s+ Data Communications
- Forouzan
and Networking rourh dition
Chapter 2
Network Models
2_1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an
example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.
Topics discussed in this section:
Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy
2.2
Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter
Sender Receiver
i i
Higher layers
Middle layers
Lower layers
The parcel is carried from
the source to the destination.
23
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (IS0) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(0S1) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
Topics discussed in this section:
Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
24
Note
2.5
Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model
7
Eween Application
6
e] Presentation
5 Session I
T
3 Network
T
BT
1
2.6
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
Device Device
Intermediate Intermediate
node node
) <
Peer-to-peer protocol (7th layer)
7| Applic N
7-6 interface
5 == g i TeerTo-peer
profocol ot ayen mfi« E
4-3 interface 4-3 interface
Physical communication
2.7
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
LN
|IIIHHA
i
A
|
.1_ i
i
Transrmsston medmm
In this section we briefly describe the functions of each
layer in the OST model.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
2.9
Figure 2.5 Physical layer
From data link layer To data link layer
Physical Physical
laver | [
10101000000010111] layer
Transmission medium
0
&)
210
Note
2.1
Figure 2.6 Data link layer
From network layer To network layer
Data link layer Data link layer
To physical layer From physical layer
212
Note
213
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
Intermediate system
system
End
system
Intermediate
Intermediate
system
Hop-to-hop delivery | Hop-to-hop delivery+ Hop-to-hop delivery |
| I
A B E F
Data link Data link Data link
Physical Physical Physical
Hop-to-hop delivery ~ Hop-to-hop delivery ~ Hop-to-hop delivery
214
Figure 2.8 Network layer
From transport layer To transport layer
To data link layer From data link layer
215
2.16
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery
End
Intermediate system
system F
End
system
Intermediate
system
Hop-to-hop delivery | Hop-to-hop delivery | Hop-to-hop delivery
I I
Source-to-destination delivery
Network Network Network
Data link Data link Data link
Physical Physical Physical
Source-to-destination delivery
217
Figure 2.10 Transport layer
From session layer To session layer
Segments Segments
Transport Transport
layer To network layer From network layer layer
218
219
Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Processes
Network layer
Host-to-host delivery \
Transport layer
Process-to-process delivery
2.20
Figure 2.12 Session layer
From presentation layer To presentation layer
Session Session
layer layer
To transport layer From transport layer
2.21
2.22
Figure 2.13 Presentation layer
From application layer To application layer
Presentation Presentation
layer layer
To session layer From session layer
2.23
2.24
Figure 2.14 Application layer
User User
(human or program) (human or program)
[ |
Application Application
layer layer
To presentation layer From presentation layer
2.25
2.26
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers
To allow access to network
resources
To translate, encrypt, and
compress data
To establish, manage, and
terminate sessions
To provide reliable process-to-
process message delivery and
error recovery To move packets from source
to destination; to provide
internetworking
To organize bits into frames;
to provide hop-to-hop delivery
To transmit bits over a medium;
to provide mechanical and
electrical specifications
2.27
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly
match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.28
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model
Applications
Protocols defined by
the underlying networks
(host-to-network)
2.29
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing
the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
2.30
Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP
2.31
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
Application layer Processes I —_— ats:lzer:;f::s I
=
SCTP TCP —_— Port
Transport layer
addresses
= o
Network layer
IPand
oifinr protocols
Data link layer
Underlying
Physical
physical
Il
networks
Physical layer
2.32
Physical address
= Know as Link address
= The address of node as define by its
LAN or WAN
= INCLUDES THE FRAME USED BY DATA
LINK
= LOWEST LEVEL ADDRESS.
2.33
‘ Example 2.1
In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.
2.34
Figure 2.19 Physical addresses
Sender Receiver
10 =
Destination
address Trailer Destination address does
not match; the packet is
T2 dropped
Source
address
2.35
‘ Example 2.2
As we will see in Chapter 13, most local-area networks
use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon, as shown below:
2.36
Logical address
= Logical address are necessary for universal
communication that are independent of
underlying physical network.
= Physical address are not adequate in an
internetwork environment where different
network can have different address formats
= Logical address in the internet can uniquely
define a host connected to internet
2.37
‘ Example 2.3
Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers
connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
2.38
Figure 2.20 IP addresses
Toanother | X/44
network
F/20 T/99
nfl:] Router 1
B _l [A[P]Data] T2
[ hysical
addresses
changed
Data link layer
[A[P[Data]|2
[A[P DA Network layer Router2
Upper layers [:] N/33
Physical
. Receiver ‘1‘:\‘:’:;: Toanother
network | Y/55
P/95
2.39
Port address
= IP address and physical address are
necessary for quantity of data to travel
from source to designation hots.
2.40
‘ Example 2.4
Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the
Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source fto
destination.
2.41
Figure 2.21 Port addresses
j -l ———— Data link layer ————
2.42
243
‘ Example 2.5
As we will see in Chapter 23, a port address is a 16-bit
address represented by one decimal number as shown.
753
A 16-bit port address represented
as one single number.
2.44
245
