
The semicolon is the writer's superglue. It is used when
the information in the
second clause forms a general elaboration on the first
clause or when the two
sentences connected by the semicolon are felt to be so
closely related that a
separation by a full stop is too much. Technically speaking, of
by a full stop is always an option: it tends to
course, separation
give greater prominence and
independence to the information in the second sentence, but
relation between the first and second
focuses less on the
sentence.

5. Of these mother-offspring pairs,

three were excluded because of
gestations, six were excluded because they multiple
delivered at home (cord serum
was therefore unavailable), and two were
excluded because the mother
died during delivery, the remaining 149 HIV-infected women formed the
reference cohort of the
case-cohort study.
The semicolon is often used to
contrast the information provided
clauses: in two main

6. In theory, the model allows for such

too complicated to offer idiosyncrasies) in practice, the maths are
a satisfactory
explanation
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 4.3 • Check your punctuation

Semicolons can also be used to separate items in a list, particularly when the
items are long, grammatically complex or contain commas:

7. Students may use our library facilities provided that subscriptions are paid
regularly; that all borrowing activities are carried out properly; that efforts
are made to return the books before the expiry date; that any damage
incurred is compensated; and that silence is maintained in the reading
rooms.

8. The journey took them through Rome, Italy; Paris, France; Brussels, Belgium;
and finally to Berlin, Germany.

Perhaps the most common use of the semicolon in academic writing, however, is
to join two main clauses that are connected by a linking word:

9. The approaches have potential limitations; for example, biased estimates

can lead to an overestimation of the association between the disorders.
10. Low-dose CT screening was associated with a high rate of false positive
results; however, the vast majority of false positive results probably resulted
from the presence of benign lymph nodes.
11. The average search session involved 1.8 queries; that is, most participants
gave up after only a couple of attempts to find the information that they
needed.

Comma, colon, semicolon or full stop?

or a full
If you need to decide between using a comma, a colon, a semicolon
stop, it is often useful to consider the length of the pause you would consider
appropriate if you were reading the sentence aloud. A comma corresponds
pause, and a full stop to an
to a short pause, a colon or semicolon to a longer
and semicolon you
even longer pause. Notice that in choosing between a colon
should also bear in mind that their syntactic function is different.

over the last 10 years; networks

12. The study of networks has expanded rapidly
than just the outcomes of complex
are now widely recognised as being more
interactions; they are also recognised as key determinants of structure,
physical and
function and dynamics in systems that span the biological,
social sciences.

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4 • Write sentences

4.3.4 Hyphens
situations:
You can use a hyphen in the following

To join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun (so-called
compound adjectives):
- a near-death experience
- China-related topics
- a well-known author
- a thought-provoking argument

When attaching a prefix to a capitalised base word or date:

- anti-American
- mid-December
- pre-1800

When using the prefixes all-, ex-, self-:

- all-inclusive
- ex-boyfriend
- self-help

When using a single-letter prefix and with numbers:

- T-shirt
- X-ray
- twenty-six
- seventy-eight

When a vowel would otherwise be doubled or a consonant tripled:

- micro-organism
- fall-like

To prevent misreading:
- un-uniform

- post-stall
- re-sign a document (cf. resign from a position)

Note that the prefixes over-, co-, de-, pre-, pro- and re- are written without a
hyphen unless a vowel would otherwise be doubled:
- repurchase
- re-emerge

A sufix is a group of letters that is placed after a word to modify the meaning or
to change the word into a different word group (e.g. from adjective to adverb).

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 4.3@Check
yourpunctuation

Hyphens are rarely used to connect a suffix to a word, apart from exceptions
such as-like or elect, or to avoid tripling of consonants:

-president-elect
- hell-like

Use a good dictionary to check for the correct use of hyphens with prefixes and
suffixes.

4.3.5 Dashes
The dash, also known as the em dash, is typically used to interrupt the main
discourse of a text. Its most common use in academic writing is to separate
non-restrictive elements, much like the comma. In fact, you could say that there
is a certain hierarchy between dashes, commas and brackets: dashes give the
non-restrictive information a certain emphasis (1), while commas provide a
more neutral status (2) and brackets move the information to the background
(3). Note that commas are the most common way of indicating non-restrictive
elements in academic texts.

1. The method now widely accepted — was still in its development stages
during Brown's research.
2. The participants, 33 males and only 17 females, were asked to complete a
questionnaire every other month.
3. Not all adjectives come before the noun: some Latin phrases (such as in

vivo) follow the English noun.

4.3.6 Inverted commas

We can distinguish between double inverted commas (" ") and single inverted
for almost all
commas ("'). Most style guides use double inverted commas
elements that need inverted commas, reserving the use of single inverted
commas for quotes within quotes. Make sure you are consistent and your use is
in keeping with the reference style of your field or the journal you wish to write

Double inverted commas are typically used in four situations. The first is to
enclose direct quotations:

of the left
One of the authors, Anatol Lieven, is a brilliant, fiery pamphleteer
who has described the neoconservative enterprise as "world hegemony by
means of absolute military superiority."

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4 • Write sentences

They are also used to indicate the titles of works that are not published
separately such as theories, short poems, essays, short stories, speeches, or
articles or chapters
care"(article title), from
etc. Notice or journals:
booksthat "The soldier" (poem), "Pre-pregnancy
titles of longer, independent publications
are usually written in italics: Paradise Lost (poem published as a book), Britishh
Medical Journal, Gulliver's Travels, etc.:

2. One of the articles in Chomsky's The Minimalist Program is "The Theory of

Principles and Parameters," which was written with Lasnik.

A third use of double inverted commas is to stress a particular word or to set

apart a word that is used as an example of a word:

3. Participants were asked to react to words like "racism," "apartheid" and

"discrimination."

The fourth and final use discussed here is to indicate words used ironically or
in
an unusual way:

4. Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing"

of sorts.

Single inverted commas are typically used to indicate a quotation within a

quotation:

5. It was even worse when his positive view of the American liberal
arts
education appeared under the headline "Nobel Laureate suggests a
society
of "Know-It-Alls.'"
6. The lecturer noted, "It was Voltaire who said 'Think for yourselves and
let
others enjoy the privilege to do so too.'"

A good rule of thumb for academic writing is to use double inverted commas
unless you have a reason not to. Such reasons may include the use of
inverted commas for quotes single
within quotes.

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 4.0e Chietk
yourpanciudtion

WRITINGTIPS
Using inverted commas with other punctuation
Full stops and commas are placed inside inverted commas unless a source
citation immediately follows a quotation:
"The function of education," said Martin Luther King, "is to teach one
to think intensively and to think critically. But education which stops
with efficiency may prove the greatest menace to society."
Penn's writings reveal "a deep concern with the order and ordering of
society" (Smolenski, 2010), which influenced the founding fathers of
America as they struggled to create a new country.

Colons and semicolons are placed outside inverted commas:

- This is what Obama (2009) said: "We lose ourselves when we
compromise the very ideals that we fight to defend. And we honor
those ideals by upholding them not when it's easy, but when it is
hard."
Freedom does not just result from "deposing a tyrant and handing
out ballots"; freedom is only accomplished "once the personal and
material security of a people is ensured as well" (Obama, 2009).

Question marks and exclamation marks that belong to a quotation are

placed inside inverted commas:
- "Life's most persistent and urgent question is, 'What are you doing for
others?'" Martin Luther King stated
"I don't care!" he shouted.

Question marks or exclamation marks that are not part of the quotation
are placed outside inverted commas:
- Who said, "He who opens a school door, closes a prison"?

4.3.7 Apostrophes
The apostrophe is used in three situations:

To form possessives:
-John's
paper
- The country's population

The possessive tells your reader that something or someone owns what comes
after the possessive. You usually form the possessive by simply adding's; however,
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 4 • Write sentences

when the "owner" is a plural word that already ends with -s, it suffices to only
add an apostrophe:
- The researchers' funding
- The politicians' campaign

Note that the possessive of a singular word ending in -s is normally formed by

adding 's. Some authorities argue, however, that this's s superfluous and that it
is sufficient to add an apostrophe only to form the possessive of a singular noun
that ends with -s, especially if there is more than one -s in the word (Moses') or
if the following word starts with an -s (James' sport). Both options are correct,
but always adding's seems to be the most straightforward. Choose one and
remember to be consistent.

Normal: James
Possessive : James's or James'

Note that the possessives his, hers, its, ours, yours and theirs do not contain
apostrophes.

To form contractions:

- cannot can't
- did not didn't
- they arethey're
- will notwon't

- it is it's
- 1960 360

To make lowercase letters and numbers plural:

- I passed my exam with five 7's and two 8's.
- There are two a's and two c's in the word "academic."
- (But: He has two PhDs and three MAs.)

WRITING TIP
Tricky trio
Its = of it = possession:
the dog and its bone
It's = it is = contracted form:
it's the dog's bone
It's = it has = contracted
form: it's got a bone

Note that contractions are not appropriate

in academic writing

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 4.3 • Check your punctuation

4.3.8 Common punctuation mistakes

Comma splice and run-on sentence

Two of the most common errors involving the use of commas in academic
writing are the comma splice and the run-on sentence. A comma splice occurs
when two complete clauses are joined by means of only a comma. For example:

1. X The public is often not aware of this, they are unconsciously influenced by
the newspaper's opinion.
2. X The reasons for capture were various, one could be punished for stealing
bread as well as murder.

Simply removing the comma does not solve the problem; in fact, it only creates a
new mistake know as a run-on sentence. Run-on sentences consist of two clauses
without any punctuation or linking word. For example:

3. X The public is often not aware of this they are unconsciously influenced by
the newspaper's opinion.
4. X The reasons for capture were various one could be punished for stealing
bread as well as murder.

There are several ways of correcting a comma splice or run-on sentence.

Write the two clauses as separate sentences:

5. The public is often not aware of this. They are subconsciously influenced by
the newspaper's opinion.

Replace the comma with a semicolon:

6. The public is often not aware of this; they are subconsciously influenced by
the newspaper's opinion.

Insert a FANBOYS word (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) following the comma:
7. The public is often not aware of this, but they are subconsciously
influenced
by the newspaper's opinion.

Make one clause dependent on the other:

are subconsciously
8. Although the public is often not aware of this, they
influenced by the newspaper's opinion.

Comma between subject-verb or verb-object

separating
A third mistake often made by non-native writers of English involves
mark.
major constituents of the clause (subject, verb, object) by a punctuation

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4 • Write sentences

In other words, you cannot put a comma between a subject and verb (9, 10) or
between a verb and its object (11). While you can use punctuation to separate
pieces of information that are loosely attached to the body of the clause, you
cannot break up the basic elements of the clause in this way.

The following sentences represent three of the most common mistakes with
commas that non-native writers make:

9. X What is important here, is that we distinguish colons from semicolons.

10. X The assumptions which underlie the modernity school, can be seen in the
work of Cohen and Till (2001).
11. X Henning (2007) indicates, that the group brainstorming process may be
suspect in its effectiveness.

Notice that you can put non-restrictive relative clauses between subject and
verb:

12. The patients, who were interviewed on a weekly basis, were asked to fill out
an extensive evaluation form every month.
13. The use of commas, which can be tricky for some writers, is a useful tool in
getting the finer points of your message across.

4.4 Connect your clauses to convey meaning

If we look at the information in an academic paper, we see that a text is divided
into information chunks that form the separate sections of the paper. These
sections are then subdivided into smaller information units: the
paragraphs.
Within each paragraph, we can distinguish still smaller units of information at
sentence level. Sentences in their turn consist of one or more clauses. Clauses,
then, can be said to be the ultimate building blocks of your text. This section
deals with how you can combine clauses to form sentences. Section 4.4.1
explores the possibilities of using sentence length to communicate effectively,
while 4.4.2 dives deeper into the possibilities of combining clauses
to convey
meaning effectively.

4.4.1 Use sentence length effectively

Determining effective sentence length is no easy task. Short sentences are generally
clear but sometimes fail to express how the information in the separate sentences
is related. Longer sentences do allow this level of detail, but using
too many long
sentences can render your text unreadable. Unfortunately, there are no clear,

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to convey meaning

mathematical rules to help determine when a sentence is too long or too short.
Even English style guides do not give any explicit advice on sentence length in these
terms, but instead focus on the function of adding sentence length variety.

The best advice would be to vary your sentence length according to the effect
you wish to achieve. Short sentences, especially when used after one or several
long ones, can be used to communicate particularly important information,
while longer sentences can provide a certain flow to your text. If most of your
sentences are relatively short (i.e. shorter than about 20 words), the effect is
often choppy, unbalanced prose, where all the information may seem equally
important and the links between your sentences may be vague. On the other
hand, if most of your sentences are relatively long (i.e. over about 35 words), you
may want to consider whether you have sufficiently separated your main ideas
from supporting details (Fowler & Aaron, 2010). It may be interesting to note
that native English academic prose is characterised by a preference for longer
sentences (Tavecchio, 2010; Springer, 2011).

WRITING TIPS
From clause to sentence
To make the most of the options English offers for communicating
complicated and detailed ideas, it may help to know a little more about
English sentences.

Simple sentences
Simple sentences are main (independent) clauses with at least a subject
and a verb (see 4.1.1), such as:
- John is writing.
John is writing a report.
These data suggest a rise in expenses.

Compound sentences
Compound sentences consist of two or more main clauses, typically
joined by coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS, see 4.3.1), semicolons
(4.3.3), semicolons with conjunctive adverbs (linking words), and
sometimes colons (4.3.3):
from law
- John holds a degree in physics, and Maria will soon graduate
school.

John holds a degree in physics; Maria has a degree in law.

Maria has a degree in law; however, she is not a lawyer.
Carl went back to school: he learned he would never get tenure
without an advanced degree.

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4 • Write sentences

Complex sentences
Complex sentences consist of a main clause (independent clause) and
one or more subclauses (dependent clauses). They are often — though not
always - formed with so-called subordinators such as while, although,
since, because, after, until, if, unless and where.
- When he missed his deadline, he knew he was in trouble.
- The professor accepted the paper after the student wrote an extra
chapter.
- Although he missed his deadline, he still passed the exam.
- He passed the exam because his work was excellent.

Writing long sentences

While there is no reason to write unnaturally long sentences, it is true that
non-native writers tend to write shorter sentences in English academic writing
than their native English colleagues. Studies into the differences between Dutch
writing, English writing by Dutch authors and English writing by native speakers,
for example, suggest that native English speakers tend to write longer sentences
(Springer, 2011; Tavecchio, 2010). Perhaps a helpful interpretation of this is that
you do not need to avoid writing lengthy sentences as long as they are clear and
serve a purpose. In other words, it is a misconception that short sentences make
clearer texts.

Long sentences: making compound sentences

Compound sentences consist of two or more main clauses and are useful for
coordinating ideas that are equally important. There are four basic ways of
constructing compound sentences in English: comma + FANBOYS, semicolon +
linking word, semicolon or colon (see below for examples).

Comma + FANBOYS
Compound sentences consist of two main clauses, most commonly combined
with a comma and the coordinating conjunctions for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so
(FANBOYS). The choice of coordinating conjunction and the order of the clauses
in the compound together determine the finer relation
in meaning:

1. Of course l ask people for the time sometimes, but I have an inner watch.
2.
I have an inner watch, yet | ask people for the time sometimes.
3.
I sometimes need to ask people for the time, for I do not have an inner
watch.
4. I do not have an inner watch, so I need to ask people for
sometimes.
the time

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 4.4 • Connect your clauses to convey
meaning

Semicolons + linking words

Another common way of connecting two main clauses is with linking words
such
as however, certainly, for example and in fact. Linking words are often used with
semicolons, but they also occur after full stops. Notice that the position of the
linking word in the second clause can vary:

5. Time plays a central part in human behaviour and requires special

consideration within nursing; however, the research on time within nursing
is limited
Time plays a central part in human behaviour and requires special
consideration within nursing; the research on time within nursing, however,
is limited
7. Time plays a central part in human behaviour and requires special
consideration within nursing; the research on time within nursing is limited,
however.

Semicolons
You do not need a linking word to use a semicolon; they are also commonly used
for main clauses that are closely connected in meaning (see 4.3.3):

8. They are still uncertain about their lifespan; they do not think or plan for the
future.

Colons
A final way of combining two main clauses is with a colon (9), though colons can
also be used to combine a main clause with a phrase (10), lists (11) or a group of
sentences (12). Note that the colon has to be preceded by a main clause:

9. Inner time can stand still or rush forward: there is no chronology of time.
10. He uses two concepts in relation to time: inner time and outer time.
11. We selected informants using the following criteria: adults classified
as healed, variation in relation to age and cancer diagnosis, gender, and
employed prior to the cancer (Table 1).
as a
12. Adam (1995), following Schutz, describes time as a variable, as well
perspectives:
complex concept, which may be described from four different
which is
(1) An overall "clock and calendar time" (CCT) (Postill 2002),
of the
defined and unchangeable, continues forever and is independent
processes
individual (i.e. minutes, hours); (2) "Temporality," which describes
life); (3) "Timing," which
in time, with a beginning and an end (i.e. individual
is dependent on context, where an evaluation of the
appropriateness of an
(Adam 1995).
act is inherent, and (4) "Tempo," indicating speed of time

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4 • Write sentences

complex sentences
Long sentences: making more
Complex sentences are a combination of a main clause and one or
subordinate clauses. They are typpcally used to separate main information from
supporting information. Remember that subclauses are dependent clauses
that need a main clause to form a grammatical sentence (see 4.1.1) and that,
depending on its status, a subclause can either precede or follow the main clause
(see 4.4.2 for more information on the position of subclauses).

Subclauses come in different types: finite, non-finite and verbless clauses.

You can make a finite subclause by using a subordinator (e.g, because, since
whereas, if) and a so-called finite verb, a verb that is marked for tense and shows
agreement with the subject (see 13, 14 and 15). You can make a non-finite clause
by using a non-finite verb, a verb that is not marked for tense. Non-finite verb
forms include the - ing participle (16, 17), the past participle (-ed participle and
- en participle: 18, 19) or a to- infinitive (20, 21). Verbless clauses are clauses in
which the verb (usually a form of "to be") is implied but not present (22, 23). In
the sentences below, the subclause is printed in bold:

13. Since human rights often challenge long-standing local values, it comes
as no surprise that teachers and parents are often not ready to deal with
human rights such as the right to divorce and equality between all people
regardless of sex.
14. While Adam (1995) uses the concept of timing to describe good or bad
times for action in relation to sociohistorical, economic and political
context and norms, practices and values, our informants describe timing
differently.
15. Research on metaphoric comprehension (particularly in adults) has
been sparse because appreciation of the importance of metaphor has
developed only recently in psychology.
16. The Dutch economy shrank at its sharpest rate in 30 years in the first three
months of 2012 and more dramatically than expected, casting serious doubt
on government forecasts for a recovery by the end of the year.
17. Following infection and the development of antibodies, the lymph nodes
of the animals become enlarged.
18. Encouraged by the preliminary results of the pilot study, we decided to
carry out another, more sophisticated experiment.
19. Driven by these considerations, we speculated that chemotherapeutic
regimes that would stimulate an immune response against tumour cells
should be particularly efficient.
20. To obtain a better understanding of very low sea level change, we
compared the observed VLF sea level changes to various numerical ocean
models.

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 4.4 • Connect your clauses to convey meaning

21. We compared several alcohol and drug abuse scales to determine their
efficiency and validity for psychiatric patients.
22. With global temperatures on the increase, the polar bear seems to be on
thin ice.
23. In the interest of our patients, it is essential to counteract this anti-scientific
trend and to ensure that we provide state-of-the-art treatments grounded in
solid research.

The examples above all contain one subclause that either precedes or follows
the main clause. It is also possible, however, to construct a complex sentence by
combining a main clause with two subclauses (24-27) or to put a subclause in
mid-position (an interruption) (28-32):

24. As expected, PRL concentrations decreased immediately after injection,

reaching a 75% decrease 100 min after injection.
25. As we anticipated, this approach allows fusing of MR and PET data, which is
important when soft tissue detail is required.
26. Because the ACE Study questionnaire addressed sensitive topics, we
compared respondents and non-respondents to assess possible study bias
introduced by non-response.
27. In line with other studies, we have shown that cognitive development
is independent of language development, one of the reasons being that
children demonstrate an ability to think before they acquire the ability to
use language.
28. Specifically, once status is conferred - that is, once an actor feels high or
low status — the high or low status may differentially affect this author's
judgments of the status cues of her or his social world.
and
29. Religious studies, which involve the detailed study of traditions
languages, generally ignore the truth-value of religious claims.
about the
30. Ross and Conway (1986) and Baddeley (1990), although sceptical
efficacy of retrospective studies, have conceded that, in their view, most
people's recall of past events remains accurate across time.
31. This means that examples such as the following, in which the sentence
probably either
starts with two adverbials that precede the subject, are
non-existent or rare in Dutch.
to
32. Even when this realist geography is breached, as when the setting shifts
rooted in corporate
an archipelago of space stations, the imaginary remains
organisations of power.

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4.4.2 Combine clauses to convey meaning

Good writing makes effective use of sentence length, which includes the
construction of clear, long sentences (compound and complex sentences)
Combining clauses into longer sentences enables you to gather related
information together in one sentence, helping you to communicate your
message effectively. The order of information in your sentences has a marked
effect on the general flow of your writing, and you can combine clauses to reflect
the relative importance of the information they contain. Writing clear long
sentences, then, means knowing when it is useful to combine clauses, how to
signal the relative importance of information within a sentence and how to relate
information in a sentence to the rest of the text (i.e. Other information in the
sentence, information in other sentences and the general theme of a paragraph).

Backgrounding and foregrounding

As part of constructing complex sentences, it helps to consider which
information is supporting information and which information is the focus
of your message. Effective use of foregrounding and backgrounding can help
the reader understand what is important in your text, which will ultimately
aid the overall clarity of your writing. To understand how foregrounding and
backgrounding works, consider the following paragraph (the sentences have
been numbered for your convenience):

1. There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in

research.

2. To start with, norms promote the aims of research.

3. These aims include knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error.
4. Research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among
many different people in different disciplines and institutions.
5. Ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work.
6. Some of these values
are trust, accountability, mutual respect and fairness.
7. Finally, many of the ethical norms and policies on research conduct, conflicts
of interest and human subjects protection and animal care help to ensure
that researchers can be held accountable to the
public.
(Adapted from: Ethics in scientific research. Retrieved from: [Link]
doc/22884044/Ethics-in-Scientific-Research)

One of the key problems of the paragraph above is that it does not distinguish
between important and less important information; in fact, by presenting
all information in main clauses, the writer has given each information unit
(each sentence) equal status. However, if you consider the topic sentence (1),
sentences (2), (5) and (7) are clearly more important than (3), (4) and (6), which
contain supporting information. To improve the quality of the text, place central

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convey meaning

or important information in the main clause, leaving the subclause for less
important or background information:
There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in
research. To start with, norms promote the aims of research, which include
knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. Second, since research often
involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many
different people in different disciplines and institutions, many of these
ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work,
such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. Finally, many of
the ethical norms and policies on research conduct, conflicts of interest and
human subjects protection and animal care help to ensure that researchers
can be held accountable to the public.

The advantage of the paragraph with subclauses is that it enhances readability:

it is easy for the reader to establish which information is most important (i.e. the
information in the main clauses) and which information belongs together (i.e.
the original sentences [2] and [3); and sentences [4), (5) and [6)).

The order of main clause and subclause

The order of main clause/subclause or subclause/main clause can be used for
backgrounding and foregrounding. It is common to place central or important
information in the main clause, leaving the subclause for less important or
background information. Subclauses in sentence-initial position often set the
scene for the information in the following main clause and, as such, have a
preparatory and orientational function. This initial position gives a strongly
the
backgrounded status to the information: the reader is invited to take
information for granted because it was mentioned before, constitutes general
knowledge or simply because the writer invites the reader not to challenge
2009). In
or question the information in the subclause (Hannay & Mackenzie,
sentence (8), for example, the author is asking the reader to take for granted the
information that proton radiation therapy is a relative new cancer treatment:
proton radiation
8. Although still a relatively newer cancer treatment,
cancer.
therapy has already shown promise in the treatment of prostate
it comes
9. Since human rights often challenge long-standing local values,
often not ready to deal with
as no surprise that teachers and parents are
human rights, such as equality between all people regardless of sex.
10. As far as communication is concerned, we monitor the quality of
communication with all the key stakeholders.

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4 • Write sentences

Contrary to subclauses in initial position, subclauses in final position add new

information. More specifically, they provide further detail about the message of
the preceding main clause. In sentence (11), for example, the subclause relates
the major reason why men who get breast cancer have poorer survival
than women. In sentence (12), the subclause relates the consequence ofchances
the sharp
decline of the Dutch economy.

11. Men who get breast cancer often do not survive as long as women largely
because they are slow to recognise the warning signs.
12. The Dutch economy shrank at its sharpest rate in 30 years in the first three
months of 2012 and more dramatically than expected, casting serious
doubt on government forecasts for a recovery by the end of the year.

Note that subclauses may also interrupt a main clause, often to provide further
information about the subject of the main clause (13-15) or to provide some an
explanatory comment (16, 17).

13. An overall "clock and calendar time" (CCT) (Postill 2002), which is defined
and unchangeable, continues forever and is independent of the individual

14. Schutz perceives time as one of the 'taken-for-granted' (i.e. unreflected)

conditions of everyday life, ...
15. These tumours - which were not melanomas — were controlled with
surgical removal.
16. Specifically, once status is conferred — that is, once an actor feels high
or low status — the psychological experience of high or low status may
differentially affect this author's judgments of the status cues of her or his
social world

17. Another concern is that, although the overwhelming majority of

melanoma patients with BRAF mutations who have received BRAF
inhibitors initially responded to the medication, most patients eventually
develop clinical resistance to the drugs, and their tumours start growing
again.

By interrupting the flow of information, subclauses in mid position place strong

emphasis on the preceding information.

4.4.3 Summary: sentence length and clause combining

In summary, you do not have to be afraid to produce long and complex
sentences in English, as long as they are clear and used with great attention
to communicative effect. In fact, overuse of short, choppy sentences may

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 4.5 Use word order for effect

negatively affect your communication. Make sure that, when writing or revising
a paragraph, you logically connect clauses that belong together, taking care to
create backgrounding and end focus where necessary. Use variety in sentence
length and carefully select what message is so important that it should be given
separate sentence status, and what elements can be combined into longer, more
complex sentences. For more information on clause combining, see Hannay &
Mackenzie (2009).

4.5 Use word order for effect

As discussed in Section 4.2, the order of your words can be used for
communicative effect. In combination with the information on sentence length
and clause combining in Section 4.4, effective word order helps you separate
your main points from supporting points and add fow to your writing. Section
4.5 deals with three specific subjects related to word order: providing end focus,
using non-standard word order and making lists (grouping of words).

4.5.1 Provide end focus

In addition to foregrounding information by putting it in a main clause, you can
also use end focus to mark the relative importance of information (see 4.2.1).
The idea of end focus is that new information is placed towards the end of the
sentence or clause, where it receives emphasis:

1. Even though the concept of time is open to debate, it has been shown to be
culture specific (James & Millers, 2005).

End focus applies equally to the final position in simple sentences (2) and in
compound sentences (3):

2. Cancer survivors cope with their new life in different ways.

3. Cancer survivors find themselves unable to imagine a future, and therefore
concentrate on living in the present.

End focus creates expectations about what information will follow. For example,
the next sentence deals with
sentence (3) above may create the expectation that
"living in the present," while sentence (4) below draws attention to the topic of
being "unable to imagine a future":

4. Cancer survivors concentrate on living in the present, and therefore find

themselves unable to imagine a future.

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4 • Write sentences

End focus, then, can be a good point of departure for a text with a clear given-
new information flow:

5. Even though the concept of time is open to debate, the concept of time
has been shown by anthropologists to be culture specific (James & Millers
2005). In the Western world, time may be ...

The relation between foregrounding and end focus is more complicated. If

the main clause is in sentence-final position, foregrounding and end focus are
perfectly compatible (8). However, if a subclause is in sentence-final position,
this appears to cause a clash between backgrounding and end focus. Notice,
though, that foregrounding and end focus are not at all mutually exclusive. While
it is true that information in subclauses generally receives a background status,
subclauses in sentence-final position may weaken the backgrounding effect of
dependent clauses (Hannay & Mackenzie, 2009).

It is clear, then, that you can weave quite an intricate web of relationships of
meaning within your sentence. Remember, though, that your objective is to
write clearly, so do not go overboard in trying to express overly complicated
relationships with difficult sentence combinations: the information will most
likely be lost on your reader. Instead, it may pay to remember that the concepts
of foregrounding and backgrounding apply to complex sentences, while the idea
of end focus, and indeed end weight, apply more at the level of the main clause:

6. We need to develop a new programme of ambitious bilateral negotiations.

7. We need to develop a new programme of ambitious bilateral negotiations
because there are doubts about the readiness of WTO members to take up
this agenda.
[Link] there are doubts about the readiness of WTO members to take up
this agenda, we need to develop a new programme of ambitious bilateral
negotiations.

4.5.2 Use non-standard word order

In addition to providing focus on an element of information by putting it
in clause or sentence-final position, it is also possible to place emphasis on
elements by using a marked (i.e. non-standard) word order such as in object-
adverb switching, presentatives and clefts (see 4.2). These constructions should
be used sparingly:

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 4.5 • Use word order for
effect

The intent of this study is to define more precisely the natural history and
immunopathogenesis of MAC disease in the HIV-infected population.
(object-adverb switching)
Amongst the main reasons are a lack of knowledge, a lack of skills and
mistrust in political parties. (presentative)
What is striking here is that the roles of teacher and student have been
reversed. (what-cleft)
4. It is precisely this impression that we wish to avoid. (it-cleft)
You can also change passives into actives or vice versa to highlight particular
information in a sentence:

Werner (2014) identifies temporality as a theme in life after cancer.

6. Temporality as a theme in life after cancer is identified by Werner (2014).

A final way of placing focus on information is the use of em dashes. Em dashes

can be used in much the same way as commas or round brackets, but instead of
backgrounding, they emphasise an informational element:

7.1 I now spend less time with colleagues - because our

views have become
too divergent.
8. Informants perceive a disruption in their experience of time, which means
that time becomes essential — a primary focus of living — and contains
different visible components.

4.5.3 Make lists

Lists can be a useful tool for combining information since they concisely
communicate how certain elements relate to each other. In addition to making
lists in paragraphs by using discourse markers like firstly, secondly and finally, you
can use numbered lists or bulleted lists:

cancer as a disruption
1. Our analysis uncovered three relevant themes: (1)
and
of life and time; (2) increased awareness of time (time is verbalised
reflected); and (3) appropriation of time.

of
Quite possibly the most common type of list in academic writing, however, is
the type A, B and C:

during
2. Nursing research has explored the way time matters to patientslack
experience of time
consultations (Williams & Jones 2006), how nurses

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4 • Write sentences

for caring (Sainio et al. 2001, Mohan et al. 2005), and how they organise
2003).
and manage time (Waterworth
3. The number of cancer survivors is increasing, but little is known about how
they experience and manage time in the process of diagnosis, treatment,
survival and carrying on.
4. This means that the individual occupies a specific position (e.g. having had
cancer) in relation to time, space and social relations.

Note that while lists can be useful for concisely combining a great deal of
information, they can be quite strenuous for your reader if overused. Variation,
then, is key.

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5 Check your grammar,
and vocabulary style
Once your sentences are in place and combined in meaningful ways to convey
precise meaning, it is time to start editing for grammar and style. Chapter
5 therefore deals with basic grammar, tenses, style choices and academic
vocabulary.

5.1 Check your basic grammar

This section deals with those aspects of English grammar that are specific to
academic writing, and it pays particular attention to common errors made by
non-native speakers.

5.1.1 Check subject-verb agreement

Agreement in grammar basically means that singular subjects take singular verbs
and plural subjects take plural verbs:

1. The author is ...

2. The researchers are ...

While this may seem straightforward enough, non-native speakers frequently

make agreement mistakes. Remember that the basic rule for regular English verbs
(e.g. to work) is that the third-person singular (he, she, it) adds an -s or -es:

Plural
Singular
we work / we fix
First person I work / | fix
you work / you fix
Second person you work / you fix
he/she/it works they work
Third person
he/she/it fixes they fix

is when the relation

An agreement problem more specific to academic writing
between subject and verb is obscured by the complexity of the sentence.
and sometimes it is
Academic English frequently uses long, complex sentences, or singular:
not immediately obvious whether the verb
needs to be plural

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 style and vocabulary
5 • Check your grammar,

3. It is not the researchers but the project leader who decide / decides this
issue.

In the sentence above, the grammatical subject of to decide is the project leader
because the verb agrees with the nearer subject. In this case, the grammatical
subject is a singular subject, so the verb also needs to take the singular form
(third-person):

4. It is not the researchers but the project leader who decides who is responsible
for the planning.

Another common problem is that some subjects are not clearly singular or
plural. Consider the words percentage and number, but also everyone, no one,
someone, each and neither, or species, measles and assets. The following examples
may help illustrate some of the agreement issues addressed above.

EXAMPLES
- Forty percent of the students are in favour of ...
- Forty percent of the student body is in favour of...
- Two-fifths of the troops were lost in battle.
- Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.
- A number of subjects were selected based on ...
- The number of subjects has slowly decreased.
- Everyone / no one believes this theory is valid.
- Someone has to stand up and do something.
- More than one student has tried this.
- Each of the subjects is responsible for ...
- Neither of the two theories explains
- Either James or Ryan knows the truth.
- Either Tom or his parents brought some food.
- This species of insect lives in the region of ...
- There are many species of monkeys
- Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
- A series of blots were performed
- 8 ml of blood was collected in a
tube ...
- Every baby and toddler is tested
- One in four patients suffers from ...

(Based on: Guide to grammar and writing (2004). Retrieved July 2, 2012, from http://
[Link]/grammar/)

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 5.1•Check
yourbasic
grammar

Native speakers of English do not always agree on what is singular and what is
plural. There does, however, seem to be general consensus on some issues:
Compound subjects joined by and usually take plural verbs
5. Jane and Mary were friends.

However, compound subjects that refer to a single idea, person or thing take a
singular verb:

6. Rhythm and blues is a music genre combining jazz, gospel and blues.
7. Bacon and eggs is his favourite breakfast.
Another exception occurs when a compound subject is preceded by each or
every, which usually leads to use of a singular verb:

8. Every baby and toddler is tested twice.

Compound subjects joined by or, either ... or, or neither ... nor may take
singular or plural verbs
If both subjects are singular, use a singular verb:

9. Either James or Ryan is walking to Paris.

If both subjects are plural, use a plural verb:

10. If the individuals or the organisations are dissatisfied with the outcome of
their concerns, they have the right to apply for a review.

Ifa singular and plural subject are linked, the verb agrees with the nearer subject:

11. Neither the lecturer nor the students wish to see such actions.
12. Either the students or the lecturer is going to file a complaint.
13. It is not the researchers but the project leader who has the final say.

To avoid awkward constructions with a combination of singular and plural

subject, place the plural subject closest to the verb and choose a plural verb
form:

14. ? Neither the clients nor the bank has evidence of the payments.
15. V Neither the bank nor the clients have evidence of the payments.

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5 • Check your
grammar, style and

Do not be misled by phrases that come between the subject and the verb. In
such cases, the verb agrees with the subject and not with the noun or pronoun
in the inserted phrase:

16. The lecturer, as wel as the students, is aftaid thar the exam will come roo
17. It is the project leader, not the researchers, who decides who is responsible
for the planning.

verbs
Collective nouns may take singular or plural
Collective nouns that refer to a group as a unit (e.g. public, audience, government,
team) take a singular verb:

18. The royal family of the Netherlands has a magnificent collection of jewellery.
of old and new talent.
19. The British team is a mix
Collective nouns that refer to the individuals or items that make up a group take
a plural verb:

20. The family all love watching football on

Sunday.
(= all family members love ...)
21. The team have promised to respect each other and to work closely together
towards a successful tournament.

(Example sentences [20] and [21] represent British English conventions. In

American English, the verb form would be singular.)

The same logic holds for portions (percentages, fractions, parts, some, all, none,
etc.):

22. About 60% of the tree has been processed

23. They say that 25% of all trees in this forest have disappeared.
24. Seasonally adjusted data by Eurostat shows that about a quarter of the
Spanish labour force is unemployed.
25. This means that only 75% of Spanish workers currently have a steady
income.

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 5.1 • Check your basic grammar

WRITING TIPS
Note that the number of is singular, and a number of is plural:
- A number of students have failed the exam.
The number of students has increased significantly...

There is a debate about data. Strictly speaking data is a plural noun and
if we follow the rules of English grammar, we should say the data are
and the data show. This is how data is treated in scientific fields. In non-
scientific, everyday English, however, data is often treated like the mass
noun information, a non-count noun which takes a singular form (the data
is, the data shows).

(From: Oxford dictionaries. Retrieved July 4, 2012, from [Link]

definition/english/data)

5.1.2 Check your articles

There are three articles: the indefinite articles a and an and the definite article
the. Indefinite articles (a/an) are typically used when you first refer to something
that has not yet been specified in your text:
1. A verb can build a lexical projection that reflects its argument structure.
2. A 12-person comparison group was selected

Any subsequent reference to the same item - which has now been specified -
takes a definite article (the):

3. The verb may further project a functional structure that includes tense and
person agreement.
4. The 12-person group had to complete weekly tests.

Definite articles are also used to refer to nouns that are unique, even if they have
not been mentioned before:

5. Paris was built on the River Seine.

6. The sun plays an important role in our ecosystem.

In other words, use the if you can readily assume that your reader knows which
one you mean, and a/an or no article if the reader cannot know which one you
mean.

An important distinction in understanding article use in English is that between

count nouns and non-count nouns. Count nouns can be singular (one table)

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5 • Check your granien

or plural (two
cooperati es), whi
on, intablformati o n, ljeoy,non-count nouns onl y come in one form (water,
count nouns (7) and no articleetc.). The indefinite a/an is used only for singular
(®) only for plural (8) or non-count nouns (9).
count noun)
7. We used a chemical agent to ...(singular
(plural count noun)
8. The use of ® chemical agents ...
9. O Happiness and nutrition are important ... (non-count nouns)
Singular count nouns, plural count nouns and
reference is specific: non-count nouns can all take the
definite article the if the

10. Research into the happiness of elderly residents in Chicago...

WRITING TIP
your articles:
The model below helps to choose
Does the reader know
which one you mean?

Yes No

Singular count nouns Plural count nouns

A/AN NO ARTICLE •
We used a method. o Methods that help ...
They chose a verb. They chose e verbs.
Singing is an art. Residents want a happiness.

Singular count nouns

Plural count nouns

Non-count nouns

THE
We used the Brown method.
They chose the verbs for all example sentences.
The happiness of Chicago's residents is important to the mayor.

(Based on: Swan, M. (2009). Practical English Usage. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford
University Press.)

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 5.1 • Check your basic
grammar

A common problem for non-native

speakers of English in academic writing is
talking about people or things in general.
Notice that English does not use any
article for general references to non-count
for references to classifying singular nouns
(11) and plural nouns (12) and a/an
(13, 14).

11. The functional use of ® furniture has been

neglected
12. O Questionnaires were used to assess the overall
effectiveness of the
intervention.
13. A small sample was used because of stringent criteria.
14. Participants were asked to consult a dentist
twice a year.
You can use the for general references as well, but notice
that the does not mean
all, so you cannot use the to refer to all studies (15). Instead, the use of
the to talk
about things in general is limited to singular count nouns that refer to scientific
instruments and inventions, as in (17) and (18) below (the sentences
(17a)
and (18a) are similar in meaning to (17b) and (18b),
respectively). Again, the
prevailing logic is to use the if the reader knows which one you mean.

15. a. X The studies show that there has been an increase ...
b. J Studies show that there has been an increase ...
c. J The studies into the relation between ... and ... show...
16. a. X Assuming that nothing can travel faster than the light ...
b. & Assuming that nothing can travel faster than ® light ...
17. a. We used the Olson-Jones questionnaire to ...
b. cf. We used Olson-Jones questionnaires to ...
18. a. The response signal was always defined as ...
b. cf. Response signals were always defined as ...

A prevalent mistake made by non-native authors in academic English is leaving

out the article with the word "literature"; notice, however, that sentence (19)
does not refer to "literature" in general but to the specific literature of a research
field

19. The literature describes a number of benefits of this questionnaire.

Other common mistakes include the use of a/an with plural or non-count nouns
(20), the use of articles with other determiners (21) and, notably, the use of
singular countable nouns with no article or determiner (22) (Swan, 2009).

20. X Scientists who promote the use of a chemical weapons ...

Scientists who promote the use of ® chemical weapons ...

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 style and vocabulary
5 • Check your grammar,

...
to the this use of weaponry
21. * Tucker (2006) refers ...
to this use of weaponry
J Tucker (2006) refers
22. X Unfavourable weather conditions lessened ® damage of D acid-forming
compound...
J ... the damage of ®
acid-forming compounds….
compound ...
J ... the damage of the acid-forming compound ...
J ... the damage of this acid-forming compounds ….
J ... the damage of these acid-forming

WRITING TIPS
Notice that not spelling but pronunciation is the deciding factor between
using a or an: use a when the next word begins with a consonant sound
vowel sound.
and an when the next word begins with a
- A history documentary
A universal problem
An urgent call
It is an honour
An MP3 player

5.2 Check your tenses

Verb tenses are one of the most difficult things about English grammar for non-
native speakers of English. Consistent and correct use of tenses and time markers
plays an important role in the readability of your academic text.

English has three basic tenses: present, past and future. (Note that technically
speaking, the future is not a verb tense, but we will treat it as a tense in this
book.) In addition, English has four aspects: simple, perfect, progressive and
perfect progressive. The tense of a verb refers to time directly, while aspect reveals
information about how an event or action relates to time. The combination of
tense and aspect gives twelve possible results, as shown in the following example
with the regular verb to work and the irregular to write:

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 5.2 • Check your tenses

EXAMPLE
simple perfect
we write
present we have written
she works she has worked
we wrote
past we had written
she worked she had worked
future we will write we will have written
she will work she will have worked

progressive perfect progressive

present we are writing we have been writing
she is working she has been working
we were writing we had been writing
past
she was working she had been working
future we will be writing we will have been writing
she will be working she will have been working

The good news is that not all these combinations are actually used in academic
writing. This section therefore focuses on the combinations you are likely to use
in writing your research paper.

5.2.1 Check your present tense

used verb form in
The present simple tense (is, are, has, have) is the most widely
take place
English academic writing. It generally refers to actions and events that
in the present or at no specific time in the past or future. In academic texts, the
present tense is typically used for the following purposes:
• to present general facts
• to make author-specific citations
• to paraphrase information
• to give an opinion
• to state research aims

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 grammar, style and vocabulary
5 • Check your

EXAMPLES
- Resources for biodiversity conservation
(fact)
are severely limited,
requiring strategic
investment.
- Black (2006) acknowledges that this factor cannot be used to explain
citation)
the phenomenon.
(author-specific
- Gibbs and Johnson (2004:141) state that any realistic study
of
firearms ownership requires a detailed examination of the varying
U.S.
ways in which firearms are presently being used in the
(paraphrase of information)
- It is doubtful that even sample series of this size will provide
loci. (opinion)
sufficient power to identify recessive
- The aim of this paper is to argue that the crisis of capitalism that
began in the late 1960s created conditions that engendered a more
permissive atmosphere for the legalization of lotteries. (aim)

5.2.2 Check your past tense

The past simple (was, were, had) refers to specific and finished actions, events
or states in the past. This makes it the ideal tense to refer to your research and
results. In academic writing, therefore, your Materials and Methods section and
most of your Results section should be written almost exclusively in the past
simple, and references to your own results in the Discussion section also take
this tense. Notice, however, that remarks that interpret your results typically take
the present simple. Past simple verbs elsewhere in an academic text are almost
always accompanied by a past time marker (in early 2003, two decades ago,
yesterday), such as in Move 1 of your Introduction.

EXAMPLES

- Global and regional projections of mortality and burden of disease by

cause for the years 2000, 2010, and 2030 were published by Murray
and Lopez in 1996 as part of the Global Burden of Disease project.
- In the early 1990s, the World Bank sponsored the 1990 Global
Burden of Disease study carried out by researchers at Harvard
University and the World Health Organization (WHO).

While the use of the present simple is common in author-specific citations (see
5.2.5), it is also appropriate to use the past tense if you prefer. Some authors use
the present simple to indicate the general validity of the citation, reserving the

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 5.2 • Check your
tenses

past simple to convey the opinion that the source cited might be outdated or no
the subject.
longer an authority on

EXAMPLE
Kurtzeven argues / argued that "the claims that the citation rate ratio
of papers openly available on the internet versus those not available
is caused by the increased readership of the open articles ... ("OA
advantage") are somewhat overstated."

5.2.3 Check your present perfect

The present perfect (has been, have been) refers to an unspecified time before now,
and/or to actions, events or states that are unfinished or have direct relevance to
the present. The present perfect is often used in academic writing to refer to recent
research and trends such as in Move 1 of your Introduction because of their direct
relevance to the current state of knowledge (or state of affairs).

We can distinguish two uses of the present perfect: the continuative and the
resultative use. The continuative form expresses a link between the past and the
present for events that started in the past and are still ongoing (1, 2), while the
resultative focuses on the relevance of an event that occurred in the recent past
to the present (3, 4):

since 2007.
1. He has researched the use of presentatives in writing
(He still researches them now.)
2. Their method has been successful since they first introduced it.
(It is still successful now.)
3. They have misinterpreted their data.
(Which is why their results are skewed.)
4. Recent research has suggested a causal link between ...
link.)
(Which is why we will further investigate this

EXAMPLES
a need for more efficient water
- Recent research has clearly indicated
management in developing countries.
this movement lost public support
- Many historians have argued that
during the 1950s.

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grammar, style and
5 •Check your

Academic authors need to be able to distinguish between the present perfect

(have found) and the simple past (found), as the difference in meaning is subtle
yet significant. Note that marker:
time
the present perfect cannot be used in sentences that
have a definite past

5. X in the early 1990s, the World Bank has sponsored 788 projects.

to future time
5.2.4 Check your reference
There are several ways of talking about the future in English: you can use will + the
infinitive (I will leave), going to + the infnitive (1 am going to leave) or the present
progressive (1 am leaving) — to name but a few — to refer to future actions, events
or conditions. The going to form and the present progressive are, however, generally
too informal for academic texts, and even the will form should be used with
discrimination. You can use it, for example, in the Introduction to announce what
you intend to discuss in the rest of your paper, or you can use it when referring to
some event that will definitely take place in the future.

When making a tentative prediction, will is generally considered too defnite

for use in English academic prose. A researcher is expected to be cautious when
making statements about the future, and this can be reflected by use of the
modal verbs may, can of could + infinitive instead of will.

EXAMPLE
Not
For instance, in a relatively unfavourable trial with long delays to both
rewards, although hyperbolic discounting will favour the large reward,
pursuing the small more immediate reward will result in a smaller
overall decrease of the average reward rate.

But

For instance, in a relatively unfavourable trial with long delays to both

rewards, although hyperbolic discounting may favour the large reward,
pursuing the small more immediate reward may/can result in a smaller
overall decrease of the average reward rate.

5.2.5 Tenses used in the Introduction

Thankfully for the non-native speaker of English, not all tenses are common in
academic writing, and it is in fact possible to make clear distinctions between

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tense forms and their use in sections of an academic article. For example, we
can transfer what we know about the structure of the Introduction to the verb
renses we need in the Introduction.

Chapter 2 (2.3) makes clear that the Introduction can be seen as an inverted
pyramid: generally speaking, the reader is guided along a path that goes from
information about the background and previous research in Move 1, through
statements about the niche in Move 2, to statements about the purpose of the
paper in Move 3. The verb tenses used in an Introduction reflect this path and
help the reader understand the relationship between the information steps
taken in the Introduction.

Move 1, Step 1: claiming centrality

For general statements about research up to the present time, use the present
perfect (have written, have worked). Such statements are often accompanied
by time expressions like to date, so far, thus far, for the past 10 years, since
2003, recently and in recent years or by generalising statements such as many
researchers, general research, many investigators and the theory of.

For statements about the current state of affairs, use the present simple (is,
write, work). The present simple is used for stating facts, and Move 1, Step 1
sentences often make simple statements about the present and are marked
with generalising words such as important, central, leading, widely used, current,
common, etc.

EXAMPLES

Move 1, Step 1: the present perfect

- Since the start of the experiment, we have enlarged the number of
subjective criteria.
- To date, inspectors have relied on visual checks of storage facilities.
- Many historians have cast doubt on this interpretation of the events.
- It has long been recognised that ...
- Many investigators have recently turned to ...

Move 1, Step 1: the present simple

- Knowledge of ... has a great importance for ...
- Breast cancer is the leading cause of death among women.
- Oxolinic acids are the most potent antibacterial agents ...
- Most sociologists consider ... to be a central issue in ...
- A key factor in the development of ... is ...

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5 • Check your grammar,

topic generalisations
Move 1, Step 2: making
Move 1, Step 2 statements are closely related to the centrality claims in the
examples above, but generally represent a more neutral kind of generalisation.
The present simple seems more common than the present perfect for such
statements, and Move 1, Step 2 sentences rely more on generalising words such
as common, well-known and standard, and less on words like important, leading
and key.

EXAMPLES
simple
Move 1, Step 2: the present
- A common method to test this self-efficacy of patients is ...
...
- Western historians generally dismiss the idea of
to be ...
- Most philosophers consider this theory
- ZAF controllers form a widely used class of control systems.
- Education core courses are often criticised for ...

Move 1, Step 2: the present perfect

been ...
- A standard procedure for assessing ... has
- Recent discoveries have led to a renewed interest in ...

Move 1, Step 3: reviewing items of previous research

The most common type of sentence for Move 1, Step 3 either uses the present
perfect or the past simple. The present perfect is typically used for sentences
that review general research up to now; that is to say, research that does not
specifically mention any research or research paper. The latter type of reference,
to a specific author or paper, generally takes the present simple (or the past
simple, see 5.2.2 and examples below).

EXAMPLES

Move 1, Step 3: present perfect

- Many historians have argued that... (e.g. Smith, 2003; Bothnik,
2006; Hopes et al., 2007).
- A considerable amount of literature has described
...
- Several studies have revealed ... (Jones, 2003; Arrer, 2009).
- The relationship between ... and ... has been widely investigated

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 5.2 • Check your
tenses

Move 1, Step 3: past simple

- Jones et al. (2001) measured the components of ...
- Brown (1998) performed similar experiments ...
- Smith and Jackson (2010) used a survey to assess ...
- Ahmathalan (2003) found that as levels of ... rise ...

Move 1, Step 3: present simple

- Huet (2008) mentions the need to investigate ...
- Brawns et al. (1999) identify ... and ... as the major cause of ...
- Smith (2009) argues that ... is more effective in this setting.
- This view is supported by O'Connor (2010), who writes ...
Based on: [Link]

The examples above make clear that for author-specific citations, you can
use either the past simple or the present simple. Notice that verbs that focus
on the research of the author (e.g. measure, perform, use, find) take the past
simple, whereas reporting verbs (e.g. mention, show, identify, argue) often take
the present simple, but can also take the past simple. For these reporting verbs,
choosing between the two tenses can be a matter of taste. Generally speaking,
but notice that some
we can say that the present tense is the more neutral tense,
authors will choose the tense based on the context of the sentence (see 5.2.2).

Move 2: Establishing a niche

the present
Most typical sentences used for indicating Move 2 may rely on
Again, the deciding
perfect, but there is still a place for the present simple as well.
to the
factor is the focus of the sentence: the present perfect draws attention
about
relation with recent research, while the present simple makes statements
the tense, many Move 2-sentences
the current state of knowledge. Regardless of
(e.g. however, while, few,
make use of a contrasting word to indicate the niche
cannot).

EXAMPLES
Move 2: the present perfect
to ...
- However, little attention has been devoted
- Few reports have
discussed
- This controversy has divided researchers ...
has been little agreement on
- While theorists agree that ..., there
whether the practical...
been challenged, and ...
- The concept of ... has recently

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5 • Check your grammar,

simple
Move 2: the present is available about ….
- However, little information
ignore this theory, ..
- While modern haematologists now
its reliability, this approach lacks efficiency: ...
- Despite
kind of application is ...
- However, a key problem with this

Move 3: occupying the niche, announcing your research and outlining

the structure of your paper
Use the present simple for statements that announce what is going to be done
in the paper or that introduce the purpose of the paper. Notice that references
to the purpose of the research typically take the past simple, while references to
the paper itself take the present simple. Brief overviews of what is to be found in
the various sections of the paper typically use the present simple or will (or shall)
+ infinitive, though sentences featuring this construction are not particularly
common in research articles.

EXAMPLES
Move 3: the present simple
- The aim of this paper is to examine ...
- In this paper, we report our findings on ...
- This paper examines...

Move 3: the past simple

- The aim of this study was to report on ...
- Three investigations were designed to ...
- The objectives of the research were to determine whether ...
- The main purpose of the experiment reported here was to ..

Move 3: the present simple or will (or shall) + infinitive

- This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals
with ...
- In section 4, we will show to what extent the results were influenced
by ...

- The first section / part of this paper will assess...

- The review begins by laying out the theoretical dimensions of the
research .... It will then go on to ...

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 5.2 • Check your tenses

5.2.6 Tenses used in the body of your paper

Literatureoverview
For direct and indirect quoting and referring to the literature, you have a choice
berween the present simple and the past simple. Notice that you can use tenses
to add subtlety to what you have to say. For example, the present tense may
indicate the general validity of the reference, while the past tense may be used to
indicate that the research referred to is no longer considered the norm:

1. Velicer and Yu (2011: 141) suggest that ...

2. In the same vein, Osborne (2010: 51) shows that ...
3. Greshock (1990) suggested that ...
4. Ptolemy said that ….

Notice, again, that the choice between present simple and past simple in the
sentences above is free, and that tense choice does not necessarily betray
anything about an author's opinion of the validity of the reference.

Materials and Methods

The most prominent tense in the Materials and Methods section is the past
simple, since the section focuses on research that has already been carried out. In
addition, the focus is on what has been done more than who did it, which leads
to an overall prominence of the passive voice (see 5.4.1 below).

5. Questionnaires were distributed among ...

6. The subjects were instructed to indicate ...

7. The information was recorded in ...

for a ...
8. This approach was chosen to allow
9. The survey was based on the findings of Ghoa (2005).
10. Participant were selected from a database ...

seen in (11) and (12) below,

Not all sentences require a passive voice, as can be
and some sentences even allow a present simple, such as the general statements
about methods or materials in (13) and (14):

who volunteered for ...

11. The sample consisted of 50 females
12. The control group participated in several random tests ...
...
13. This approach has several advantages over the standard:
14. This method is the most effective way of testing for ...

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5 • Check your
grammar, style and

The Results section answers the question "what were the findings?" and as such
is mainly written in the past simple. Many sentences the passive
will still betoinread
are generally easier
voice, but remember that active sentences
and ...
was found between ...
15. A positive correlation
significance.
16. No other effects approached
17. Analyses of variance performed on the data revealed a significant effect of
A, F(3,72)=4.15, p<.001.
reduction of ...
18. We found no significant

References to tables and figures, however, need a present simple.

1 indicates that ...
19. The Pareto chart in Fig.
measures of ...
20. Table 3 compares the five
21. This table illustrates the
difference between ...

5.2.7 Tenses used in the Discussion and Conclusion

The Discussion section of a paper typically boasts a wide variety of English tenses
and can thus be confusing for the non-native writer. Tenses in the Discussion
do deserve attention though, as they can be used to discriminate between
your results and those of others and specifically between your results and the
implications of your results. A general rule is that you can use the past simple to
refer to your research aim and results and the present simple for stating general
facts, interpreting and comparing findings, stating strengths and weaknesses, and
commenting on the implications of your research.

EXAMPLES
Reference to purpose or research question: past simple
- The aim of this study was to ...
- The main question in this research was whether ...
- We hypothesised that patients with ...
- The present study was designed to determine ...

Restatement or summary of the findings: past simple

- The current study found that ...
- An unanticipated finding was that ...
- Comparing ... with ... showed that the main effect ...
- The first test provided the most significant
result, ...

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 5.2•Check
yourtenses

Transitions from result to

simple
interpretation: past simple and present
- The incidence of each
cardiovascular outcome increased with time
from diagnosis (= finding),
of treatment on the health
which suggests that the long
of cancer survivors will be term impact
(= interpretation of finding) substantial.

Comparison of the findings: present simple

- The findings of the current or hedge
study are consistent with ...
- This study confirms that
... is associated with..., as
Johnson (2005). suggested by
- This corroborates the
theory of Mintson (1998), who...
- Our results differ from earlier
research on ..., indicating that ...
- Our findings seem to be
consistent with other research
investigating...
Interpretation of the findings: present simple or hedge
- There are several explanations
for the fact that ...
- An explanation might be that ...
- This contradiction may well be due
to ...

Strengths: present simple

- The strengths of this study include its large
population, its
prospective design and its long period of follow-up.
- The major strengths of this study are that it
included a far larger
number of subjects followed for longer than any of these previous
studies.

Limitations: present simple or past simple

- A limitation of this study is the relatively small sample size, which
limits the statistical power of analyses.
- The current investigation was limited by ...

Implications of the research: present simple or hedge

- The findings of this research suggest...
- The results of this study indicate that ...
- An implication of these findings is that ...

Suggestions for future research: present simple or will/should +

infinitive or hedge
- More research on this topic needs to be undertaken...
- We recommend future studies to focus more on ...
- Further research should try to eliminate ...
- Other approaches might be able to distinguish...
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 style and vocabulary
5 • Check your grammar,

or present simple
Conclusions: present perfecta new approach to ...
- This paper has
presented
the hypothesis that ...
- In short, the results of this study support

While the guidelines for the use of renses in this section are conventional,
uses of the tenses in
you may well find instances of other tenses and differentvariation
academic articles. There is likely to be a certain extent of caused by
personal preferences and differences among the disciplines, but the examples
covered in this section do give a general guide to the correct use of tenses in the
Discussion section.

Be vigilant in assessing the use of passive voice in your Discussion, as a common

source of confusion in Discussions is whether the reported findings are those of
the author or those of other research. (It has been found that ... is ambiguous
because it is unclear whether you or another researcher has found something.)

Note that discussing your results calls for tentativeness and diplomacy. The
choice of verb can be a useful tool in expressing yourself cautiously, which is why
Section 5.4.2 below deals with hedging, including the use of modal verbs (can/
could, may/might, etc.). The tense of a verb can also play a role in the finality
of a statement and should therefore be considered with care when stating the
implications of your results.

5.3 Check your conditionals: using if and when

Beware of the difference in meaning between if and when: if refers to a condition;
when refers to a moment in time. The difference may be clear from the following
sentences:

1. I'll tell him if I see him.

(1 may or may not see him, but if l do l will tell him.)
2. I'll tell him when I see him.
(| will tell him the moment I see him.)
3. When you pass your exams, you'll get your present.
(You will certainly pass, and after that moment in time ... )
4. If you pass your exams, you'll get your present.
(The condition for getting your present is passing the exam.)

Conditionals are used to formulate hypotheses, possibilities or predictions

and are therefore common in academic writing. They come in four different
constructions:

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 5.3 • Check your
conditionals: using if and when

truth
[Link]
If + present simple, present simple
If you pour oil on water, it floats.
B. Possibility (very likely)
If + present simple, will / shall / may / can
If I tell him, he will kill me.
C. Hypothetical (unlikely)
If + past simple, would / should / might / could
IfI told him, he would kill me.
If I were to tell him, he would kill me.
[Link]-only conditional (impossible, no longer possible)
If + past perfect, would + have + past participle
IfI had told him, he would have killed me.

Note that English if/when and would/could/should do not typically occur in the
same part of the sentence.

5. X IfI would do this, you would be grateful.

6.J Ifl did this, you would be grateful.

If + would is only acceptable in constructions where if can be replaced by

whether, although in such cases it is better to use whether:

7. It is important to investigate if/whether such an approach would yield

detailed enough results.

Whether is particularly advisable in sentences with a contrast (whether ... or not)

and in sentences with an inserted if-clause (to prevent double if):

8. It is not yet certain whether we can go ahead as planned (or not).

9. The most important thing is to ascertain whether a repetition is necessary,
for example if a number of questions has been left open on the form.

5.4 Check your style

To write a clear text, you have to do more than just write without error. In
addition to avoiding common grammar and punctuation errors, you have to
write according to convention. Even if it is hard to define style exactly, it is clear
that an academic writing style should reflect a certain level of formality and
objectivity. Moreover, your personal style also includes decisions about such
things as sentence length and vocabulary. Style, then, is determined by the joint

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5 • Check your grammar, style

effect of choices in vocabulary, grammar and text structure, and as such is a

reflection of all the topics covered in this book. This section on style focuses on
three specific style choices that play an important role in non-native speaker
writing

5.4.1 Check the passive

A sentence can be written in active or passive voice. The grammatical voice of
a sentence helps indicate the relation between the action expressed by the
verb and the role that the subject and object play in that action. When the
grammatical subject is the actor (or doer), the sentence is said to be active
(1). When, however, the subject is the target (or undergoer) of the action, the
sentence is said to be passive (2).

1. The builders built a house. (subject = the builders)

2. The house was built (by the builders). (subject = the house)

The passive voice, then, is made with a form of the verb "to be" + the past
participle of the main verb.

Tense Active voice Passive voice

Present Simple discusses is discussed

Past Simple discussed was discussed

Present Perfect Simple has discussed has been discussed

Past Perfect Simple had discussed had been discussed
Future Simple will discuss will be discussed
Future Perfect Simple will have discussed will have been discussed

The use of passives is — in part — a matter of taste, but passives do seem to be

overused in academic writing. Most modern style guides will warn you against the
overuse of the passive voice as it carries the danger of making a text sluggish, but
the passive voice does have its place and function in academic writing. A useful
rule of thumb is that it is best to avoid the passive unless you have good
reason to
use it. One such reason is that the passive tends to draw the reader's attention to
"what is done" instead of "who does it," which is especially useful in the Materials
and Methods section of an article (eg. sentences 3, 10 and 11 below). Another
reason is that the passive can contribute to academic objectivity.

The passive can be useful in situations where the agent is either too vague
to
be worthy of mention (general agent, sentences 3-5 below) or where the agent

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 5.4 • Check your
style

is the writer and the writer wishes to avoid being "overly present" in the text
(sentences6-8).
Describing procedures:
All experiments were performed using recombinant mouse RAG1
3. and
RAG2; core RAG1 (residues 384-1,008) and either core (residues
1-387) or
full-length RAG2 were expressed from the pEBG vector. RAG1 and RAG2
were co-purified as glutathione-S-transferase fusion proteins from
Chinese
hamster ovary (RMP41) cells. Recombinant human HMGB1 was
purified
from Escherichia coli as previously described

Making general statements:

4. It is usually assumed that ...
5. Questions have been raised about the safety of ...

Commenting on the text or the research:

6. The results of the experiment are discussed below...
7. This report has been divided into two...
8. This study was designed to evaluate ...

Think twice before using the passive together with a by-phrase. In academic
writing, by-phrases are typically used when they contain important information;
they are usually omitted when the agent is unknown, unimportant or easily
identified from the context.

Agent important:
9. The internet was identified as a valuable resource by 45% (223) of
respondents.

Agent unknown or unimportant:

10. GBD 2002 estimates of deaths by cause, age, and sex were carried out (by
someone] in 226 countries and territories.

Agent clear from context:

[by us] with
11. The predictions of the projections model were compared
historical trends in child mortality.

A disadvantage of the passive is that it may lead to ambiguity. For instance, it

are the
may be unclear whether you yourself or other (unspecified) authors make the
can really help
agent. Remember that the use of unambiguous subjects
can also help
rext clearer for your reader. Adding a specification to the passive
clear up the ambiguity:

133
 style and vocabulary
5 • Check your grammar,

in relative terms. (ambiguous)

12. X Poverty has been definedin relative terms.
poverty
13. V We have defined
poverty in relative terms.
Jones (2013) defines
is defined in relative terms.
J In this paper, poverty

An efficient alternative to passives in academic writing is to use active verbs with

abstract subjects. Non-native speakers of English often have difficulty realising
that in English the subject of an active verb does not have to be alive or capable
of actually performing the activity expressed by the verb. Abstract subjects form
a useful alternative to the passive, especially in sentences where you want to
avoid the use of we. Consider the following constructions with abstract subjects
that are common in
academic texts:

14. This chapter discusses...

15. The program runs...
16. This paper will examine the
difference between ...
used to ...
17. The next section describes the methods
...
18. The results of our second test suggest that
19. Figure 1 clearly shows an
increase in ...
that ...
20. Their 2015 paper describes a double-blind trial
21. Simple linear regression analyses revealed a significant relation ...

WRITING TIP
Aspect vs. voice
Distinguishing between tense, aspect and voice can be difficult.
Understanding the differences may help you in your writing:

present, perfect aspect to have + past participle has written

present, progressive aspect to be + present participle is writing

present, passive voice to be + past participle is written

Try not to be confused by the combinations:

present, perfect aspect + passive voice has been written

present, progressive aspect + passive voice is being written

present, perfect + progressive aspect has been writing

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 5.4 • Check your
style

5.4.2 Express tentativeness

As part of your efforts to be objective in your communication, it is
to make statements about your work with appropriate important
certainty.
assumptions and results demand a tentative approach, while otherSome of your
can be made with conviction. This interplay of facts with opinion statements
and certainty
with caution is a key part of academic writing, and it pays to be aware of the
ways you can modify your assertions to accurately reflect the
certainty of your
claims. Tentativeness in writing is commonly referred to as hedging;
expressing
conviction is often called boosting. This section explores some of the options
the
English language offers to hedge and boost correctly. This section explores some
of the options the English language offers to hedge correctly. Section 5.4.3
does
the same for boosting.

Express tentativeness and possibility: hedging

The expression of tentativeness and possibility is often
referred to as hedging,
and hedging is perhaps the most important linguistic device in
English academic
writing. Hedging is a means of anticipating the possibility of opposition to your
statements; it helps to make your text more diplomatic by projecting honesty
and modesty. Hedging, in short, enables writers to present uncertain scientific
claims with appropriate caution and accuracy (Hyland, 1996a).

Some non-native speakers of English may fear that hedging weakens their
message, but hedging is generally considered to make your text stronger as
it helps keep your text accurate and objective. As such, it can help gain your
readers' acceptance of your claims. Consider the examples below, imagining
that you know for a fact the study has some understandable weaknesses (small
sample size, controversial techniques, etc.). Sentence (1), without hedging, may
make you suspicious of the author as you are aware of the weaknesses of the
study, whereas sentence (2), with hedging, may aid the trustworthiness of the
author, allowing you to read on without unnecessary suspicion, but with proper
caution:

1. We also proved that RIT is effective against chronically infected cells,

including those with viral infections.
Our recent results also suggest that RIT is effective against chronically
infected cells, including those with viral infections.

There are several types of hedges. The most frequent types of hedges in
academic writing, often referred to as lexical hedging, include verbs, modal verbs,
nouns, adjectives and adverbs. It may be worth noting that academic authors
also use less direct strategies to hedge statements about the implications of
their results, including mentioning the limitations of the current knowledge in

135
 style and vocabulary
5 • Check your grammar,

the field, the general theory, or the method used for the study; raising questions
about implications or propositions; or using hypothetical conditionals (Hyland,
1996b). Study publications in your field to make yourself familiar with the most
research area.
common forms and functions of hedging in your
would]
Modal verbs as hedges [can/could, may/might,
One category of hedges consists of modal verbs. Modal verbs (which provide
additional information concerning the mood of the main verb following them)
are important for clear formulation of opinion and interpretation, and can help
you express the shades of meaning you need to make accurate, academically
sound statements. They are a powerful tool for the expression of the precise
nuance of your meaning.

ability
CAN - expresses possibility and
3. These results can be explained by ...
4. A Mendelian randomisation approach can be used to determine the
association between BMI and health outcomes.
5. Prostate cancer can also result in significant urinary and bowel dysfunction.
6. There are two categories of factors that can contribute to a relapse: ...
7. These simulation models can detect changes in individual behaviour over
time.

COULD - expresses tentative possibility and general ability

8. Participants were excluded if they had a psychiatric condition that could
make participation unsafe.
9. Many factors could contribute to a relapse:...
10. Another reason for this decrease could be a change in ...
11. Internet-based CBT could enable increased accessibility to healthcare
providers.
12. This model could be extended to mobile data plans as well
13. Although this model could account for a large number of experimental
findings, some features have not yet been defined as a result of a lack of
experimental data.

MAY - expresses possibility

14. The experiment may prove to be inconclusive.
15. Our findings suggest that the association between BMI and respiratory
disease mortality may indeed be the result of reverse causation and
confounding.
16. Decision analytic models may not be well suited to interventions which
involve complex behaviour change components

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 5.4 • Check your
style

MIGHT - expresses tentative possibility

17. Another possible explanation for the lack of significant findings for the TIP-C
might be the modest dose of the intervention.
18. Confounding by poor socioeconomic circumstances might generate an
apparently high mortality risk among underweight people.
19. Healch information might more strongly meet the needs of survivors and
...
their partners who

WOULD - expresses general tentativeness

20. Four sensitivity analyses were carried out to investigate how sensitive the
ICERs would be to changes of cost estimates.
21. This implies that society as a whole would be financially strengthened by
making CBT for SAD more accessible.
22. We hypothesised that the treatment would generate significant societal cost
reductions.
This result would favour the hypothesis that the plant protein is targeted to
the bacteroids.
24. We predict that 60Fe would be a good candidate for y-ray line astronomy.

WRITING TIPS
Hierarchy of modals
- When we're in Australia, we can visit Bruce.
(meaning: we will be able to)
When we're in Australia, we may visit Bruce.
(meaning: there is a chance that we will)
When we're in Australia, we might visit Bruce.
(meaning: there is a more tentative chance that we will)
When we're in Australia, we could visit Bruce.
(meaning: one of many possibilities)

Other verbs as hedges [seem, believe, suggest, appear]

In addition to modal verbs, lexical verbs such as seem, believe and suggest
to soften your
also play an important role in hedging. They not only help
statement (compare proves with suggests), but they can also help convey
with Johnson
your attitude towards a source (compare Johnson [2011] believes
in
(2011] demonstrates). Here are some other examples of common verbs used
academic writing:

25. Most course books tend to under-represent the importance of hedging

devices.

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5 • Check your grammar, style and vocabulary

in foetal liver
26. The present work indicates that the relative deficiency
nucleotide.
and
function is due to low levels of both enzyme
of granna is to shield ...
27. The model implies that the function
28. It might be speculated that the proteins generated from UBE4B and UBE4A
from environmental stress.
are involved in protecting the cell
29. However, black spots can be seen on the stem, which we suspect is the
earliest visible system.
is
30. We propose that language evolution is an emergent behaviour, which
influenced by both genetic and social factors.

EXAMPLES

Frequently used verb hedges

The following verbs are frequently used as hedges in academic writing:

argue, appear, assume, believe, estimate, expect, hypothesise, imply,

indicate, infer, presume, postulate, predict, propose, seem, speculate,
suggest, suspect, suppose, tend (to)

Other words as hedges [quantifying, possibility and frequency hedges]

Verbs are not the only word form used for hedging; you can also use nouns,
adverbs and adjectives. A distinction can be made between possibility hedges
(probable, conceivably, possibility), quantifying hedges (a few, some), frequency
hedges (sometimes, generally) and other adjectives and adverbs such as fairly and
somehow.

31. This effect is possibly responsible for the observed anomalies.

32. Conceivably, patients in our coexisting dementia and depression group may
have in fact been at a more advanced stage of dementia.
33. These effects probably result from the amphetamine-like properties of the
drug.
34. There is apparently a relationship between ...
35. This can presumably be rationalised within the ...
36. The combination of ... and ... is sometimes mistaken for ...
37. Several studies have demonstrated differences in the ... and ..., but few
studies have looked at variability in outcomes.
38. Some research suggests that anorexia has the
highest death rate of all
psychiatric disorders.

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 5.4 • Check your
style

EXAMPLES
Frequently used hedging words
The following words are frequently used as hedges in academic
writing
to express possibility, frequency or quantity:

Adjectives
apparent, conceivable, few, little, many, most, occasionally, plausible,
possible, potential, presumed, probable, rare, seldom, several, some,
supposed
Adverbs
apparently, approximately, arguably, conceivably, hypothetically,
(most) likely, partially, partly, perhaps, plausibly, possibly, potentially,
presumably, probably, rarely, rather, seemingly, unlikely, usually, virtually

Nouns

appearance, assumption, conjecture, doubt, estimate, expectation, idea,

indication, inference, implication, likelihood, possibility, potential, (in all)
probability, suggestion, supposition, tendency, to a certain extent, to my/
our knowledge

Remove unnecessary hedges

While double hedges (may be possible, seem to imply) and triple hedges (might
be considered rather likely) may be common in scientific writing, they can
seriously weaken the strength of your argument. You run the risk of ending up
with sentences that are overly wordy do not really say anything at all:

...
39. a. X These results suggest the possible existence of
b. J These results suggest the existence of ...
tendency of
40. a. X Another possible explanation is probably the apparent
interactive proteins to evolve more slowly.
proteins to evolve
b. J A possible explanation is the tendency of interactive
more slowly.
cosmic rays may cause a change in ...
41. a. X Early results seem to indicate that
b. J Early results indicate that cosmic rays cause a change in ...
may show an apparent
42. a. X We believe that the findings of this study
and conflict resolution styles.
relationship between cultural variables
b. V This study may show a relationship
between cultural variables and
conflict resolution styles.

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 5 • Check your grammar, style and
vocabulary

5.4.3 Express conviction

Whereas hedges allow writers to express tentativeness and possibility, boosters
(demonstrate, obviously, always) allow them to express certainty and conviction.
You can thus use boosters to increase the force of your statements and to show
commitment to your statements. Do keep in mind, however, that boosters
leave little room for your readers to question or dispute your statements. Since
using boosters can be a risky tactic, always consider carefully whether they are
appropriate for your paper.

Just as with hedges, there is a wide variety of boosters (verbs, nouns, adjectives
and adverbs):

1. This study shows that over a 6-week period of use subjects rated CBM
significantly more effective than placebo...
2. Listening will continue to play a large part in pronunciation training,
3. In the past decade, a growing literature has demonstrated the clear
pragmatic importance of hedging as a resource for expressing uncertainty
and open-mindedness about one's propositions.
4. This effect is certainly / directly / indeed responsible for the observed
anomalies.

5. This result is undoubtedly attributable to ...

6. It is evident that ... will adversely affect...

7. The results offer clear support for the role of effort in instigating weight
reduction
8. An obvious implication of these findings is that clinicians should be alert to
the possibility that a client's distress is a response to ...

EXAMPLES

Frequently used boosters

The following boosters are frequently used in academic writing:

Verbs and modals

conclude, demonstrate, establish, must, prove, show, will (not), shall (not)

Adverbs
always, beyond doubt, clearly, consistently, consistent with, evidently,
definitely, inevitable, obviously, of course, precisely, substantially, surely,
unambiguously, undoubtedly, unmistakably, unquestionably

140
 5.4 • Check your
style

Adjectives
certain, clear, conclusive, evident, definite, inconceivable, impossible,
improbably, obvious, significant, sure, unambiguous

Nouns
certainty, confirmation, the fact that

WRITING TIPS
Avoid common mistakes
Academic texts written by non-native speakers tend to contain
considerably fewer cases of hedging than papers written by native
speakers, and non-native writers frequently use informal hedges,
exaggerations and overstatements that are not appropriate in academic
English. Try to avoid the following words that are frequently, but
inappropriately, used by non-native speakers:

Avoid informal hedges

like
actually
more or less
anyway
in a way pretty

kind of something like

maybe sort of

Avoid informal boosters

definite(ly) never
absolute(-ly)
enormous(-ly) no way pure(-ly)
a lot
ever sure(-ly)
always
extreme(-ly) terrible(-ly)
amazing(-ly)
far total(-ly)
awful(-ly)
forever
unbelievable(-ly)
bad(-ly)
for sure very
by all means
huge(-ly) very much
complete(-ly)
in all/every way(s)
deep(-ly)
techniques in
from: Hinkel, E. (2004). Teaching academic ESL writing: practical
(Adapted Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.)
vocabulary and grammar. Mahwah:

141
 style and vocabulary
5 • Check your grammar,

5.4.4 Write concisely

Some writers need fewer words to get their message across than others. Crisp
and concise writing is generally considered appropriate for academic writing as
it enhances the overall clarity of the message. However, non-native speakers of
say something, using words
English tend to use more words than necessary to more
or phrases that can easily be replaced by shorter, elegant formulation. If
this is true for you, it may be — at least in part — due to a limited academic
vocabulary, and it may be worth your while to work on building vocabulary that
can help you replace long-winded turns of phrase with shorter ones such as in
the examples below.

EXAMPLES
Simplify your language
Try to avoid the following circumlocutions and replace them with their
simpler counterparts where you can.

with
replace
a considerable amount of many, much

absolutely essential essential

at the present time now

full
completely full
due to the fact that because

end result result

have a tendency tend (to)

have the ability to be able to

in comparison to than

in close proximity near

in the event that if

on account of the fact that because

See useful phrases overview at the end of the chapter (5.6.1) for a
more
complete list.
(Adapted from: Katz, M. J. (2006). From research to manuscript: a guide to scientific
writing. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer.)

142
 5.5•Check your
vocabulary

Check your vocabulary

5.5.1 Check your word choice

Choosing the right words is an important factor in getting your message across.
Using a good dictionary and double-checking any word that you are unsure
of will help prevent big mistakes and will help build your vocabulary, so you
can express yourself more fluently and accurately. Notice that in addition
to the meaning of a word, a good learner's dictionary will often also include
information about how native speakers use the word, its grammatical properties
and its level of formality.

WRITING TIPS
Word choice
Some words are inappropriate because they are too informal for
academic writing:

Avoid Use instead:

by the way incidentally

besides in addition

a lot of many, much

Other words are often used incorrectly:

does not mean in conclusion

conclusively
shortly (soon) does not mean in short, briefly

already* does not mean as early as

does not mean economic

economical*
does not mean teach
learn
such as
as* in the sense of
in the sense of for
since

also in the sense of including

*Already in 1954, researchers noted...

* The government's economical plans....
*Vegetables, as tomatoes, are a good source ...

143
 style and vocabulary
5 • Check your grammar,

make mistakes involving count and non-

Non-native speakers of English often
between:
difference
count nouns. Note the

- Less is used wich non-count nouns (less grass); fewer with count nouns (ewer
footballers).
- Much is used with non-count nouns (much writing); many with count nouns
(many papers).
- Amount is used with non-count nouns (the amount of editing); number with
of corrections).
count nouns (a number

Other mistakes involve the fine differences in meaning in set expressions with or
without articles (see Section 5.1.2):

the building.
1. In case of fire, make sure to evacuate
(meaning: in the event of)
[Link] the case of a burn victim, appropriate medication
is crucial.
(meaning: with respect to)
3. In future research, we will use Method B for similar situations. (meaning:
from now on / starting now)
4. In the future, researchers may live on Mars.
(meaning: later on / starting later)

Some non-existent abbreviations are also commonly, but incorrectly, used. Do

not use the following:

a.o. what you mean is among others/among other things

w.r.t. what you mean is with regard to
f.i. what you mean is for instance

f.e. what you mean is e.g. (for example)

nr. what you mean is no. (number)

Prepositions
Prepositions are one of the most difficult elements of English for non-native
speakers: they often do not translate very well between languages and their use
is highly specific according to context. Furthermore, there are barely any hard-
and-fast rules about when to use which preposition. The best way of mastering
prepositions, then, is to pay attention to their use in everyday English and to
focus specifically on set combinations and expressions with prepositions. It also
pays to learn how to look up prepositions in dictionaries: if you are wondering
whether to say research onto or research into, you look under research in a good

144
 wleck your vocabulary

learner's dictionary to hnd that the correct preposition with research is research
into.
onorresearch

It is useful to learn combinations of prepositions, verbs and nouns that occur

frequently in academic discourse, and the overview of useful phrases at the
end of the chapter (5.6.2) offers some input. Of course, publications in your
held and general academic rextbooks offer a wealth of information as well,
and most books on developing academic vocabulary will include a chapter on
prepositions.

EXAMPLES
Some expressions with prepositions commonly used in academic writing:

alternative to on average
an improvement in on behalf of

a reaction to on the whole

a shift in related to

associate with relevant to

compatible with similar to

consistent with solution to

derive from specific to

devoted to to agree with
deviation from to be aware of

exclude from to be involved in

in comparison with to be satisfied with

to comment on
in conjunction with
in contrast to to convince of

in line with to distinguish from

in spite of to engage in
to some extent
in terms of
to stem from
in this respect
interaction with with the exception of

145
5 e Check your grammar, style and vocabulary

5.5.2 Check your spelling contain a spell

Spelling errors seem unnecessary as most word processors
checker and dictionaries are widely available; however, spell checkers do not
pick up on all errors, so being aware of some basic spelling rules can help you
save time in the writing process. Here are some general rules that may prevent
common pitfalls:

L:
The suffix-ful always has only one
- helpful
- cheerful
- tasteful
- successful

- unlawful
- faithful
L.
- The word full and the suffix -fully do have double

Final consonants are doubled after stressed syllables:

- begin - beginning
- omit - omitted

- refer - referred

- occur - occurred

Note: doubling of final consonants in words that do not end with a stressed
syllable is typical for British English writing. American English writing prefers a
single consonant in such cases:
- travel (BrE: travelling - AmE: traveling)

Compounds are normally written as two words, unless the dictionary states
otherwise:

- water pollution
- blood pressure
- side effects

Compound adjectives that precede a noun are always hyphenated:

- habit-forming side effects

- yellow-coloured structures
- three-month-old babies
- wide-scale replicability

146
 wu cleck your vocabulary

- rest-activity
patterns
- an eighteen-inch telescope

Verbs are typically written with voiced consonants, their nominal

counterparts (nouns) with unvoiced consonants:
noun
verb
- life
- live

- prove proof

There is often confusion over the use of words such as advise and advice. The
general rule is that the verbs are spelled with an s and nouns with a c:
noun
verb

- advise - advice

- devise - device

-practise
- practice

- license - licence

Some words somehow always cause confusion, so make sure you know the
difference between:

- choose (present tense) - chose (past tense)

- lose (verb) - loose (adjective)

- its (possessive) - it's (it is)

- there (location) - their (possession)

(allow) - except (excluded)

- ассерг
- access (entrance) - excess (surplus)

- dessert (meal)
- desert (region)

Note the plural forms of:

- crisis - crises

- basis - bases

- analysis - analyses
- criterion - criteria (preferable) / criterions
- stimulus - stimuli

147
5 • Check your grammar, style and vocabulary

misspelled words:
And, finally, note this list of commonly

incorrect correct
incorrect correct
- existance - existence
- seperate - separate
- address - ofcourse - of course
- adress

- divide - assistent - assistant

- devide

- comittee - committee - develloped - developed

dependant - dependent - can not

- cannot

(Note that can not is correct if the emphasis is on not.)

British English vs. American English spelling

The choice between British and American spelling normally depends on the
house style of the journal in which you hope to publish. Note, though, that your
personal preference may also be a deciding factor; as a non-native speaker, you
may find it easier to stick to one preference and not let the detailed differences
confuse you. In any case, you should strive to be consistent in your preference
within a paper to prevent confusion. Consider the list below for some of the
most prominent differences between British and American English spelling:

-se versus -ze

British American

- harmonise - harmonize

- analyse - analyze

- generalise - generalize

Note: while the -ise ending is generally regarded as typically British, some British
academics prefer to use -ize. It is best to check journal requirements before you
make your choice.

148
 5.5 • Check your
vocabulary

-or
-ourversus

American
British
• humor
-humour
- flavor
- Aavour
- behavior
- behaviour
• mold
-mould

Note: when the suffix - ous is added to these words, the British and American
spelling is identical: vigorous, humorous.

-re versus -er

American
British
- center
- centre

- kilometre - kilometer

- meager
- meagre

-I versus -II

British American

- skilful - skillful

- instalment - installment

- fulfil - fulfill

-Il versus -

British American

- travelling -traveling
- counselling- counseling
parallelling-paralleling

149
5 • Check your grammar, style and vocabulary

-ence versus -ense

British American

- pretence - pretense

- licence - license

- offence - offense

-oe /-ae versus -e

British American

- paediatrics - pediatrics

- oestrogen - estrogen

- aesthetics - esthetics

-ogue versus -og

British American

- catalogue - catalog
- dialogue - dialog
- analogue - analog

-ge versus -g

British American

- judgement - judgment
- ageing - aging

150
 5.5 • Check your
vocabulary

other

American
British
-programme*
- program

- gray
- grey
- curb
- kerb
enquire - inquire

- pyjamas - pajamas

- aluminium - aluminum

- draft
- draught
- plow
-plough

*Note: a computer program is spelled the same in both varieties of English.

The differences between British and American English are not restricted to
spelling. In addition, British and American are not the only formal varieties
of English. Because of these complicating factors, it is a near-impossible task
for a non-native speaker to be aware of all the differences; in fact, most native
speakers of English will not know all subtle differences. The importance of
therefore not be
distinguishing between British and American English should
overstated.

5.5.3 Check your numbers and dates

Numbers
other European languages
English numbers have a decimal point where most
as thousands separator
have a decimal comma, and English uses a comma
point nought fifty seven")
instead of a full stop. Thus, in English 4.057 (read "four fifty-
4,057 means "four thousand and
means four and 57 thousandths, while
seven."

151
 5 • Check your grammar, style and vocabulary

European
British English / American English
0,6 0.6

€ / S / E 229,99 €/$/E229.99

27.000 27,000

100 a/one hundred, 100

1.000 a/one thousand, 1,000 or 1000
10.000 ten thousand. 10,000

100.000 a/one hundred thousand, 100,000

1.000.000 a/one million, 1,000,000

[Link] a/one billion, 1,000,000,000

In the past, a billion in British English meant a million million (10") and a trillion
meant a million million million (10"). This is called the long scale. The UK has,
however, moved to the short scale used in the USA, in which a billion is 10° and a
trillion is 10". Many countries throughout the world, however, still use the long
scale.

Dates

In British English, there are four ways to write dates:

- May 9
- 9 May
- May 9th
- 9th May

It is common practice in academic writing to leave out the abbreviations th, nd,
st and rd after the date. When a year is also involved, the best aption in British
English is to write in the format date/month/year. 15 June 2017; American English
prefers month/date/year. June 15, 2017. To avoid ambiguity, it is best to write the
month as a word, always with a capital letter (anuary, May, August, etc.).

Centuries should be spelled out without using capital letters. Notice that you
have to follow the usual rules of hyphenation if the century is an adjective to the
noun, as in (2):

1. the seventeenth century

2. nineteenth-century authors

When referring to a decade in a formal text such as an academic paper, add -s

(nor's) to the first year of the decade (in the 1940s), Do not use the informal

152
 5.6 • Useful vocabulary

contraction in the '40s in academic English to avoid confusion between the 1940s
and, for instance, the 1840s.

Useful vocabulary

5.6.1 Simplify your language

Replace Wich

a considerable amount of many, much

absolutely essential essential

almost unique rare, uncommon

whether
as to whether

at this point in time now

full
completely full
considered as considered

considering the fact that although, because

decrease
decline

different than
different from, unlike

because
due to the fact that
each
each and every
result
end result

equally
equally as
identical
exact same

tend (to)
exhibit a tendency
outcome
final outcome

first
first of all
expected
foregone conclusion
future
foreseeable future

153
 5 • Check your grammar, style and vocabulary

tend
have a tendency
be able to
have the ability to

higher in comparison to higher than

if, when
if and when

near
in close proximity

in spite of the fact that although

in the event that if

in the final analysis finally

in the realm of possibility possible

including but nor limited to including

inside of inside

intimate suggest, indicate

irregardless regardless
nearly unique rare, uncommon

obviate prevent

orientate orient

on account of the fact that because

preventative preventive

prove conclusively prove

referred to as called

regarded as being regarded as

seeing that because

transpire happen
try and try to

up in the air undecided

very unique
unique

(Adapted from: Katz, M. J. (2006). From research to manuscript: a guide

to scientific writing
Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer.)

154
 5.6 • Useful vocabulary

5.6.2 Check your prepositions

1. A distinction will be made between 4 basic usages, which will be referred to

as the classical, descriptive, symbolic and structural conceptions.
2. Her study shows a profound insight into human character.
Writings on festive performances attempt to account for the process of
change that occurs in community life.
4. The analysis of ideology is not taken into consideration.
5. His career has been completely devoted to conventional political theory.
This paper looks into the processes involved in the transmission of pre-
existing cultural forms.
7. Tribes needed to adapt themselves to new customs and manners.
8. The tendency among these 4 important sociologists is to view
communication as part of'the culture industry'.
9. I shall draw on these studies and try to show the relevance of critical social
theory in this area.
10. Compared to some languages, English has a simple grammar.
11. The present paper offers an investigation into the interaction
between the
physics community in Germany and the National Socialist movement.
12. The stability theory has been applied to other areas, including monetary
policy.
13. How do these conceptual systems relate to systems of action?
attitude of Plato and Aristotle
14. The article is an attempt at describing the
toward the question of toleration.
15. Subjects have been taking part in the study for two years.
16. It was believed that high levels of
pollution could never occur in a 'clean'
country such as Switzerland
17. The article has been translated into English.
of people suffering from this disorder.
18. This kind of behaviour is typical
the accident occurred
19. He was driving at full speed when the
appears trifling when one considers that
20. The increase in carbon dioxide
little more than .03 percent by volume.
total amount in the atmosphere is a
of heat-trapping gases, particularly
21. Global warming due to the accumulation of the century.
at the turn
carbon dioxide, was predicted
22. Information on the earth's
temperature has been more difficult to
accumulate.
the
cannot convey any information about
23. In particular, ostensive definition expects that
the language learner already
reference of object labels unless world.
in some way to things in the
the label being uttered is related
with the formulation of very general
24. Insofar as logicians are concerned devices possess a decisive advantage
patterns of valid inference, the formal
over their natural counterparts.

155
5 • Check your grammar, style and vocabulary

25. This would be consistent with the hypothesis that infants possess a general
to the objects they see.
bias to relate the language they hear
26. Cultural analysis is the study of symbolic forms in relation to the historically
specific and socially structured contexts and processes within which, and
and
by means of which, these symbolic forms are produced, transmitted
received.
27. Anthropologists such as White and Geertz have linked the study of culture
action.
to the analysis of symbols and symbolic
28. Here I shall restrict myself to commenting briefly on the social-historical
dimension of cultural analysis.
29. Although these figures relate to Britain, they are
indicative of trends
characteristic of many modern industrial societies.
30. In creating media products, the personnel of media institutions draw upon
everyday forms of culture and communication, incorporating these forms
into media products and thereby reproducing, in a selective and a creative
way, the cultural forms of everyday life.
31. This represents a significant advance over earlier studies.
32. Many aspects of immigrant women's lives did not fit into the analytical
framework that he adopted.
33. In abstract growth models like Diamond's, there is no difference between
the marginal product of capital, which might be inferred from data on
profits and the capital stock, and the real interest rate on safe government
securities.
34. Our goal is to ascertain which observable features of actual economies can
be used to make inferences about dynamic efficiency and then to assess
whether the United States economy is dynamically efficient.
35. Much of the previous discussion of the issue centres on comparisons of rates
of return and growth rates.
36. Respondents were asked to fill out the questionnaire and sign their name at
the bottom of the page.
37. Children at that age want to be independent of their parents.
38. She is well-known for her brilliant essays on the French symbolists.
39. In his opinion, these plans should be abolished.
40. The country is heavily dependent on foreign aid.

156
References

College Board (2005). How to avoid plagiarism. Mackenzie, L. J. (1997). Principles and pitfalls of
Retrieved December 3, 2012, from http:// English grammar. Bussum, the Netherlands:
[Link]/student/plan/ Dick Coutinho.
college-success/[Link] Merriam-Webster. Retrieved July 4, 2012,
Flower, L. S. (1989). Problem-solving strategies from [Link]
for writing. New York: Harcourt Brace dictionary/plagiarize
Jovanovich. Oxford dictionaries. Retrieved July 4, 2012, from
Fowler, H., & Aaron, ). E. (2010). The little, brown [Link]
handbook. (11th ed.). United States: Pearson. english/data
Gopen, G. D. & Swan, J. A. (Nov-Dec. 1990). Siepmann, D., Gallagher, J. D., Hannay, M., &
The science of scientific writing. American Mackenzie ). L. (2008). Writing in English: a
Scientist, 78, 550-558. guide for advanced learners. Germany: Narr
Guide to Grammar and Writing. (2004). Francke Attempto Verlag.
Retrieved July 2, 2012, from [Link] Springer, P. E. (2011). Advanced learner writing:
[Link]/grammar/ a corpus-based study of the discourse
Hannay, M., & Mackenzie, L. J. (2009). Effective competence of Dutch writers of English in
writing in English: a sourcebook. (11th ed.). the light of the C1/C2 levels of the CEFR.
Bussum, the Netherlands: Coutinho. Oisterwijk, the Netherlands: Uitgeverij
Hinkel, E. (2004). Teaching academic ESL BOXpress.
writing: practical techniques in vocabulary Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in
and grammar. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum academic and research settings. Cambridge,
Associates. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Hyland, K. (1996a). Writing without conviction? Swan, M. (2009). Practical English Usage. (3rd
Hedging in scientific research articles. Applied ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford
Linguistics, 17(4), 433-454. University Press.
Hyland, K. (1996b). Talking to the academy: Tavecchio, L. (2010). Sentence patterns in English
and Dutch: a contrastive corpus analysis.
forms of hedging in science research articles.
Written Communication, 13(2), 251-281. (Doctoral dissertation, Vrije Universiteit
Katz, M.J. (2006). From research to manuscript: Amsterdam). Utrecht, the Netherlands: LOT.

a guide to scientific writing. Dordrecht, the The University of Manchester. (2016). Academic
Netherlands: Springer. Phrasebank. Retrieved March 8, 2016, from
Kirszner, L. C., & Mandell, S. R. (2008). The [Link]
Wadsworth handbook (8th ed.). United
States: Thomson Wadsworth.
Kirszner, L. G., & Mandell, S. R. (1999). The Holt
handbook (Sth ed.). United States: Harcourt
Brace College Publishers.

157
 style, compound sentence, see
bibliography (see also citation sentence
complex sentence, see sentence
list) 42-43
Index works-cited list
booster 135, 140-141
& reference
conditional 130-131, 136
109 • if vs. when 130
bracket 35, 43, 58, 83, 93, Conclusion (see also Discussion)
• round 43, 83, 93, 109 15, 17,
abbreviation 18, 20, 58, 144, 152 31-33
83
• square 35, • elements 33
Abstract 15, 17, 19-20 brainstorming 14
• useful phrases 53-54
British English spelling, see spelling
• purpose 19
• writing tips 19
cause and effect, see argumentation • writing tips 33
Academic Phrasebank (The University of coordinating conjunction 84-85, 99-100
pattern
Manchester) 54
centrality claim (see also MOVE-Step, • FANBOYS words 85-86, 97, 99-100
Move 1: establish a territory) 21-22,
active sentence, see voice count noun, see noun
adverb 74-76, 80, 99, 135, 138-140 dash 83, 93, 109
47,123-124
• of frequency 75 date 152
• forms 22
• of manner 76 definite article, see article
• useful phrases 22, 47
• of time 75 41- 46 dependent clause, see clause
Chicago (see also citation style)
adverb placement (see also adverb) 74-65, direct quote, see quoting
80
chronology, see argumentation pattern
circumlocution 142 dependent variable, see variable
agreement 102, 111-112, 115
citation style 41-47 Discussion (see also Conclusion) 15, 17,
• subject-verb agreement 111-115 30, 31-33
• APA, see APA
AMA (see also citation style) 41-46 • elements 32-33
• MLA, see MLA
American English spelling, see spelling • in IMRAD 15
• AMA, see AMA
amount vs. number 144
• Chicago, see Chicago • useful phrases 53-54
announcing findings (see also MOVE-Step,
citing sources 33-47 • writing tip 32
Move 3: occupy the niche) 25
• paraphrasing, see paraphrasing Discussion and Conclusion, see Discussion
• useful phrases 25 & Conclusion
APA (see also citation style) 41-42, 44-46 • quoting see quoting
• writing tips 35, 40-41 documentation style, see citation style
apostrophe 83, 95-96
claiming centrality, see centrality claim effective word order (see also non-stan-
argumentation, see argumentation
clause 73-75, 77, 80, 82-91, 97-108 dard word order) 98, 107-111
pattern
• main 73-74, 84-85, 90-91, 99-108 • clause combining 104-106
argumentation pattern 58-60
• sub 73-74, 85. 100, 102-103, 105-106, • end focus 76-78, 82, 107-108
• cause and effect 60
108 • end weight 76-79, 108
• chronology 57-58
• dependent 73-74,97, 100, 102, 108 • given information 77
• comparison and contrast 57, 59
• exemplification 58
• essential 88 • given-new flow of information 77, 108
• finite 102 • it-cleft 81-83, 109
article 115-118
• definite 115-118 • non-essential 88 • new information 77, 82
• indefinite 115-118
• non-finite 102 • object-adverb switching 75, 80, 108-
• no article 115-118 • non-restrictive 88-89, 93, 98 109

• restrictive 88-89 • presentative 80-81, 108-109

article structure, see IMRAD
• verbless 102 • switching 80
aspect 118, 134
• simple 118 clause combining (see also sophisticated • what cleft 81-83, 109
• perfect 118 word order) 83, 104-107 e.g. 58, 69
• progressive 118 • backgrounding 104-106 ellipsis 35, 83
• perfect progressive 118 • foregrounding 104-106 end focus (see also effective word order)
audience 13, 19, 26, 63 cleft (see also non-standard word order) 76-78, 82, 107-108
81-83, 108-109
avoiding plagiarism, see plagiarism end weight (see also effective word order)
background (see also MOVE-Step, Move 1: • it-cleft 81-83, 109 76-79, 108
establish a territory) 19-22, 123 • what-cleft 81-83, 109 English paragraphing (see also paragraph
• general 21 clustering 14 structure & paragraph coherence)
• specific 21 coherence, see paragraph coherence 55-56
background information, see background collective noun, see noun essential clause, see clause
backgrounding (see also clause combin- colon 83, 87, 89-90, 91, 95, 99, 101 exemplifcation, see argumentation
ing) 104-105, 107-109 comma 83, 84-89
pattern
basic word order (see also word order) comma splice 97 explicit coherence, see paragraph coher-
73-76 comparison and contrast, see argumenta- ence
tion pattern
fallacy 65-68

158
 Index

68 Introduction 15, 17, 20-27

adhominem67 • as inverted pyramid 21 niche (see also MOVE-Step) 21, 24-25, 28,
adpopulumthepeople67
48-49
• in IMRAD 15
argumenttotheperson68 • structure, see
MOVE-Step
• useful phrases 24-25, 48-49
angumentto68 • useful phrases 22-26,
47-51
non-count noun, see noun

bandwagonquestion67 • writing tips 20, 26

non-essential clause, see clause

beggingthe 67 introductory phrase, see identifying

non-finite clause, see clause

,circular
reasoning
66
tag
inverted commas (see also quotation
non-finite verb form 102-103
not follow • -ing participle 102
does marks) 34-40, 83, 93,95
66
either/or 66 • double 93-94
• past participle 102

,equivocation67 • single 93-94

• to-infinitive 102

,false
analogy non-restrictive clause, see clause
• writing tips 95
•false
cause66 non-standard word order (see also
65 inverted pyramid, see Introduction
•hastygeneralization
effective word order and sophisticated
66 it-cleft, see cleft & effective word order
•nonsequitur
word order) 108-109
66 key words and phrases (see also
• post hoc
argumentation paragraph • object-adverb switching 75, 80, 109
67 coherence) 62-64
•red herring • presentative 80-81, 108-109
slope66 less vs. fewer 144 • it-cleft 81-83, 109
•slippery
screen67 linking words and phrases (see also para- • what-cleft 81-83, 109
•smoke 65
• sweeping generalization
graph coherence) 60-61 number of vs. amount of 144
hypothesis Literature review (see also reviewing
fasifable hypothesis, see noun

FANBOYS words, see coordinating

research) 15, 17 • count 115-117
• useful phrases 49-51 • collective 114
conjunction
faulty argumentation (see also
fallacy) 65 locative subject 79 • mass 115

flawed argument, see fallacy logical fallacy, see fallacy • non-count 115-117
main clause, see clause
fewer vs.less144 number 92, 96, 151-152

hgures, see tables and figures

many vs. much 144 object-adverb switching (see also
marked word order, see non-standard
hnite clause, see clause non-standard word order) 75, 80, 109
foregrounding (see also clause combining)
word order outline 9, 11, 13, 24-26
104-105, 107-108 mass noun, see noun paragraph 55-65
frontal overload 79 materials (see also Methods section) 15, paragraph coherence 57-65
17, 27-29 • cause and effect 60
future, see tense
word
given information (see also effective • categories 28 • chronology 58
order) 77, 108 Methods section 15, 27-30 • comparison and contrast 59
• design 27 • exemplification 58
grammatical parallelism (see also para-
• elements 27 • explicit coherence 57
graph coherence) 64-65
hedging 135-141 • in IMRAD 15 • grammatical parallelism 64-65
• materials 15, 17, 27-29 • implicit coherence 57
hedge 129, 135-141
• key words and phrases 62-64
hooking the audience 26 • procedure 15, 27, 29
hyphen 83, 92-93 • statistical treatment 15, 27, 29 • linking words and phrases 60-61
• variables 15, 27, 29 • reference words 61-62
hypothesis 11-13
identifying tag 39, 42 • useful phrases 51-52 paragraph structure 55-57
le 71 • writing tip 27 • concluding sentence 55-56
if vs. when, see conditional MLA (see also citation style) 41-42, 44-46 • supporting sentence 55-56
modal verb (see also hedge & booster) • topic sentence 55-56, 64, 104
implicit coherence, see paragraph
coherence 122, 130, 135-137, 140 paraphrasing (see also citing sources)
MOVE-Step 20-22 34-35, 37-40
IMRAD 15
indefnite article, see article • approach 21
parenthetical reference (see also citation
independent variable, see variable • Introduction 21, 47-49 style) 42
passive sentence, see voice
indicating text structure (see also MOVE- • Move 1: establish a territory 21-23,
past simple (see also tense) 120-121, 124-
Step, Move 3: occupy the niche) 21, 25 47-48
129, 131-132
• useful phrases 26 • Move 2: establish a niche 21, 24, 48
• Move 3: occupy the niche 21, 24-26, past participle, see non-finite verb form
indirect quote, see quoting
plagiarism 33-39
information Aow 77, 81, 99, 106-107, 157 48-49

• Swales 20
• avoiding plagiarism 35-39
ing participle, see non-finite verb form
in-text citation (see also citation style) new information (see also effective word prefix 92-93
42-43 order) 77, 82, 108 preposition 144-145, 155-156

159
 Effective Scientific Writing

also Methods • useful phrases

word sample restriction (see
presentative (see also non-standard
tense 118-122
section) 27-29
technique (see also Methods
• future 119, 122
order) 80-81, 108-109
tense) 119-120,
sampling • in the
present simple (see also section) 27 Introduction 122-126
•inthe body
hypothesis of the paper
scientific hypothesis, see
123-132

present perfect (see also

tense) 121-125, •inthe
Discussion 127-128
scannability 17 •inthe &Conclusion
130, 132, 134
sections of a scientific article
(see also 128-130
MaterialsandMethods
• continuative use 121
IMRAD)
127 section
• resultative use 121 • in the Results
• Abstract 19-20 section 128
problem-solving 11, 14 • Acknowledgements 17 • past simple 119-120
section) 15,
procedure (see also Methods 15,17 • present simple 119-120
• Appendices
27, 29, 133 • present perfect 119, 121
• Conclusion 33
punctuation 93-98 testability 12
• Discussion 31-33
• common mistakes 87-98 Title 18
• Introduction 20-27
quotation, see quoting • function 18
• Literature review 17
quotation marks (see also inverted
• Methods (Materials and methods)
• subtitle 18
commas) • writing tips 18
27-30
quoting 34-36, 41
• References, see reference list to-infinitive, see non-finite verb
form
• direct 34, 127
topic generalisation (see
• indirect 34, 127
• Results 30-31
Move 1: establish a
also MOVE-Step,
• inverted commas 34, 40, 83, 93-95 • Title 18 territory) 21-23, 124
• forms 23
sentence 73-110
• writing tips 35, 40, 95
• simple 99 • useful phrases 23, 47 of 48
readability 17, 105, 118
• complex 100, 102, 104 validity (see also Methods section)
reader 17-20, 22-28, 30-33, 39-43, 55, 57 12,
• compound 99, 104 15, 27, 29
reference list (see also bibliography, cita-
sentence length 98-100, 102, 104, 106, 107 variable (see also Methods section)
tion style & works-cited list) 42-47 12,
sic 35 15, 27, 29
reference style, see citation style
simple sentence, see sentence • dependent 27
reference words (see also paragraph
coherence) 61 sophisticated word order, see effective • independent 27
word order verbless clause, see subclause
referring to sources, see citing sources
relative pronoun 89 source reference, see citing sources voice

replicability (see also Methods section) 28 spelling 118, 146-148 • active 78-79, 109, 128, 132, 134
reporting verbs 23, 34, 125 • common errors 148 • passive 78, 109, 127-128, 130, 132, 134
reporting on statistical findings 52-53 • American English 148-151 what-cleft, see cleft & effective word order
research question 11-13, 15, 19, 30, 32, 128 • British English 148-151 word choice 143-145
restrictive clause, see clause stages of research 11 • writing tips 143
research aim (see also MOVE-Step, Move statistical analysis (see also Methods word order
3: occupy the niche) 21, 24-25 section) 15, 27, 29 • basic, see basic word order
• forms 24-25 • Useful phrases 52-53 • effective, see effective word order
• useful phrases 25, 49 statistical treatment, see statistical analysis • marked, see non-standard word order
research design (see also Methods subclause (see also clause) 73-74, 85, 100, • non-standard, see non-standard word
section) 27 102-103, 105-106, 108 order
research objective, see research aim • finite 102 • sophisticated, see sophisticated word
research question 11-13, 15, 30, 32, 128 • in mid-position 103 order
Results section 30-32
• in sentence-initial position 105 working title (see also Title) 14
• in IMRAD 15 • in sentence-final position 108 works-cited list (see also bibliography,
• tables and figures 15, 30-31, 40, 52, 128 • non-finite 102 citation style & reference list) 42
• useful phrases 52 • verbless 102
Writing tips
• writing tips 31 subordinator 100, 102 • for the Abstract 19-20
reviewing research (see also MOVE-Step, subtitle, see Title • for the Introduction 20, 26
Move 1: establish a territory) 21-23 suffix 92-93, 146, 149 • for the Methods section 27
• reporting verbs 23, 34, 125 • summarizing 39 • for the Results section 30-31
• useful phrases 23, 48
switching (see also object adverb switch- • for the Discussion section 32
run-on sentence 97
ing) 80 • for the Conclusion 33
sample (see also Methods section) 15,
tables and figures 15, 30-31, 40, 52, 128 • for the Title 18
27-28
• title

160
 Writing a scientific article in English is often a major challenge for non-native
speakers of the language. They not only need to produce a well-structured
and coherent text, but they are also expected to use correct and idiomatic
English throughout. While many books and guides deal with academic writing
in general, few focus specifically on writing a scientific article, and most are
not written with non-native speakers of English in mind. This guide now offers
help. It provides comprehensive and practical advice for non-English graduate
students (Master's and PhD) and researchers from various disciplines who wish
to communicate their work effectively. It presents all the essential elements
for writing a successful scientific paper:

- getting started and structuring your thoughts

- structuring your paper
- citing sources
- writing well-structured and coherent paragraphs
- constructing effective sentences
- considering information placement and word order
- adopting the right style and using appropriate vocabulary
- avoiding the pitfalls of English grammar

This guide is the culmination of the authors' years of experience in providing

clear language and communication consulting in combination with practical
tools to aid the aspiring writer of scientific English.

Aleth Bolt holds a university Walter Bruins is a freelance

degree in English language and academic communication
literature and has worked as an specialist with a distinct interest
English language instructor for in reader-oriented and

universities, research institutes well-structured writing. He

and commercial companies holds a degree in linguistics
100 since she graduated in 1998. and has taught numerous

JVHD01 :
Aleth now works as a learning courses in writing and
and development officer at the presenting skills at several
Corporate Academy of Dutch universities, alongside
Windesheim University of his work as a writing coach and
Applied Sciences, where her editor for research groups and
responsibilities include individual researchers. More
developing a teaching info at [Link]
qualification programme and
professional learning track for
lecturers.

VU University Press

ISBN 978-9086596171

9 789086596171