Module 2.
1 – Physical Work
Environment
Prepared by:
Ezrha C. Godilano-Gregorio
MSIE, CIE
Physical Work Environment
• Visual and Environment and Lighting
• Auditory Environment and Noise
• Climate Control in the Work Environment
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Visual Environment and Light
Visual and Environment and Lighting
• The Physics of Light
§ Photometry is a branch of optical physics that is concerned with the
measurement of light.
§ A photometer is the instrument used to measure light.
§ Luminous Flux is the basic quantity in photometry. It is the rate at which
light energy is emitted in all directions from a light source. It is the power of
the light source and is measured in lumens (lm)
§ Luminous intensity it is the luminous flux emitted in a given direction. It is
radiated per unit solid angle, and has a unit of candela (cd)
§ Steradian is the unit of measure of a solid angle
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Visual and Environment and Lighting
• The Physics of Light
§ Illuminance or Illumination is the amount of light shining on a surface. It is
the amount of luminous flux per unit area of the surface. It is measured in
lux (lx). 1 lux is equivalent to 1 lumen per square meter.
§ 1 cd = 12.566lm
Where: Where:
F = Light flux (lm) E = illuminance (lx)
I = source intensity (cd) F = luminous flux (lm)
A = area of illuminated surface (sq.m)
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Visual and Environment and Lighting
• Angle of Incidence
§ Illuminance decreases as the light source increases. The reduction is
proportional to the square of the distance, as expressed in the following:
Where: The surface is
E = illuminance (lx) perpendicular to
I = luminous intensity (cd) the light source,
d = distance of surface from light source (m) θ =0
If distance is in feet, unit of E becomes
footcandles (fc)
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Visual and Environment and Lighting
• Angle of Incidence
§ If angle is not perpendicular, illuminance must take the angle of incidence
into account
Where:
E = illuminance (lx)
I = luminous intensity (cd)
d = distance of surface from light source (m)
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Visual and Environment and Lighting
• The Physics of Light
§ Luminance is the amount of light reflected from the surface. It depends on
both the amount of light shining on the surface and the color and texture of
the surface.
Where:
E = illuminance (lx)
R = reflectance
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Units
• Illuminance lux (lx)
4π = 12.566
This is used to
convert candelas
to lumens. footcandles (fc)
• Luminance
footLamberts (fL) lux(lx)
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Typical Reflectance Values
Object Reflectance
Mirrored glass 0.80 - 0.90
White matte paint 0.75 - 0.90
Aluminum paint 0.60 - 0.70
Black painted object 0.03 - 0.05
Color Reflectance
White 0.85
Light green 0.65
Medium blue 0.35
Dark blue 0.08
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Example 6.1
• An isotropic light source has an intensity of 50cd. Located 3 m
away is a wall that has a reflectance of 0.65. Calculate the
following:
a. Total luminous flux emanating from the light source
b. The illuminance of the wall
c. The luminance emitted by the reflected light
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Visibility
Relative possibility of being seen under prevailing
conditions of light, distance, and related factors
• Most important factor = level of illumination
• Other factors:
– Visual angle - angle subtended at the eye by the
smallest distinguishable detail
av = 3438 h/d
where av is measured in arc minutes
– Brightness contrast - relative luminance between object
and background
– Color
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Lighting Systems
• Lamp - a single artificial source of light
(e.g., an incandescent lamp)
• Luminaire - complete lighting unit,
including
– One or more lamps
– Reflectors and other apparatus to distribute
the light
– Means to connect to power supply
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Types of Luminaires
Direct lighting
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Types of Luminaires
Indirect lighting
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Types of Luminaires
Combination of direct
and indirect lighting
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Two Basic Types of Lamps
• Incandescent lamps - electrically heating a filament that
produces radiant energy, some of which is in the visible
spectrum
– Common filament material - tungsten
• Discharge lamps - produce light by means of an electric
discharge in a gas
– Common discharge lamp - fluorescent lamp, which contains
mercury vapor that emits light when bombarded by electrons
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Direction
• Directionality of the lighting can enhance and
emphasize an object’s perceived shape or form
Techniques used:
• Key
• Fill
• Grazing
• Wall washing
• Silhouette
• Uplight
• Others
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Direction
• Key Light
ü Single point source of light
ü Provides highlights and casts shadows providing
contrast and producing definite focus
• Fill Lighting
ü Multi-directional or diffuse light
ü Reduces shadows on an object caused by the key
light
ü If totally diffuse, creates a cloudy day feeling and
minimizes shadows, which may be desirable for
certain tasks
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Direction
• Grazing
• Occurs when light strikes a surface at a sharp
angle, nearly parallel to a rough surface
• Enhances any variations in surface depth,
revealing texture
• Will also emphasize flaws and unevenness in
surfaces
• Wall Washing
• Occurs when light strikes a surface at a wide
angle
• Provides even lighting on a vertical space,
increase luminances of wall surfaces, and
extend the space
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Direction
• Silhoutte
ü Light source is used not to illuminate an object itself, but its
background
ü Applicable when one aims to reveal the outline of an object against a
brighter surface and to create separation between the object and its
background
• Uplight
ü Places a light source below an object
ü Produces shadows that are reversed from how an object is shadowed
in daylight
ü Creates an eerie, unnatural effect because it replaces the more
familiar overhead orientation of the light source.
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Ideal Direction of Lighting
• Should be determined by the space function or tasks
• Shadows at a work task may be irritating
• Excessive concentration and constant readaptation of
the eye can cause visual fatigue and a loss in
performance or increase in accidents
• Highlights and shadows must be used sparingly
depending on the task to prevent the introduction of
negative factors
• Highlights and shadows, on the other hand, provides a
pleasant visual environment located away from the
major tasks
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Visual Acuity
• Visual angle (arc min) = 3438 H/D
• 20/20 (Normal)
• 20/40
• 20/200 (Legally blind)
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Visibility (Blackwell’s curves)
Contrast (lum) = (Lmax-Lmin)/Lmax
{Contrast (mod) = (Lmax-Lmin)/(Lmax+Lmin)}
Recommended Illumination
• Pick general category based on activity
• Adjust for three factors:
1) Worker age
2) Reflectance of task/background
3) Speed/accuracy of task
Distribution of Light
a) Direct lighting for both general and task
b) Indirect lighting that is reflected (ambience)
c) Mixed direct and indirect – task and reflected
Consider two sources – general and task
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Distribution of Light and Reflectance
Luminance ratio = Lmax/Lmin
(Task:adjacent < 3/1, task:remote < 10/1)
Control Light Sources - Avoid Glare
b) Position light away from line of sight
a) Place light overhead or behind
d) Use several lamps of lower intensity
c) Grazing light for inspection
e) Transillumination for inspection
Other Factors to Reduce Glare
• Use light shields, baffles, blinds, hoods,
diffusing lenses
• Use non-glossy matte work surfaces
• Avoid flashing reflections from moving parts
• Place lights further from line of sight
(Tradeoff with increased intensity)
• Have windows higher up
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Color and Psychology
• Yellow – good visibility, warmth, caution
• Orange – warmth, a bit more attention
• Red – very warm, increased appetite, very
attention demanding, warnings
• Green – lower visibility, coolness, proceed
• Blue – low visibility, very cool
• Hot pink – reduces aggression(?)
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Luminous Flux
• Defined as the flow of light,
Φ
• Measured in lumens
• A lamp receives watts and
emits lumens. The measure
of success of doing this is
called efficacy and is
measured in lumens per
watt (lm/W)
Illuminance
• As luminous flux travels outward from a
source, it ultimately impinges on surfaces,
where it is reflected, transmitted, and/or
absorbed
• Illuminance on a surface, E is the density
of luminous flux incident on that surface
• Measured in lumens per square meter
• Lumen/m2 is called a lux while lumen/ft2
is called footcandle
Luminous Intensity
• Generally speaking, a light source emits
its luminous flux (Φ) in different directions
and at different intensities. The visible
radiant intensity in a particular direction is
called luminous intensity (I). The unit of
measurement is the candela (cd).
Luminance
• The luminance (L) is the brightness of an
illuminated or luminous surface as
perceived by the human eye. Unit of
measurement is candelas per square
meter (cd/m2).
Luminous Efficacy and Efficiency
• Luminous Efficacy (η). Luminous efficacy indicates the
efficiency with which the electrical power consumed is
converted into light. The unit of measurement is lumens
per watt (lm/W).
• Luminaire Efficiency. Luminaire efficiency (also known as
the light output ratio) is an important criterion in gauging
the energy efficiency of a luminaire. This is the ratio
between the luminous flux emitted by the luminaire and
the luminous flux of the lamp (or lamps) installed in the
luminaire.
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Products to use
For High Performance
Kitchen Scene
6” Recessed
Downlights
with 65W BR30 Lamps
Kitchen Scene
6” Recessed
Downlights
with 26W CFL Lamps
Kitchen Scene
6” Recessed 12W
LED Downlights
Street Lighting
Office Scene
Fluorescent Parabolic (72W each)
Office Scene
LED Architectural Lay-in (44W each)
Hallway
FL. Troffer (87W) LED Lay-in (87W)
TYPICAL LED LIGHTING BENEFITS
• Improved Visual Environment
• Lower Operating Costs
• No Toxic Mercury
• LEED point contribution
• Simplify energy code
compliance
IMPROVED VISUAL ENVIRONMENT
CRI = 80
IMPROVED VISUAL ENVIRONMENT
CRI = 92
High Color Accuracy
Visual Environment and Light
Auditory Environment
and Noise
Auditory Environment and Noise
• The second most important means by which humans
receive information
• Visual and auditory stimuli account for 95% or more
of a person's information input
• The auditory environment also includes:
– Noise - defined as unwanted sound
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Effects of Noise on Humans
• Distraction
• Negative emotions such as annoyance, frustration,
anger, and fear
• Interference with conversation, thinking, and other
cognitive processes
• Interference with sleeping
• Temporary hearing loss
• Permanent hearing loss
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Noise Factors of
Primary Concern
• Two noise factors of primary concern in terms of
their effects on human workers:
1. Intensity of the noise
• Perceived by listener as loudness
2. Duration of exposure
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Other Noise Factors of Interest
• Frequency
– Perceived by listener as pitch
– Industrial noise is usually broadband - composed
of a wide range of frequencies so its importance is
diminished
• Noncontinuous noise
– Intermittent noise - machines with on-off cycle
– Impact noise - drop forge hammer
– Impulse noise - gunfire
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Physiological Effects of Noise
• Startle response - due to sudden loud noise
– Causes spontaneous muscle contractions, blinking eyes,
head-jerk movement
• Other physiological effects:
ü Slower and heavier breathing
ü Variations in heartbeat rate
ü Dilation of eye pupils
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Physiological Effects of Noise
• Hearing loss (three categories):
1. Temporary threshold shift - hearing impairment of short
duration. Effect is reversible so that full hearing capability is
gradually restored.
2. Noise-induced permanent threshold shift - results from long
term exposure to noise levels above 90 dB. It not reversible,
and full hearing is never recovered. Does not mean complete
deafness, it means reduction in auditory capability
3. Acoustic trauma – caused by single exposure to very high
intensity noise of short duration. Depending on the intensity
of the noise, hearing loss can be temporary or permanent.
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Permissible Noise Levels
• Established by OSHA to avoid hearing loss
• Standards specify permissible duration of
exposures for various dB levels
Sound Level Duration Sound Level Duration
80 dBA 32 hr 95 dBA 4 hr
85 dBA 16 hr 100 dBA 2 hr
90 dBA 8 hr 105 dBA 1 hr
92 dBA 6 hr 110 dBA 30 min
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Noise Control
• Administrative controls
– Managing the exposure durations for employees
working in noisy environments
• Setting time limits on exposure to noise level
• Engineering controls
– Noise abatement at three locations:
• Source - design quieter machinery
• Receiver - use of ear plugs, helmets
• Path between source and receiver - enclosures for
noisy machines
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Source-Path-Receiver Model
The source-path-receiver viewpoint in the design of engineering
controls for noise abatement
Three regions where noise can be reduced: (1) at the source, (2) at the
receiver, and (3) along the path between source and receiver
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
• Sound – changes in air
pressure, stimulus for ear
• Complex sinusoid format
– Frequency: 20-20,000 Hz
– Amplitude
Sound Intensity
• The logarithmic measure of sound intensity is called sound
pressure level (SPL), expressed in units of decibels (dB):
Where: ps = sound pressure from the source
. pr = the reference sound pressure
Note: the intensity of a sound wave varies inversely
as the square of the distance from the source.
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. P576,
609-641
Amplitude = Intensity
Measured in dB = 20 log10P1/P0 P0=threshold of
hearing, Range = 0-150 dB
Equal Loudness Contours (A-scale)
Anatomy of the Ear
Complex process-pneumatic, mechanical, hydraulic, mechanical, electrical
Cochlea – Hair Cells
Noise = Unwanted Sound
• Startle response, annoyance
• Interference with speech, sounds (masking)
• Decreases complex task performance
• (May improve simple task performance!)
• Long term exposure → hearing loss
– ↑ with ↑ frequencies and ↑ duration
– First sign in 4,000-6,000 Hz range
– Damage to hair cells (nerve damage)
– Measure with audiometer (bone vs. air conduction
tests)
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Hearing Loss
• Exposure to high noise levels can lead to either
temporary threshold shift (TTS) or permanent
threshold shift (PTS)
• TTS - hearing eventually returns to normal with time away from
the source
• PTS – irrecoverable loss of hearing
• Damage may be immediate or may occur over some
time due to continuous exposure
• Two major types of hearing loss
• Conductive Hearing Loss – physical damage to the ear
• Neural Hearing Loss – auditory nerve damage due to prolonged
noise exposure
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Noise Measurement
• Sound level meter
– A-scale (~ human ear)
– C-scale (~ flat)
– Slow (1-sec average)
– Fast (impulse noise)
• Adding noise levels
Ltot = 10 log10(10L1/10 + 10L2/10 + ..)
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Exposure Regulations
OSHA Europe
8 hours -- 85 dBA 16 hours – 87 dBA
4 hours -- 90 dBA 8 hours – 90 dBA
2 hours – 95 dBA 4 hours – 93 dBA
Should not be
exposed to noise
levels exceeding
115 dBA
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
OSHA Limits on Noise
Noise dose (D) = C1/T1 + C2/T2 + .. ≤ 1
Hours dBA
16 85
8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
2 100
1 105
0.5 110
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Measurement
• The effect of the LTOT = 10 log10(10L1/10 +
coexistence of two 10L2/10 + . . . )
or more sounds
sources in one Where L10 = total noise
location.
L1 and L2 = two noise
sources
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Other formula
• Permissible duration of exposure
• Time Weighted Average Sound Pressure Level. This
corresponds to the constant value of sound pressure level that
is equivalent to the collection of intensities to which the
worker is exposed during the work day.
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Noise Control
1) At source, 2) Along path, 3) At receiver
Personal Hearing Protectors
Earplugs
Earmuffs Canal Caps
Example
• During an 8-hour shift, worker is exposed to 85dB for 5 hours
and 92dB for 3 hours. Determine (a) the noise dose for these
two exposures and (b) the time weighted average sound
pressure level for the 8-hour day.
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Climate Control in the Work
Environment
Introduction
• There are four primary variables that define climate:
§ Air temperature
§ Humidity
§ Air movement
§ Radiation from surrounding objects
• “Comfort zone”
§ Temperature: between 19oC and 26oC
§ Relative humidity: 50%
§ Air movement: 0.2 m/s
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Heat Stress
• Hot working environments occur naturally in many manual
jobs such as:
– Foundries
– Boiler operations
– Basic metals industries
– Hot working of metals
– Heat treatment
• Heat Stress occurs when the body take in and/or produces
more heat than it gives off, thus raising the core body
temperature.
– Metabolic rate increases about 10% for every 1oC rise in the body temperature
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Heat Stress: WBGT
• Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) is the most commonly
used index in industry today that establishes heat exposure
limits
For outdoors with a solar load
For indoors or outdoors with no solar load
Where:
NWB = Natural wet-bulb temperature (measure of evaporative cooling)
GT = globe temperature (measure of radiative load)
DB = dry-bulb temperature (basic ambient temperature)
Source: Freivalds, Andris (2009). Niebel’s Methods, Standards, and Work
Design . Mc-Graw Hill .p251
Illness due to Heat Stress
• Heat Rash (Miliaria)
– Areas of the skin erupt into red or white bumps due to inflammation of
the sweat glands.
• Heat cramps
– These are spasms of the muscles used in manual work associated with
low salt due to sweating.
• Heat exhaustion
– Associated with low salt and whose symptoms include weakness in the
muscles, nausea, dizziness, and fainting
• Heatstroke
– A serious failure of the body’s thermal regulatory system characterized
by high fever, dry skin, collapse, and sometimes convulsions and coma.
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Cold Stress
• In a cold environment, a breeze removes heat from the body,
but it can cause a drop in the body temperature to levels that
are physiologically harmful.
• Cold work environments are associated with various job
situations such as those in poorly heated buildings, in
refrigerated warehouses
• The combination of air temperature air movement is captured
in the windchill index- also called windchill factor- which
provides an estimate of the cooling effect of moving air on
exposed skin. The index is most commonly expressed as
equivalent windchill temperature.
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Cold Stress
– As wind velocity increases at a given actual air temperature, the
equivalent windchill temperature gets colder and colder
Where:
EWT = equivalent windchill temperature, oF
Ta = actual air temperature, oF
v= wind velocity, miles/hr
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Cold Stress
• Cold stress occurs when the body gives off more heat than it
takes in and/or produces, thus lowering the core body
temperature
• The physiological responses to a reduced body temperature
are vasoconstriction and shivering
• Vasoconstriction is narrowing of the blood vessels in the skin,
especially in the extremities (fingers and toes)
• Shivering consists of a rapid quivering or shaking of the
muscles, which increases metabolism to generate body heat.
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
Illness due to Cold Stress
• Frostbite
– This occurs when the tissue freezes and ice crystals form in the tissue
cells.
– Common in the hands and feet
– It can lead to gangrene
– Occurs in 15 minutes or less at windchill values of -18oF or lower.
• Hypothermia
– Occurs when the core body temperature is at or below 35oC, which
results in diminished physical and mental capacity.
Source: Groover, Mikell P. (2007). Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and the Management of Work . Pearson-Prentice Hall. p645-664
PROBLEM 1
• Determine the equivalent windchill
temperature in °F if the actual air
temperature is 35°F and the wind is
blowing at 15 miles per hour.
PROBLEM 2
• During a given work shift of 8 hours, a
worker is exposed to two coexisting
sources of noise for five hours, one at 85
dBA and the other at 88 dBA. For the
remaining three hours, he is exposed to
one noise source of 92 dBA. Determine
whether this exposure level exceeds the
OSHA permissible noise exposures.
PROBLEM 3
• A ceiling lamp (assume a point source of light) has a
luminous intensity of 200 candelas and its distance above
an office desk is 1.5 m. It provides direct lighting of the
desk surface, which is medium gray and has a reflectance
of 0.55. The worksheets being processed are white
(reflectance = 0.80) with black lettering (reflectance =
0.08). The average size of the lettering is 2.5 mm, and the
worker’s eyes are about 300 mm away from the
worksheets. Determine (a) the illuminance striking the
desk surface, (b) the luminance of the desk surface, (c)
the contrast between the worksheets and the lettering,
and (d) the visual angle subtended by the lettering as
seen by the worker.
