REPUBLIC OF RWANDA

ULK POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE

P.O BOX 2280 Kigali

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ACADEMIC YEAR 2022/2023

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

YEAR III

REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN I

Prepared by:

[Link] Bonaventure

Tel: +250785288424/+250788489081

Email: [Link]@[Link]

USED STANDARDS:
BS 8110:1997
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Basic concepts of reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete is basically concrete in which steels bars of desirable magnitude are introduced in
the casting stage so that the resulting composite materials resist the stresses develop due to the external
loads. In flexural members the steel reinforcement is generally provided near the tension face to resist
the tensile stress since the tensile strength of concrete is hardly one tenth of its compressive strength.

In the case of compressive members, the steel reinforcement is distributed uniformly in the cross
section to resist the compressive stresses develop due to the external loads.

The revolutionary engineering concept reinforcing the weak tensile zone of concrete by steel
reinforcement was developed in mild-nineteenth century. The early 20th century witnessed significant
improvements in the development and use of reinforced concrete mainly due to the production of good
quality concrete with improved strength and improved quality of steel with surface characteristics
suitable to develop good bond between concrete and steel.

The success of reinforced concrete as a revolutionary material for use in various types of structures is
mainly due to the improved quality of concrete and steel over the years and also the improved bond
characteristics between the two ingredients.

1.2 Design philosophies

1.2.1 Introduction

The successful completion of any structural design project is dependent on many variables, however
there are a number of fundamental objectives which must be incorporated in any design philosophy to
provide a structure which throughout its intended lifespan:

i. Will possess an acceptable margin of safety against collapse whilst in use,

ii. Is serviceable and perform its intended purpose whilst in use,
iii. Is sufficiently robust such that damage to an extent disproportionate to the original cause will not
occur,
iv. Is economic to construct, and
v. Is economic to maintain

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Historically, structural design was carried out on the basis of intuition, trial and error, and experience
which enabled empirical design rules, generally relating to structure/member proportions, to be
established.

These rules were used to minimize structural failures and consequently introduced a margin of safety
against collapse.

In latter half of 19th century the introduction of modern materials and development of mathematical
modeling techniques led to the introduction of a design philosophy which incorporate the concept of
factor- of- safety based on known material strength, e.g. ultimate tensile stress; this is known as
permissible stress design

During the 20th century two further design philosophies were developed and are referred to as load-
factor and limit state design.

1.2.2 Permissible stress design

When using permissible stress design, the margin of safety is introduced by considering structural
behavior under working/ service load conditions and comparing the stresses under these conditions
with permissible values.

The permissible values are obtained by dividing the failure stresses by an appropriate factor of safety.
The applied stresses are determined using elastic analysis techniques; i.e. stress induced by working
failure stress
loads ≤ .
factor of safety

1.2.3 Load factor design

When using load factor design, the margin of safety is introduced by considering structural behavior at
collapse load conditions. The ultimate capacities of section based on yield strength (e.g. axial, bending
moment and shear force capacities) are compared with the design effects induced by the ultimate loads.
The ultimate loads are determined by multiplying the working/ service load by a factor of safety.
Plastic methods of analysis are used to determine section capacities and design load effects. Despite
being acceptable, this method has never been widely used.

Ultimate design load effects due to ≤ Ultimate capacity based on the failure stress of the material
(working load *factor of safety)

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1.2.4. Limit state design

The limit state design philosophy, which was formulated for reinforced concrete design in RUSSIA
during 1930s, achieves the objectives set out, in section 1.2.1by considering two types of limit state
under which a structure my become unfit for its intended purpose.

They are:

1. The serviceability limit state in which a condition, e.g. deflection, vibration or cracking
occurs to an extent, which is unacceptable to the owner, occupier, client etc and

2. The ultimate limit state in which the structure, or some part of it, is unsafe for its intended
purpose, e.g. compressive, tensile, shear or flexural failure or instability leading to partial or
total collapse.

The basis of the approach is statistical and lies in assessing the probability of reaching a given limit
state and deciding upon an acceptable level of that probability for design purposes. The method in most
codes is based on the use of characteristic values and partial safety factors.

a. Ultimate limit state

i. Strength: The structure must be designed to carry the most severe combination of loads
to which it is subjected. The sections of the elements must be capable of
resisting the axial loads, shears and moments derived from the analysis
ii. Stability: Clause [Link] of the code states that the layout should be such to give a
stable and robust structure. Overall stability of a structure is provided
shear walls, lift shafts, staircases and rigid frame action or a combination
of these means. The structure should be such as to transmit all loads,
dead, imposed and wind safely to the foundations.
iii. Robustness: Clause [Link] of the code states that the planning and design should be such
damage to a small area or failure of a single element should not cause
collapse of major parts of structure.

b) Serviceability limit state

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The serviceability limit states are discussed in BS 8110-1-1997, section 2.2.3. The code states that
account is to be taken of temperature, creep, shrinkage, sway and settlement. The main serviceability
limit states and code provisions are as follows

i. Deflection: The deformation of the structure should not adversely affect its efficiency or
appearance. Deflections may be calculated, but in normal cases span-to-effective
depth ratios can be used to check compliance with requirements.
ii. Cracking: Cracking should be kept within reasonable limits by correct detailing.
Crack widths can be calculated, but in normal cases cracking can be controlled
adhering to detailing rules with regard to bar spacing in zones where the concrete
is in tension

1.3 Materials properties

1.3.1 Concrete

The main properties of concrete are discussed below.

i. Concrete Compressive Strength: fcu (Clause [Link])

In structural terms the most important material property of concrete is its inherent compressive
strength. In BS 8110 − 1:1997, Part 1, the characteristic strength of concrete is defined in Clause
[Link] as the value of the cube strength of concrete fcu. The cube strength is defined on the basis of test
results carried out on 10 cm or 15 cm (4 inch or 6 inch) cubes cast and cured under rigid, specified
conditions and loaded to failure in a standardized compression testing machine as indicated in BS
1881:Testing Concrete. The characteristic value is the value below which not more than 5% of all
possible results fall, and is given by: fk = fm−1.64 S

Where:

fk is the characteristic value,

fm is the mean value − normally determined from cubes which are tested 28 days after casting,

S is the standard deviation of the test results.

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In the design code (BS 8110) concrete is graded according to the characteristic compressive strength
and designated as: C30, C35, C40, C45 and C50, where the numbers 30, 40, 45 and 50 represent
compressive strengths in N/mm2. Other grades of concrete are also used for specific purposes, e.g. low-
strength concretes are often used to provide a base on which construction work can begin whilst high-
strength concretes are often used in circumstances where high stresses are developed, such as in pre-
stressed concrete.

It is important to realize that the characteristic cube strength represents the potential strength of the
concrete. The material in a structural element is likely to be less than this value since it will have been
created under less stringent manufacturing control and curing conditions than the sample cubes used for
testing. The difference between the potential and actual strengths is reflected in the material partial
safety factor γm.

The test procedure is given in

BS[Link] Methods of Testing Concrete

Part 108: Method for Making Test Cubes from Fresh Concrete
Part 111: Method of Normal Curing of Test Specimens
Part 116: Method for Determination of Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes.

ii. Tensile strength

The tensile strength of concrete is about a tenth of the compressive strength. It is determined by loading
a concrete cylinder across a diameter as shown in Figure1.1. The test procedure is given in BS1881.

Figure1.1: Tensile strength of concrete.

In reinforced concrete design the tensile strength of the concrete is normally assumed to be zero. In
serviceability calculations, e.g. for the determination of cracking strengths of prestressed concrete
members, reference is made to Section 4 of the code; this is outwith the scope of this text. Calculations
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to determine crack widths of reinforced concrete members under serviceability limit state conditions
are carried out assuming material properties as described in Clause 3.2.4 of BS 8110:Part 2:1985.

iii. Modulus of elasticity (E)

Figure 1.2: Moduli of elasticity of concrete.

E=stress/strain

A number of alternative definitions exist, but the most commonly adopted is E=Ec where Ec is known
as the secant or static modulus. This is measured for a particular concrete by means of a static test in
which a cylinder is loaded to just above one-third of the corresponding control cube stress and then
cycled back to zero stress.

This removes the effect of initial ‘bedding in’ and minor stress redistributions in the concrete under
load. Load is then reapplied and the behavior will then be almost linear; the average slope of the line up
to the specified stress is taken as the value for Ec.

The test is described in detail in BS1881 and then result is generally known as the instantaneous static
modulus of elasticity.

The dynamic modulus of elasticity, Ecq, is sometimes referred to since this is much easier to measure
in the laboratory and there is a fairly well – defined relationship between Ec and Ecq. The standard test

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is based on determining the resonant frequency of a laboratory prism specimen and is also described in
BS1881

It is also possible to obtain a good estimate of Ecq from ultrasonic measuring techniques, which may
sometimes be used on site to assess the concrete in an actual structure. The standard test for Ecq is on an
unstressed specimen. The relationship between the two moduli is given by:

Static modulus EC= (1.25Ecq-19) kN/mm2

This equation is sufficiently accurate for normal design purposes. The actual value of E for a concrete
depends on many factors related to the mix, but a general relationship is considered to exist between
the modulus of elasticity and the compressive cube strength. Ranges of Ec for various concrete grades
which are suitable for design are shown in table 1.1. The magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is
required when investigating the deflection and cracking of a structure. When considering short- term
effects, member stiffness will be based on the static modulus Ec, as defined above. If long –term effects
are being considered, it can be shown that the effects of creep can be represented by modifying the
value of Ec.

Table 1.1: Short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete.

28 day characteristic Static modulus Ec,28

cube strength fcu,28 (kN/mm2)
(N/mm2) Typical range Mean
25 19-31 25
30 20-32 26
40 22-34 28
50 24-36 30
60 26-38 32

The elastic modulus at an age other than 28days may be estimated from

0.6f cu,t
Ec,t=Ec,28 (0.4+ )
f cu,28

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iv. Shrinkage or drying shrinkage

As concrete hardens there is a reduction in volume. This shrinkage is liable to cause cracking of the
concrete, but it also has the beneficial effect of strengthening the bond between the concrete and the
steel reinforcement.

Shrinkage begins to take place as soon as the concrete is mixed, and is caused initially by the
absorption of the water by the concrete and the aggregate. Further shrinkage is causes by the absorption
of the water which rises to the concrete surface. Drying shrinkage is irreversible but alternate wetting
and drying causes expansion and contraction of concrete .The aggregate type and content are most
important factors influencing shrinkage.

The larger the size of aggregate lower is shrinkage

→ lower the workability

The higher is the aggregate →lower water –to-cement ratio

→lower is the shrinkage

Aggregates that change volume on wetting and drying, such as sandstone or basalt, give concrete with a
large shrinkage strain, while non-shrinkage aggregates such as granite or gravel give lower shrinkage.
A decrease in the ambient relative humidity also increases shrinkage. Drying shrinkage is discussed in
BS8110: Part 2, Section 7.4.

v. Creep

Creep in concrete is the gradual increase in strain with time in a member subjected prolonged stress.

The creep strain 𝜺cc is calculated from the creep coefficient  by the equation:

Stress
 cc  *
Et

Where Et –modulus of elasticity of the concrete at the age of loading

 -depends on the effective section thickness the age of loading and the relative ambient
humidity.

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The creep coefficient is used in deflection calculations. Values of  can be taken from BS8110: part 2,
Figure 7, 1.

vi. Concrete Poisson’s Ratio: υc (Clause [Link])

The value of Poisson’s ratio (υc) of concrete for use in linear elastic analysis is given in Clause [Link]
as 0.2.
1.3.2 Reinforcement

Reinforcing bars are produced in two grades: hot rolled mild steel bars have a yield strength f y of
250N/mm2; hot rolled or cold worked high yield steel bars have a yield strength fy of 460N/mm2. Steel
fabric is made from cold drawn steel wires welded to form a mesh; it has a yield strength fy of 460N
/mm2. The value of Young‘s modulus E is 200kN/mm2. Mild steel bars are produced as smooth round
bars. High yield bars are produced as deformed bars in two types defined in the code to increase bond
stress:

Type 1 Square twisted cold worked bars

Type 2 Hot rolled bars with transverse ribs. Type 2 bars are obsolete.

1.4 Stress – strain relations

The loads on a structure cause distortion of its members with resulting stresses and strains in the
concrete and steel reinforcement .To carry out the analysis and design of a member it is necessary to
have a knowledge of the relationship between these stresses and strains.

This knowledge is particularly important when dealing with reinforced concrete which is a composite
material; for in this case the analysis of stresses on a cross-section of member must consider the
equilibrium of the forces in the concrete and steel, and also the compatibility of the strains a cross the
cross-section.

1.4.1 Concrete

Concrete is very variable material, having a wide range of strengths and stress-strain curves .A typical
curve for concrete in compression is shown in figure1.3.

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 Figure 1.3: Stress-strain curve for concrete in compression.

As the load is applied, the ratio between the stresses and strains approximately linear at first and the
concrete behaves almost as en elastic material with virtually a full recovery of displacement if the load
is removed .Eventually, the curve is no longer linear and the concrete behaves more and more as a
plastic material. If the load were removed during the plastic range the recovery would no longer be
complete and a permanent deformation would remain.

The ultimate strain for most structural concrete tends to be a constant value of approximately 0.0035,
irrespective of the strength of the concrete. The precise shape of curve is very dependent on the length
of time the load is applied, a factor which had been discuss in section1, 3, 1(v)

Concrete general increases its strength with age. This characteristic is illustrated by the following graph
which shows how the increase is rapid at first, becoming more gradual later. Some code of practice
allow the concrete strength used in design to be varied according the age of the concrete when it
supports the design load.

A typical variation in strength of an adequately cured ordinary Portland cement concrete, as suggested
by BS8110, is:

Table1.2: Variation of concrete strength with age.

7days 1mouth 2mouths 3mouths 6mouths 1year
20 N/mm2 30 N/mm2 33 N/mm2 35 N/mm2 36 N/mm2 37N/mm2

BS8110 does not permit the use of strengths greater than the 28 day value in calculations, but the
Modulus may be modified to account for age.

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 Figure 1.4: Increase of concrete strength with ages.
Typical curve for an Ordinary Portland cement concrete.

1.4.2 Steel

Figure 1.5: Stress-strain curves for steel.

The figure 1.5 shows typical stress–strain for (a) mild steel, and (b) high yield steel. Mild steel behaves
as an elastic material, with the strain proportional to the stress up to the yield, at which point there is a
sudden increase in strain with no change in stress. After the yield point, mild steel becomes a plastic
material and the strain increases rapidly up to the ultimate value.
High yield steel on the other hand, does not have a definite yield point but shows a more gradual
change from an elastic to a plastic behavior.

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The specified strength used in design is based on the yield stress for mild steel, whereas for high yield
steel the strength is based on a specified proof stress. A 0.2 percent proof stress is defined in figure 1.5
by the broken line drawn parallel to the linear part of the stress–strain curve.
Removal of the load within the plastic range would result in stress-strain diagram following a line
approximately parallel to the loading portion. See line BC in the figure1.6.

Figure 1.6: Strain hardening.

The steel will be left with a permanent strain AC, which is known as ‘slip’. If the steel is again loaded,
the stress-strain diagram will follow the unloading curve until it almost reaches the original stress at B
and then it will curve in the direction of the first loading.

Thus, the proportional limit for the second loading is higher than for the initial loading. This action is
referred to as ‘strain hardening’ or ‘work hardening’.

The deformation of the steel is also dependent on the length of time the load is applied. Under a
constant stress the strains will gradually increase. This phenomenon is known as ‘Creep’ or ‘relation’.
The amount of creep that takes place over a period of time depends on the grade of steel and the
magnitude of the stress. Creep of the steel is of little significance in normal reinforced concrete work
but it is an important factor in prestressed concrete where the prestressing steel is very highly stressed.

1.5. Specification of materials

1.5.1. Concrete

The selection of the type of concrete is frequently governed by the strength required, which in turn
depends on the intensity of loading and the form and size of the structural members. For Exercise, in
the lower columns of a multi-storey building a higher–strength concrete may be chosen in preference to
greatly increasing the size of column section with a resultant loss in clear floor space.

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The concrete strength is assessed by measuring the crushing strength of cubes or cylinders of concrete
made from the mix. These are usually cured, and tested after twenty eight days according to standards
procedures.

Concrete of a given strength is identified by its ‘grade’. A grade 25 concrete has a characteristic cube
crushing strength of 25N/mm2.Table1.3 shows a list of commonly used grades and also the lowest
grade appropriate for various types of construction.

Exposure conditions and durability can also affect the choice of the mix design and the grade of the
concrete. A structure subject to corrosive conditions in a chemical plant, for Exercise, would require a
denser and higher grade of concrete than, say, the interior members of a school or office block.
Although ordinary Portland cement would be used in most structures, other cement types can also be
used to advantage Blast-furnace or sulphate-resisting cement may be used to resist chemical attack,
low–heat cements in massive sections to reduce the heat of hydration, or rapid–hardening cement when
a high early strength is required.

Generally, natural aggregates found locally are preferred; however, manufactured lightweight material
may be used when self-weight is important, or a special dense aggregate when radiation shielding is
required.

Table1.3: Grades of concrete.

Grade lowest grade for use as specified

C7 Plain concrete
C10
C15 Reinforced concrete with lightweight aggregate
C20 Reinforced concrete with lightweight aggregate
C25 Reinforced concrete with dense aggregate
C30 concrete with post-tensioned tendons
C40 Concrete with pre-tensioned tendons
C50
C60

The concrete mix may either be classified as ‘designed’ or ‘prescribed’. A ‘designed mix’ is one where
the contractor is responsible for selecting the mix proportions to achieve the required strength and
workability, whereas for a ‘prescribed mix’ the engineer specifies the mix proportions, and the

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contractor is responsible only for providing a properly mixed concrete containing the correct
constituents in the prescribed proportions.

1.5.2. Reinforcing steel

Table 1.4 lists the characteristic design strengths of several of the more common types of
reinforcement. The nominal size of a bar is the diameter of an equivalent circular area.

Table1.4: Strength of reinforcement.

Designation Nominal sizes Specified characteristic

(mm) strength fy (N/mm2)
Hot-rolled mild steel (BS 4449) All sizes 250
Hot-rolled high yield (BS 4449) All sizes 460
Cold worked high yield(BS 4449)
Hard-drawn steel wire(BS 4482) Up to and 485
including 12

Hot-rolled mild steel bars usually have a smooth surface so that the bond with the concrete is by
adhesion only. Mild steel bars can readily be bent, so they are often used where small radius bends are
necessary, such as for links in narrow beams or columns.

High yield bars are manufactured either with a ribbed surface or in the form of a twisted square. Ribbed
bars are usually described by the British standards as type 2 bars provided specified requirements are
satisfied, and these are the bars most commonly used. Square twisted bars have inferior bond
characteristics and are usually classified as type 1 bars, although these are more or less obsolete. All
deformed bars have an additional mechanical bond with the concrete so that higher ultimate bond
stresses may be specified.

The bending of high-yield bars through a small radius is liable to cause tension cracking of the steel
and to avoid this, the radius of the bend should not be less than three times the nominal bar size.

High yield bars steel bars are only slightly more expensive than mild-steel bars. Therefore, because of
their significant stress advantage, high-yield bars are the more economical. Nevertheless, mild steel
bars are sometimes preferred in water retaining structures, where the maximum steel stresses are
limited in order to reduce the tensile strains and cracking of the concrete.

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Floor slabs, walls, shells and roads may be reinforced with a welded fabric of reinforcement, supplied
in rolls and having a square or rectangular mesh. This can give large economies in the detailing of
reinforcement and also in site labour costs of handling and fixing.

The cross-sectional areas and perimeters of various sized bars, and the cross-sectional area per unit
width of slabs are listed in the appendix. Reinforcing bars in a member should either be straight or bent
to standard shapes. These shapes must be fully dimensioned and listed in a schedule of the
reinforcement which is used on site for the bending and fixing of the bars. Standards bar shapes and a
method of scheduling are specified in BS 4466. The bar types are previously described are commonly
identified by the following codes: R for mild steel, Y for high yield deformed steel, type 1; T for high
yield deformed steel, type2; this notation is generally used throughout this notes.

Bars are available with diameters of 6, 8,10,12,16,20,25,32 and 40mm.

Figure 1.7: Stress-strain curves for reinforcing bars.

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 CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL LOADING AND PARTIAL FACTORS OF SAFETY

2.1 Structural loading

All structures are subjected to loading from various sources. The main categories of loading are (in
accordance to BS): dead, imposed and wind loads. In some circumstances there may be other loading
types which should be considered, such as settlement, fatigue, temperature effects, dynamic loading, or
impact effects (e.g. when designing bridge decks, crane-gantry girders or maritime structures). In the
majority of cases design considering combinations of dead, imposed and wind loads is the most
appropriate.

The definition of dead loading is given in BS 648:1964, that of imposed floor loading in BS 6399-
1:1996, that of wind loading in BS 6399-2:1997, and that for imposed roof loads in BS 6399-3:1988.

2.1.1 Dead Loads: BS 648:1964

Dead loads are loads which are due to the effects of gravity, i.e. the self-weight of all permanent
construction such as beams, columns, floors, walls, roofs and finishes. If the position of permanent
partition walls is known, their weight can be assessed and included in the dead load. In speculative
developments, internal partitions are regarded as imposed loading.

2.1.2 Imposed Loads: BS 6399-1:1996 (Clauses 5.0 and 6.0)

Imposed loads are loads which are due to variable effects such as the movement of people, furniture,
equipment and traffic. The values adopted are based on observation and measurement and are
inherently less accurate than the assessment of dead loads.

In the code, Clause 5.0 and Table 1 define the magnitude of uniformly distributed and concentrated
point loads which are recommended for the design of floors, ceilings and their supporting elements.
Loadings are considered in the following categories:

A Domestic and residential activities

B Offices and work areas not covered elsewhere

C Areas where people may congregate

D Shopping areas

E Areas susceptible to the accumulation of goods (e.g. warehouses)

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F Vehicle and traffic areas (Light)

G Vehicle and traffic areas (Heavy)

Most floor systems are capable of lateral distribution of loading and the recommended concentrated
load need not be considered. In situations where lateral distribution is not possible, the effects of the
concentrated loads should be considered with the load applied at locations which will induce the most
adverse effect, e.g. maximum bending moment, shear and deflection. In addition, local effects such as
crushing and punching should be considered where appropriate.

In multi-storey structures it is very unlikely that all floors will be required to carry the full imposed
load at the same time. Statistically it is acceptable to reduce the total floor loads carried by a supporting
member by varying amounts depending on the number of floors or floor area carried. This is reflected
in Clause 6.2 and Tables 2 and 3 of BS 6399:Part 1 in which a percentage reduction in the total
distributed imposed floor loads is recommended when designing columns, piers, walls, beams and
foundations. Parapet, barrier and balustrade loads are given in Table 4 of the code.

2.1.3 Imposed Roof Loads: BS 6399-3:1988

Imposed loading caused by snow is included in the values given in this part of the code, which relates
to imposed roof loads. Flat roofs, sloping roofs and curved roofs are also considered.

2.1.4 Wind Loads: BS 6399-2:1997

Environmental loading such as wind loading is clearly variable and its source is outwith human control.
In most structures the dynamic effects of wind loading are small, and static methods of analysis are
adopted. The nature of such loading dictates that a statistical approach is the most appropriate in order
to quantify the magnitudes and directions of the related design loads. The main features which
influence the wind loading imposed on a structure are:

♦ geographical location − London, Edinburgh, Inverness, Chester, ...

♦ physical location − city centre, small town, open country, ...

♦ topography − exposed hill top, escarpment, valley floor, ...

♦ altitude − height above mean sea level

♦ building shape − square, rectangular, cruciform, irregular, ...

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♦ roof pitch − shallow, steep, mono-pitch, duo-pitch, multi-bay…

♦ building dimensions

♦ wind speed and direction

♦ wind gust peak factor.

2.2 Characteristic and design loads

The characteristic or service loads are the actual loads that the structure is designed to carry. These are
normally though of as the maximum loads which will not be exceeded during the life of the structure.
In statistical terms, the characteristic loads have a 95% probability of not being exceeded.

The characteristic loads used in design and defined in BS 8110: part 1, clause 2.4.2, are as follows:

1. The characteristic dead load Gk

2. The characteristic imposed load Qk
3. The wind load Wk

Design load =characteristic load×partial safety factor for loads

=Fkγf

2.3 Partial factors of safety

2.3.1 Partial factors of safety for materials (γm)

characteristic strength f
Design strength   k
partial factor of safety for materials  m

Table 2.5: Values of γm for the ultimate limit state

(Table 2.2 in the code)
Reinforcement 1.05
Concrete in flexure or axial lad 1.5
Shear strength without shear reinforcement 1.25
Bond strength 1.4
Others, eg bearing strength >1.5
The factor γm takes account of:

1. Uncertainties in the strength of materials in the structure

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2. Uncertainities in the accuracy of the method used to predict the behavior of members
3. Variations in member sizes and building dimensions

For exceptional bonds γm is to be taken as 1.3 for concrete and 1.0 for steel.

The short-term design stress-strain curves for normal-weight concrete and reinforcement from figures
2.1 and 2.2 in the code are shown in figure 2.8 (a) and 2.8(b) respectively. The curve for concrete in
compression is an idealization of the actual compression behavior which begins with a parabolic
portion where the slope of the tangent at the origin equals the short-term value of Young’s modulus. At
strain 𝜺o, which depends on the concrete grade, the stress remains constant with increasing load until a
strain of 0.0035 is reached when the concrete fails.

The maximum design stress in the concrete is given as 0.67fcu/ γm.

The coefficient 0.67 takes account of the relation between the cube strength and the bending in a
flexural member. It is not a partial factor of safety.

The stress-strain curve for reinforcement shown in figure 2.8 (b) is bilinear with one yield point. The
behavior and strength of reinforcement are taken to be the same in tension and compression.

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Figure 2.8: Short-term design stress-strain curve for (a) normal-weight concrete and
(b) reinforcement.

2.3.2 Partial factor of safety for loads (γf)

Design load= characteristic load * partial safety factor for loads

= Fk*γf

The partial safety factor γf takes account of

1. Possible increases in load

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 2. Inaccurate assessment of the effects of loads
3. Unforeseen stress distributions in members
4. The importance of the limit state being considered.

The code states that the values given for γf ensure that serviceability requirements can generally be met
by simple rules. The values of γf to give design loads and the load combinations for the ultimate limit
state are given in BS8110: Part1, Table2.1.

Table 2.6: Load combinations and values of γf for the ultimate limit state.

The code states that the adverse partial safety factor is applied to a load producing more critical design
conditions. E.g. the dead load plus a wind load acting in the same direction. The beneficial factor is
applied to a load producing a less critical design condition, e.g. in the case of dead load plus wind uplift
where the loads are in opposite direction.

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Exercise 1:

Determine the cross-sectional area of steel required for a cable which supports a total characteristic
permanent action of 3kN and a characteristic variable action of 2kN.

Figure 2.9

Data: fy=460Mpa

ᵞG=1.4
ᵞQ=1.6
ᵞm=1.05(steel)

Solution:

● Design value=ᵞG * permanent action +ᵞQ * variable action

= 1.4*3+1.6*2
=4.2+3.2
=7.4KN
●Design stress (steel) =460/1.05=438Mpa
●Required cross sectional area= design value/design stress

7.4* 10 3 N
=
438 N
mm 2

=16.7mm2

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Exercise 2:

The figure 2.10 shows a beam supported on foundation at A and B. The loads supported by the beam
are its own uniformly distributed permanent weight of 20 kN/m and a 170 kN variable load
concentrated at end c. Determine the weight of foundation required at A in order to resist uplift.

Figure 2.10

Solution:

Limit state method

Design permanent action over BC= 𝜸G*20*2

=1.4*40

=56kN

Design permanent action over AB= 𝜸G *20*6 =120kN

Design variable action =𝜸Q*170 =1.6*170=272kN

Figure 2.11

Taking moments about B for ultimate actions

RA= (56*1) + (272*2)-(120*3)/6=40kN

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 CHAPTER 3: SECTION DESIGN FOR MOMENT

3.1 Durability (Clauses 2.2.4 and 3.1.5)

The integrity of reinforced concrete depends on its ability to prevent corrosion of the reinforcement
when exposed to a wide range of environmental conditions, e.g. ranging from ‘mild exposure’ such as
concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive conditions to ‘most severe’ or ‘abrasive’
conditions in which concrete surfaces may be frequently exposed to sea water spray, de-icing salts or
the abrasive actions of machinery. The classification of exposure conditions in terms of ‘moderate’,
‘severe’, ‘very severe’, ‘most severe’ and ‘abrasive’ is defined in Table 3.2 of the code.

In addition to protection against corrosion of the steel (Table 3.3), fire resistance requirements
(Table 3.4) are also necessary to allow sufficient time to evacuate a building and prevent premature
failure, spalling of the concrete must be avoided and adequate bond forces must develop between the
reinforcement and the concrete. The essential elements of design which ensure adequate durability are
the structural form/detailing and the amount of concrete cover provided to protect the steel, as
illustrated in Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.12: Cover.

Concrete cover is defined as the thickness of concrete between the outer surface of the steel
reinforcement and the nearest concrete surface. The actual concrete cover provided varies due to a
number of factors such as:

 construction tolerances inherent in building the formwork (i.e. the mould into which the concrete is
cast),
 variations in dimensions of the reinforcement resulting from the cutting and bending of the steel,
and

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 errors occurring during the fixing of the steel in the formwork.

The limiting values of cover given in Tables 3.3 and 3.4 of the code which ensure adequate provision to
satisfy durability and fire protection are specified in terms of ‘nominal’ cover to all reinforcement
including the links. As indicated in Clause [Link], the nominal cover is: ‘… the dimension used in
design and indicated on the drawings. The actual cover to all reinforcement should never be less than
the nominal cover minus5 mm …’

There a number of criteria to be considered when determining the nominal cover. They are:

 Bar size (Clause [Link])

Single bars: nominal cover ≥ main bar diameter d1

Figure 3.13(a)

Paired bars: nominal cover ≥ 2 d1 where d1 is the main bar diameter

Figure 3.13(b)

Aequivalent
Bundled bars: nominal cover ≥ 2

Where Aequivalent is the cross-sectional area equal to the sum of the cross-sectional areas of the bars in
the bundle.

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  d 2 
E.g. In Figure 3.13(c) Aequivalent  4*  1 
 4 

Figure 3.13(c)

 Nominal maximum aggregate size (Clause [Link])

Nominal cover ≥ nominal maximum size of aggregate

min imum thickness of concrete sec tion
i.e. normally ≤
4
In most cases, 20 mm aggregate is suitable.
 Uneven surfaces (Clause [Link])
When concrete is cast on uneven surfaces (e.g. earth or blinding, which is finely crushed aggregate
rolled on the top of compacted fill such as hardcore) additional cover to that indicated in Table 3.3
should be provided as shown in Figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14.

 Ends of straight bars (Clause 3.3.2)

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Normally 40 mm cover is provided at the ends of straight bars, as shown in Figure 3.15, however as
indicated in this clause where the end of a floor or roof unit is not exposed to the weather or to
condensation, cover is not mandatory.

Figure 3.15.
3.1.1 Minimum Dimensions (Clause 3.3.6 and Figure 3.2)
In addition to nominal cover requirements, the code also specifies minimum dimensions (i.e. beam
widths, rib widths, floor and wall thicknesses, and column widths) for some structural elements to
provide adequate fire resistance. The dimensions are given to ensure minimum periods of fire
resistance ranging from 0.5 hours to 4 hours and relate specifically to the covers given in Table 3.4 of
the code.
Exercises:
1. A rectangular reinforced concrete beam inside a building is simply supported and is required to
support precast concrete units as shown in Figure 3.16. Using the data given, determine:
(i) the nominal cover required to the underside of the beam, and
(ii) the minimum width of beam required.
Data:
Exposure condition mild
Characteristic strength of concrete (fcu) 40 N/mm2
Nominal maximum aggregate size (hagg) 20 mm
Diameter of main tension steel 25 mm
Diameter of shear links 8 mm
Minimum required fire resistance 1.5 hours

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 Figure 3.16
2. A continuous, ribbed floor slab covering a car parking area is exposed on the underside and
protected on the topside as shown in Figure 3.17. Using the data given determine:
(i) the nominal cover required to the underside of the rib,
(ii) the nominal cover required to the topside of the floor, and
(iii) the minimum floor thickness and width of rib required.
Data:
Characteristic strength of concrete (fcu) 35 N/mm2
Nominal maximum aggregate size (hagg) 20 mm
Diameter of main tension steel 32 mm
Diameter of shear links 10 mm
Minimum required fire resistance 2.0 hours

Figure 3.17
3. A ground floor slab in a warehouse building is constructed on a blinded, compacted layer of
hardcore as shown in Figure 3.18. Using the data given, determine the nominal cover required to the
underside of the slab.
Data:
Characteristic strength of concrete (fcu) 35 N/mm2
Nominal maximum aggregate size (hagg) 20 mm
Diameter of main tension steel 20 mm

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 Figure 3.18
3.2 Effective span of beam (clause 3.4.1)
The span of beams which is used for analysis purposes is known as the effective span and given the
symbol l. Three situations are defined in clause 3.4.1 of the code:

 Simply supported beams (clause [Link])

Figure 3.19
 Continuous beams (clause [Link])

Figure 3.20
 Cantilevers (clause [Link])

Figure 3.21

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The definitions given in clause 3.4.1 do not apply to deep beams (i.e. where the clear span is less than
2d). The design of such beams requires reference to specialist literature.

3.3 Types of beam section

The three common types of reinforced concrete beam section are:

1. Rectangular section with tension steel only

2. Rectangular section with tension and compression steel
3. Flanged sections of either T or L shape with tension steel and with or without compression steel.

3.4 Minimum and maximum areas of reinforcement in beams

The minimum areas of reinforcement in a beam section to control cracking as well as resist tension or
compression due to bending in different types of beam section are given in BS 110. Part I, clause
[Link] and table 3.25. Some commonly used values are shown in Figure 3.22. Other values will be
discussed in appropriate parts of the text, e.g. in section 6.2 where crack control is discussed.

The maximum area of both tension and compression reinforcement in beams is specified in BS8110:
Part 1, clause [Link]. Neither should exceed 4% of the gross cross-sectional area of the concrete.

Table 3.7: Areas of groups of bars.

Table 3.7: Areas of groups of bars.

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 Figure 3.22
3.5 Minimum spacing of bars

The minimum spacing of bars is given in BS 8110: Part1, clause [Link]. This clause states the
following:

1. The horizontal distance between bars should not be less than hagg +5mm;
2. Where there are two or more rows
(a) The gap between corresponding bars in each row should be vertically in the line and
(b) The vertical distance between bars should not be less than 2hagg/3. Where hagg is the maximum
size of coarse aggregate.

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The clause also states that if the bar size exceeds hagg+5mm the spacing should not be less than the bar
size. Note that pairs or bundles are treated as a single bar of equivalent area. Note that pairs or bundles
are treated as a single bar of equivalent area. The above spacings ensure that the concrete can be
properly compacted around the reinforcement. Spacing of top bars of beams should also permit the
insertion of a vibrator.

Figure 3.23: (a) Flanged beam; (b) minimum spacing.

3.6 Behaviour of beams in bending

Concrete is strong in compression but weak and unreliable in tension. Reinforcement is required to
resist tension due to moment. A beam with loads at the third points where the central third is subjected
to moment only is shown in Figure 3.24(a). Tension cracks at collapse due to moment are shown.

The load-deflection curve is given in Figure 3.24(b). Initially the concrete in the uncracked section will
resist tension, but it soon cracks. The behaviour of the cracked section is elastic at low loads and
changes to plastic at higher loads.

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The effective section resisting moment at a cracked position is shown in Figure 3.24(c). The concrete at
the top of the section resists compression and the steel resists tension. At low loads the concrete stress
in compression and the steel stress in tension are in the elastic range. At collapse the stresses are at
ultimate values. Originally the design of concrete sections was to elastic theory with linearly varying
compressive stress in the concrete, as shown in Figure 3.24(c). Design now is based on the strength of
the section calculated from the stress distribution at collapse which has been determined from tests.
Beam section design for the ultimate limit state is given first. The elastic section analysis is then set out
because this is required in calculations for checking the serviceability limit states.

Figure 3.24: (a) Flexural cracks at collapse; (b) load-deflection curve; (c) effective section and
stress distributions.

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3.7 Singly reinforcement rectangular beams

3.7.1 Assumption and stress-strain diagrams

The ultimate moment of resistance of a section is based on the assumption set out in BS 8110: Part1,
Clause [Link]

On the basis of these assumptions the strain and stress diagrams for the two alternative stress
distributions for the concrete in compression are as shown in Figure 3.25, where the following symbols
are used:

h -overall depth of the section

d- effective depth depth to the centreline of the steel

b- breadth of the section

x -depth to the neutral axis

As- area of tension reinforcement

εc -strain in the concrete (0.0035)

εs -strain in the steel

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Figure 3.25: (a) Section; (b) strain; (c) rectangular parabolic stress diagram; (d) simplified stress
diagram.

The alternative stress distributions for the compressive stress in the concrete, the rectangular parabolic
stress diagram and the simplified stress block, are shown in Figures 3.25(c) and 3.25(d) respectively.
The maximum strain in the concrete is 0.0035 and the strain εs in the steel depends on the depth of the
neutral axis. Stress-strain curves for grade 30 concrete and for high yield steel are shown in Figures
3.25(a) and 3.25(b) respectively.

3.7.2 Moment of resistance of section - simplied stress block

Figures 3.25: (a) Section; (b) strain diagram; (c) stress diagram.

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 Figure 3.26: (a) Concrete, fcu=30 N/mm2, (b) high yield steel, fy=460 N/mm2.

The method of calculating the moment of resistance of a concrete section is given first using the
simplified stress block. The calculation is made for the case where the depth x to the neutral axis is d/2.
This is the maximum depth to the neutral axis permitted in clause [Link] of the code. The beam section
and the strain and stress diagrams are shown in Figure [Link] concrete stress is

0.67 f cu 0.67 f cu
  0.447 f cu
m 1.5

which is generally rounded off to 0.45fcu. The strain is 0.0035 as shown in Figure. 3.26 (a). Referring to
Figure 3.26(b) for high yield bars, the steel stress is fy/1.05=0.95fy.

From the stress diagram in Figure 3.25(c) the internal forces are

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C = 0.9X*b*0.447fcu (force in the concrete in compression)
𝑑
= 0.9*( )*b*0.447fcu
2
= 0.45d*b*0.447fcu = bdfcu (0.45*0.447) = 0.201fcubd
T= Force in the steel in tension
T = 0.95fyAs
For internal forces to be in equilibrium C=T
Z= Lever arm
0.9𝑥
= d − 2 ; x=d/2

= d – ½*0.9*0.5d
= 0.775d
MRC = Moment of resistance with respect to the concrete
= c*z
= 0.201fcubd*0.775d
MRC = 0.156fcubd2
= kbd2, k=0.156fcu
MRS = Moment of resistance with respect to the steel
MRS = T*Z

= 0.95fyAs*0.775d

= 0.736fyAsd

= 0.736fyAsd

M RS
As 
0.736 f y d

Because the internal forces are equal the moments of resistance with respect to the steel and concrete
are equal, i.e. MRS=MRC. Then the percentage p of steel in the section is defined as

100 As
p
bd
100*0.156f cu * bd 2 f
= =21.2 cu
0.736 f y d * bd fy

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3.7.3 General design of under-reinforced beams (BS 8110: Part 1, Clause [Link])

The design procedures in section 3.7.2 above the effective depth and amount of reinforcement were
determined to make the depth to neutral axis one-half the effective depth. This gives the minimum
permitted depth for the beam. In most design cases the beam dimensions are fixed with the effective
depth greater than in the case above and the depth to neutral axis less than one-half the effective depth.
The problem is to determine the steel area required. This is the general case of design for under-
reinforced beams. It is normal design. The analytical solution given in BS8110: Part 1, clause [Link],
is derived first. This is based on simplified stress block for the case where moment redistribution does
not exceed 10%.

3.7.4 Under- reinforced beam analytical section

Figure 3.27: (a) Section; (b) stress diagram and internal forces.

C = force in the concrete in compression

=0.447fcub*0.9x
=0.402fcubx
Z=liver arm
=d-0.45x
M = Applied moment

=CZ

=0.402* fcub*x*(d-0.45x)

=x2 – 2.221dx+5.488M/fcub=0

Solve the quadratic equation to give:

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X = 1.11d + (1.233d2-5.488M/fcub)1/2
Z  d  0.45x
=d[0.5+(0.25- K )1 / 2 ]
0.9
M
Where K 
f cu bd 2

This is expression given in the code, the level arm z is not to exceed 0.95d.
As=area of tension steel
M
As  with z > 0.95d
0.95 f y z

Exercise:
A simply supported rectangular beam of 8m span carries a design load of 17.8kN/m. The beam
dimensions are breadth 250mm and effective depth 400mm. Find the steel are required. The concrete is
grade 30 and steel grate 460.
Solution:
Ultimate moment M= 17.8*82/8=142.4kNm
𝑀 142.4∗106
Factor k=𝑓𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑑2 = 30∗250∗(400)2 = 0.119

0.119 1/2
Level arm, z = 400[0.5 + (0.25 − ) ]
0.9

= 337.3mm > 0.95d=380mm

142.4∗106
Steel area As = 0.95∗460∗337.3 = 996mm2

Provide 4T20; As = 1260mm2

Figure:

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Resumé:
𝑀
1. actor k=𝑓𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑑2 ≤ 0.156
𝑘
2. Level arm z = d[0.5 + (0.25 − 0.9)1/2 ]

3. Check if z > 0.95d, if is greater take z=0.95d

M
4. Area of tension steel As= 0.95𝑓𝑦∗𝑧

3.8 Doubly reinforced beams (Simplified stress block)

3.8.1 Design formulae using the simplified stress block

If the concrete alone cannot resist the applied moment in compression, reinforcement can be provided
in the compression zone. The design formulae for a doubly reinforced beam are derived using the
simplified stress block.
These are based on
1. a depth x=d/2 to the neutral axis and a depth 0.9x of the stress block
2. a stress of 0.45fcu in the concrete in compression
3. a stress of 0.95fy in the reinforcement in tension and compression
The beam section, strain diagram and stress diagram with internal forces are shown in Figure 3.28,
where the symbols are as follows:
The following are based on:
d′ inset of the compression steel
As′ area of compression steel
εsc strain in the compression steel
Cc force in the concrete in compression
Cs force in the compression steel

Figure 3.28: (a) Section; (b) strain diagram; (c) stress diagram and internal forces.

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Referring to Figure 2.8(b), the stress in the compression steel will reach 0.95fy if the strain εsc is not less
than 0.002, i.e.

Or d′≯0.214d≯0.43x

If d′ exceeds this limit the stress in the compression steel must be taken from Figure 2.8(b).
The moment of resistance of the concrete MRC =0.156fcubd2 if this is less than the applied moment M;
the compression steel resists a moment M-MRC. The force in compression steel is then

The area of compression steel is

As, =Cs/0.95fy

For internal equilibrium

T =Cc+Cs

=0.45fcu×0.9×0.5bd +0.95fy As,

=0.203fcubd+0.95fy As,

The area of tension steel is

As=T/0.95fy

Exercise:

A rectangular beam is simply supported over a span of 6m and carries a dead load including self-
weight of 12.7kN/m and an imposed load of 6kN/m. The beam is 200mm wide by 300mm effective
depth and the inset of the compression steel is 40mm. Design the steel for mid-span of the beam for
grade 30 concrete and grade 460reinforcement.

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SLN:

Design load = (12.7*1.4) + (6*1.6) = 27.4kN/m

Ultimate moment = 27.4*62/8= 123.3kNm

MRC = 0.156*30*200*3002/106 = 84.24knm

d’/x = 40/150 = 0.27<0.43

(123.3−84.24)∗106
As’= (300−40)(0.95∗460) = 343.78.4𝑚𝑚2

Cc+Cs = (0.203*30*200*300) + ( 343.78*0.95*460)

= 365.4 ∗ 103 + 150.321 ∗ 103

= 515.7*103N

515.7∗103
As = 0.95∗460 = 1180𝑚𝑚2

 Compression steel , 2T16: As’=402𝑚𝑚2

 Tension steel, 2T25: As=1383mm2

Resumé:

1. Calculate MRC = 0.156fcubd2

2. Check if MRC<M (Ultimate applied moment)
If is less
3. Check d’≯ 0.214d≯0.43x
M  M RC
4. Calculate As , 
d  d ,( 0.95 f y )

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 5. T=Cc + Cs
= 0.45fcu+0.5d*0.9*b+0.95fyAs’
𝑇
6. Calculate As= 0.95𝑓𝑦

If is greater
7. Design the beam as under reinforced beam

3.9 Flanged beams

3.9.1 General conditions

Flanged beams occur where beams are cast integral with and support a continuous floor slab. Part of
the slab adjacent to the beam is counted as acting in compression to form T- and L-beams as shown in
Figure 3.29 where b is the effective breadth of the compression flange, bw is the breadth of the web of
the beam and hf is the thickness of the flange.

The effective breadth b of flanged beams is given in BS8110: Part 1, clause [Link]:
1. T-beams—web width bw+lz/5 or the actual flange width if less
2. L-beams—web width bw+lz/10 or the actual flange width if less

Figure 3.29

Where lz is the distance between points of zero moment in the beam. In continuous beams lz may be
taken as 0.7 times the effective span. The design procedure depends on where the neutral axis lies. The
neutral axis may lie in the flange or in the web, as shown in Figure 3.30.

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 Figure 3.30: (a) Neutral axis in flange; (b) neutral axis in web.

3.9.2 Neutral axis in flange

The beam may be treated as a rectangular beam of breadth b and the methods set out in sections 3.7.4
above apply. When the simplified stress block is used the actual neutral axis may be in the web
provided that 0.9x does not exceed the flange depth hf. The moment of resistance of the section for the
case when 0.9x=hf is

MR=0.45 fcu *b* hf *(d−hf/2)

If the applied moment M is greater than MR the neutral axis lies in the web.

3.9.3 Neutral axis in web (simplified stress block)

[Link] Tension reinforcement only

The case of the neutral axis in the web can be analysed using the assumptions for moment of resistance
given in BS8110: Part 1, clause [Link]. As an alternative, a conservative formula for calculating the
steel area is given in clause [Link] of the code.

The equation in the code is derived using the simplified stress block with x=0.5d (Figure 3.31).

Figure 3.31: (a) Section; (b) stresses and internal forces.

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Depth of stress block=0.9x=0.45d
The concrete forces in compression are
C1 =0.45fcuhf(b−bw)
C2 =0.45fcu×0.45dbw
=0.2fcubwd
The steel force in tension is
T=0.95fyAs
The values of the lever arms are
z1 =d−0.5hf
z2 =d−0.45*0.5d=0.77d
The moment of resistance of the section is found by taking moments about force C1:
MRc =Tz1−C2 (z1−z2)
=0.95fy As (d−0.5hf)−0.2 fcu bw d (0.225d−0.5hf)
from which

M  0.1 f cu bwd( 0.45d  h f )

As 
0.95 f y ( d  0.5h f )

This is the expression given in the code. It gives conservative results for cases where x is less than 0.5d.
The equation only applies when hf is less than 0.45d. For a section with tension reinforcement only, the
applied moment must not exceed the moment of resistance of the concrete given by

M RC=C1z1+C2z2

=0.45 fcu hf (b−bw)(d−0.5hf)+0.155fcubwd2

Thus M RC hf b hf b
2
 0.45 ( 1  w )( 1  )  0.155 w
f cu bd d b 2d b

Or MRC=βf fcu b d2

where βf is the expression immediately above. Thus the equation for the steel area As only applies when
the ultimate moment M is less than βffcubd2. This is the expression given in the code. A further
stipulation is that not more than 10% redistribution has been carried out.

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Exercises

1. A continuous slab 100mm thick is carried on T-beams at 2m centres. The overall depth of the beam
is 350mm and the breadth of the web is 250mm. the beams are 6m span and are simply supported.
The dead load including self-weight and the finishes is 7.4kN/m2 and the imposed load is 5kN/m2.
Design the beam. The materials are grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement.

Solution:

Design load = 7.4*2*1.4+5*2*1.6

= 36.7kN/m
62
Ultimate moment = 36.7* 8 = 165𝑘𝑁𝑚
6000
Breadth of flange b = 250 + = 1450𝑚𝑚
5

From BS 8110: part 1, table 3.3, the nominal cover on the links is 25mm for grade 30 concrete.
Links= 8
Main bars = 25
d= 350-25-8-12.5
= 304.5mm, say 300mm
MRC= 0.45 fcu b hf (d-hf/2)
= 0.45*30*1450*100(300-0.5*100)*106
= 489.3kNm
𝑀 165∗106
k=𝑓𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑑2 = 30∗1450∗3002 = 0.042

𝑘 1
z = d[0.5 + (0.25 − 0.9)2 ]

0.042 1
= 300[0.5 + (0.25 − )2 ]
0.9

= 285.1mm>0.95d=285mm

𝑀 165∗106
As= = 0.95∗460∗285 = 1325𝑚𝑚2
0.95𝑓𝑦∗𝑍

Provide 3T25; As=1472𝑚𝑚2

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 2. Determine the area of reinforcement required for the T-beam section shown in figure 3.32 which is
subjected to an ultimate moment of 260kNm. The materials are grade 30concrete and grade
460reinforcement.

Figure 3.32

Solution:

Check the location of the neutral axis x

If 0.9 multiplied by the neutral axis depth is equal to hf, the moment of resistance of concrete is.
MRC= 0.45fcub d hf (d-0.45hf)
= 0.45*30*600*100*290/106 =234.9kNm< applied moment
The neutral axis is lies in the web.
Check the moment of resistance of the concrete.
hf bw hf b
M RC  f cu bd 2 [ 0.45 (1 )( 1  )  0.155 w ]
d b 2d b
3402 100 250 100 250
= 30 ∗ 600 ∗ 106 [0.45 ∗ 340 (1 − (600 )) (1 − (2∗340 )) + 0.155 ( 600)]

= 269.6kN/m>260kNm
The section is satisfactory with tension reinforcement only. The steel area is calculated using the
M  0.1 f cu bwd( 0.45d  h f )
expression from clause [Link] of the code which is As 
0.95 f y ( d  0.5h f )
260∗106 +0.1∗30∗250∗340∗(0.45∗340−100)
As = 0.95∗460(340−0.5∗100)

= 2158mm2
Provide 5T25; AS=2454mm2

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[Link] Tension reinforcement and compression reinforcement

hf bw hf b
If the applied design moment > MRC with M RC  f cu bd 2 [ 0.45 (1 )( 1  )  0.155 w ] ,
d b 2d b

compression reinforcement is required. In this case the areas of steel should be calculated from

M  M RC
As' 
0.95 f y ( d  d ' )

0.2 f cu bw d  0.45 f cu h f ( b f  bw )
As   As'
0.95 f y

d'
Again  0.43
x

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 CHAPTER 4: DEFLECTION AND CRACKING

4.1. Deflection
4.1.1 Deflection limits and checks

Limits for the serviceability limit state of deflection are set out in BS 8110: Part 2, clause 3.2.1. It is
stated in this clause that the deflection is noticeable if it exceeds L/250 where L is the span of a beam
or length of a cantilever. Deflection due to dead load can be offset by precambering.
The code also states that damage to partitions, cladding and finishes will generally occur if the
deflection exceeds:
1. L/500 or 20mm whichever is the lesser for brittle finishes
2. L/350 or 200mm whichever is the lesser for non-brittle finishes
Design can be made such as to accommodate the deflection of structural members without causing
damage to partitions or finishes. Two methods are given in BS 8110: Part1 for checking that deflection
is not excessive:

(1) Limiting the span –to-effective depth ratio using the procedure set out in clause 3.4.6. This should
be used in all normal cases
(2) Calculations of deflection from curvatures set out in BS 8110: Part2, Sections 3.6 and 3.7.

Only the span – to – effective depth ratio is mentioned here.

4.1.2 Span - to - effective depth ratio

a. Basic span -to - effective depth ratios

The code states that the basic span- to - effective depth ratios given in table 3.9 for rectangular and
flanged beams are so determined as to limit the total deflection to span/250. This ensures that
deflection occurring after construction is limited to span/350 or 20mm whichever is the less.
The support conditions are also taken into account.
The values given for rectangular beams are modified when a flanged beam is checked.
Thus:
1. If the web width bw is less than or equal to 0.3 of the effective flange width b, the reduction is 0.8;
2. If the web width bw is greater than 0.3 of the effective flange width b, reduction is to vary linearly
0.8 at bw/b=0.3 to 1 at bw/b=1

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Table 3.9 of the code: Basic span - to - effective depth ratio.

The reduction is made because in the flanged beam there is not as much concrete in the tension zone
and the stiffness of the beam is reduced.
The values in the table apply to beams with spans up 10m. Refer to clause [Link] of the code for beams
of longer span (>10m).
Note: continuous beams are considered to be any beam in which at least one end of the beam is
continuous, i.e this includes propped cantilevers at the end of a series of continuous beams.

b. Tension reinforcement (clause [Link] of the code)

The deflection is influenced by the amount of tension reinforcement and the value of the stress at
service loads at the centre of the span for beams or at the support for cantilevers. The basic span-to-
effective depth ratio from table 3.9 of the code is multiplied by the modification factor from table 3.10.
The modification factor is given by the formula in the code:
477 - f s
Modification factor  0.55  2
M
120(0.9 2 )
bd
2 f y As ,req 1
The service stress is estimated from the equation f s  *
3 As , prov b
As ,req - is the area of tension steel required at mid - span to support ultimate loads (at the support for a

cantilever)
As , prov - is the area of tension steel provided at mid-span (at the support for a cantilever) and

moment after redistribution

b 
moment before redistribution

It is stated in table 3.10 of the code that for a continuous beam if the amount of redistribution is not
known fs may be taken as 2/3of fy..

c. Compression reinforcement

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The modification factors for compression reinforcement are given in BS 8110: Part 1, Table 3.11. The
modification factor is given by the formula
100As' , prov
1 bd  1 .5
100As' , prov
3
bd
As' , prov - Area of compression reinforcement

d. Deflection check

The allowable basic span - to - effective depth ratio is the basic ratio multiplied by the modification
factor for torsion reinforcement multiplied by the modification factor for compression reinforcement.

This value should be greater than the actual span/d ratio for the beam to be satisfactory with respect to
deflection.

Exercises:

The section at mid span designed for a simply supported T-beam of 6m span is shown in figure 3.48.
The design moment is 165kNm. The calculated area of tension reinforcement was 1447mm2 and 3T25
of area 1472mm2 were provided. To carry the links, two 16mm diameter bars have been provided in the
top of the beam. Using the rules set out above, check whether the beam is satisfactory for deflection.
The materials used are concrete grade 30 and reinforcement grade 460.

Solution

From BS 8110: Part 1, Table 3.9.

Web width b 250
 w   0.17  0.3
effective flange width b 1450
The basic span-to- effective depth ratio is 16.

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 477 - f s
Modification factor  0.55  2
M
120(0.9 2 )
bd
M 165*106
   1.26
bd 2 1450* 3002
2 * f y * As ,req 1
fs  * , b  1
3 As , prov b

2 * 460*1447
  301.46 N
3 *1472 mm 2
477 - 301.46
 Modification factor for tension reinforcement is equal to 0.55   1.23  2
120(0.9 1.26)

 Modification factor for compression reinforcement with As' , prov  226mm 2

100As' , prov
1
bd  1 .5
100As' , prov
3
bd
100As, , prov 100 * 226
   0.052
bd 1450* 300
0.052
1  1.017
3  0.052
Allowable span/d= 16*1.23*1.017=20.02
Actual span/d = 6000/300=20
The beam is satisfactory with respect to deflection.

4.2 Cracking

4.2.1 Cracking limits and controls

Excessive cracking and wide deep cracks affect durability and can lead to corrosion of reinforcement
although strength may not be affected. BS 8110; Part 1, clause [Link].1, states that for reinforced
concrete cracking should be kept within reasonable bounds.
The clause specifies two methods for crack control:
1. In normal case a set of rules for limiting the maximum bar spacing in the tension zone of
members (which is described here)

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2. In special case use of formula given in BS 8110: Part 2, Section 318, for assessing the design crack
width.

4.2.2 Bar spacing controls

The spacing limits are specified in clause [Link]. The clause indicates that in normal conditions of
internal or external exposure the bar spicings given will limit crack widths to [Link] of
crack widths can be made to justify larger spacing.

The rules are as follows:

(1) Bars of diameter less than 0.45 of the largest bar in the section should be ignored except when
considering bars in the side faces of beams.

(2) The clear horizontal distance S1 between bars or groups near the tension face of a beam should not
be greater than the values given in table 3.28 of the code which are given by the expression.

70000 b
Clear spacing   300
fy

The moments are taken from the maximum moment’s diagram.

 for R bars(250)  280

For βb=0; S1= 
for T bars(460)  155

3. As an alternative the clear spacing between bars can be found from the expression:
Clear span ≤ 47000/fs ≤ 300
fs –Is the service stress estimated from equation 8 in BS 8110-1-1997, table 3.10

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4. The clear distance S2 from the cover of beam to the surface of nearest horizontal bar should not
exceed one half of the values given in BS 8110, Part 1,Table 3.29
5. If the overall depth of the beam exceeds 750mm, longitudinal bars should be provided at a spacing
not exceeding 250mm over a distance of two thirds of the overall depth from the tension face. The
size of bar should not be less than (BS 8110, Part 1, clause3.12.5.4) Sb1/2b/fy where Sb is the bar
spacing and b is the breadth of the beam.
The maximum clear spacing between bars in slabs is given in BS 8110, Part 1, clause [Link]. This
clauses states that the clear distance between bars should not exceed three times the effective depth or
750mm. It also states that no further checks are required if:

(a) Grade 250 steel is used and the slab depth does not exceed 250mm
(b) Grade 460 steel is used and the slab depth does not exceed 200mm

(c) The reinforcement percentage

100As is less than 0.3% where As is the minimum recommended
bd
area, b is the breadth of the slab considered and d is the effective depth.

Refer to 3.12.11 and [Link] for other requirements regarding cracks control in slab.

The section through a simply supported reinforced concrete footbridge of 7 m span is shown in Figure
3.49. The imposed load is 5 kN/m2 and the materials to be used are grade 30 concrete and grade 460
reinforcement. Design the L-beams that support the bridge. Concrete weighs 2400 kg/m3, i.e. 23.5
kN/m3, and the weight of the hand rails are 16 kg/m per side.

Figure 4.49

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 CHAPTER 5: CONTINOUS BEAM: OMMITED

CHAPTER 6: SLABS

6.1. Types of slab and design methods

Slabs are plate elements forming floors and roofs in buildings which normally carry uniformly
distributed loads. Slabs may be simply supported or continuous over one or more supports and are
classified according to the method of support as follows:
(1) Spanning one way between beams or walls
(2) Spanning two ways between the support beams or walls
(3) Flat slabs carried on columns and edge beams or walls with no interior beams.

Slabs may be analyzed using the following methods:

(1) Elastic analysis

(2) Design coefficients
(3) Yield line and Hillerborg strip methods

6.2 One-way spanning solid slabs

6.2.1 Idealization for beams
a) Uniformly loaded slabs
One way slabs carrying predominantly uniform load are designed on the assumption that they consist
of a series of rectangular beams 1m wide spanning between supporting beams or walls.

6.2.2 Effective span, loading and analysis

a) Effective span
The effective span for one way slabs is the same as that set out for beams.
The effective spans are:
Simply supported slabs: the smaller of the centers of bearings or the clear span+d
Continuous slab: centers of supports
b) Arrangement of loads

The code states in clause [Link] that in principle the slab should be designed to resist the most
unfavorable arrangement of loads. However, normally it is only necessary to design for the single load
case of maximum design load on all spans or panels. This is permitted subject to the following
conditions:

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 1. The area of each bay exceeds 30m2
2. The ratio of characteristic imposed load to characteristic dead load does not exceed 1.25;
3. The characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5kN/m2 excluding partitions.
c) Analysis of redistribution of moments
A complete analysis can be carried out using moment redistribution in a similar way to that performed
for the continuous beam. Clause [Link] referred to above states that if the analysis is carried out for the
single load case of all spans loaded, the support moments except at supports of cantilever should be
reduced by 20%. This gives an increase in the span moments.
The moment envelope should satisfy all the provisions of clause [Link] in the code regarding
redistribution of moments. No further redistribution is to be carried out. If the cantilever length exceeds
one-third of the span the load case of 1.4Gk+1.6Qk on the cantilever and 1.0Gk on the span should be
considered.
d) Analysis using moment coefficients
See clause [Link]
6.2.3 Section design and slab reinforcement curtailment and cover
a) Main moment steel
The minimum area of main reinforcement is given in table 3.25 of the code. For rectangular sections
and solid slabs this is
 Mild steel, fy=250N/mm2; 100As/Ac=0.24 in both direction.
 High yield steel, fy=460N/mm2; 100As/Ac=0.13 in both direction.
b) Distribution steel
The distribution or secondary steel runs at right angles to the main moment steel and serves the purpose
of tying the slab together and distributing non-uniform loads through the slab. The area of secondary
reinforcement is the same as the minimum area for main reinforcement set out in (a) above. Note that
distribution steel is required at the top parallel to the supports of continuous slabs. The main steel is
placed nearest to the surface to give the greatest effective depth.

a) Slab reinforcement

Slab reinforcement is a mesh and may be formed from two sets of bars placed at right angles. Table 6.3
gives bar spacing data in the form of areas of steel per meter width for various bar diameter and
spacing

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Table 6.3: Bar spacing data

b) Curtailment of bars in slabs

The general recommendations given in clause [Link] for curtailment of bars apply. The code sets out
simplified rules for slabs in clause [Link] and figure 3.25 in the code. These rules may be used
subject to the following provisions:

1. The slabs are designed for predominantly uniformly distributed loads;

2. In continuous slabs the design has been made for the single load case of maximum design load on
all spans.
The code states in clause [Link].2 that while the supports of simply supported slabs or the end
support of a continuous slab cast integral with an L-beam have been taken as simple supports for
analysis, negative moments may arise and cause cracking.

To control this, bars are to be provided in the top of the slab of area equal to one-half of the steel at mid
span but not less than the minimum are specified in table 3.25 in the code. The bars are to extend not
less than 0.155L or 45 bar diameters into the span. These requirements are shown in figure 6.51 (a) and
shown in 6.51 (c).

Bottom bars at a simply supported end are generally anchored 12bar diameters past the centerline of the
support as shown in 6.51 (a). However, these bars may be stopped at the line of the effective support
where the slab is cast integral with the edge beam as shown in 6.51 (a) and 6.51 (b).

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 Figure 6.51: (a) Simply supported span; (b) cantilever; (c) continuous beam

Note that where a one-way slab ends in edge beams or is continuous across beams parallel to the span
some two-way action with negative moments occurs at the top of the slab. Reinforcement in the top of
the slab of the same area as that provided in the direction of the span at the discontinuous edge should
be provided to control cracking. This is shown in figure 6.52 (c).

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 Figure 6.52: (a) Part floor plan; (b) section AA; (c) section BB

c) Cover
The amount of cover required for durability and fire protection is taken from tables 3.4 and 3.5 of the
code.

6.2.4 Shear
Under normal loads shear stresses are not critical and shear reinforcement is not required. Shear
reinforcement is provided in heavily loaded thick slabs but should not be used in slabs less than 200mm
thick. The shear resistance is checked in accordance with BS 8110, Part 1,Section 3.5.5.

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 V
The shear stress is given by  
bd
If  is less than the value of  c given in table 3.8 in the code, no shear reinforcement is required. The
form and area of shear reinforcement in solid slabs is set out in table 3.16 in the code. The design is
similar to that set out for beams. The shear resistance at the end support which is integral with the edge
beam where the slab has been taken as simply supported in the analysis depends on the detailing.
The following procedures are specified in clause [Link] of the code:
1. If the tension bars are anchored 12 diameters past the centerline of the support, the shear resistance
is based on the bottom bars;
2. If the tension bars are stopped at the line of effective support, the shear resistance is based on the
top bars.
Note that top bars of area one-half the mid-span steel are required to control cracking.

6.2.5 Deflection
The check for deflection is very important consideration in slab design and usually controls the slab
depth. The deflection of slabs is discussed in BS 8110, Part 1, Section 3.5.7.
In normal cases a strip of slab 1m wide is checked against span-to- effective depth ratios including the
modification for tension reinforcement set out in section 3.4.6 of the code. Only the tension steel at the
center of the span is taken into account.
6.2.6 Crack control
To control cracking in slabs, maximum values for clear spacing between bars are set out in BS 8110,
Part 1, clause [Link].7. The clause states that in no case should be the clear spacing exceed the
lesser of three times the effective depth or 750mm. No further check is needed for slabs in normal case:
1. If grade 250 steel is used and the slab depth is not greater than 250mm or
2. If grade 460 is used and the slab depth is not greater than 200mm or
3. If the amount of steel, 100As/bd, is less than 0.3%

Exercise 1:

A continuous one way slab has three spans of 3.5m each. The slab depth is assumed to be 140mm. the
loading is as follows:
Dead load-self weight, screed, finish, partitions, ceiling 5.2kN/m2
Imposed load of 3kN/m2
The construction materials are grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement.

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The condition of exposure is mild and the cover required is 25mm. Design the slab and show the
reinforcement on a sketch of the cross-section.
Solution:
A. Design loads
Consider a strip 1m wide
 Design load = (1.4*5.2)+(1.6*3) = 12.08kN/m
 Design load per span = 12.08*3.5=42.28kN
The single load case of maximum design loads on all spans is shown in figure 6.53 where the critical
points for shear and moment are also indicated.

Figure 6.53: Maximum design loads

B. Shear forces and bending moments in the slab

The shear forces and moments in the slab are calculated using BS 8110, Part 1, table 3.12. The values
are shown in table 6.4. The redistribution is 20%.

Position Shear(kN) Moment (kNm)

A 0.4*42.28=16.91
P +0.086*42.28*3.5=12.73
B 0.6*42.42.28=25.37 -0.086*42.28*3.5=-12.73
Q +0.063*42.28*3.5=9.32

Table 6.4: The values of shear and bending moment

C. Design of moment steel

Assume 10mm diameter bars with 25mm cover. The effective depth is d=140-25-5=110mm.
The calculations for steel areas are set out below. Reference is made to clause [Link] in the code for
the section design.
(i) Section at support B, M=12.73kNm redistribution is 20%; when table 3.12 is used (βb=0.8)
K’=0.402(βb-0.4)- 0.18(βb-0.4)2 =0.402(0.8-0.4) - 0.18(0.8-0.4)2 =0.132

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 Mu 12.73  106
K   0.035 𝑘′ (Compression reinforcement is not required)
f  bd 2 30  1000 1102

  K 
z  d 0.5   0.25     0.95d
  0.9  

0.035
= 110⌈0.5 + (√0.25 − )⌉
0.9

= 105.5mm > 0.9d = 105.5mm

X= (d-z)/0.45
= (110-104.5)/0.45=12.22 ≯ x = (βb-0.4)d
= 0.4*d=44
𝑀 12.73∗106
As =0.95𝑓𝑦∗𝑧 = 0.95∗460∗104.5

= 304.4mm2/m
Provide 8mm bars at 160mm centre to give an area of 314mm2/m. Provide the same reinforcement at
section P

(ii) Section Q,M=9.32KN/m

Z=0.95d=105.5mm
As = 222.9mm2/m
Provide 8mm bars at 220mm centers to give an area of 228mm2/m the minimum area of reinforcement
is 100As/Ac=0.13; As = (Ac*0.13)/100
0.13∗1000∗140
= = 182𝑚𝑚2 /𝑚
100

The above area exceeds these values

Figure: 6.54: Sketch of cross-section of slab

At the end support A, top steel equal in area to one-half the mid-span steel, i.e. 152.2mm2/m, but not
less than the minimum area of 182 mm2/m has to be provided. The clear spacing between bars is not to

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exceed 3d=330mm. Provide 8mm bars at 250mm centre to give 201 mm2/m. The tension bars in the
bottom of the slab at support A are stopped off the line of support.
d. Distribution steel
The minimum area of reinforcement (182mm2/m) has to be provided. The spacing is not to exceed
3d=330mm. Provide 8mm bars at 250mm center to give an area of 201mm2/m.
e. Shear resistance
 End support
The shear resistance is based on the top bars, 8mm diameter bars at 250mm centers with area of
201mm2/m.
100 As 3 100  201
3   0.568  3
bd 1000  110
400 4 400
4   1.053  1
d 110
100 As 1 3 1 f 1
0.79[( ) )* ( 400 ) 4 )* ( cu ) 3 ]
bd d 25
c 
1.25
30 1
0.79[( 0.568 )* ( 1.053 )* ( ) 3 ]
c  25  0.53 N mm 2
1.25
V 16.91*103
   0.15 N mm 2
bd 1000*110
No shear reinforcement required

 Interior support

100 As 100* 314

  0.285
bd 1000* 110
 c  0.61 N mm 2
25.37* 10 3
 3
 0.23 N mm 2
10 * 110
No shear reinforcement is required

f. Deflection
The slab is checked for deflection using the rules from section 3.4.6 of the code. The end span is
checked. The basic span-to-effective depth ratio is 26 for the continuous slab.

Basic span/d=26

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 Modification factor for As:

477 - f s
Modification factor  0.55  2
M
120(0.9 2 )
bd
M
 1.05
bd 2
2 * f y * As ,req 1
fs  * ,  b  0.8
3 As , prov b
2 * 460 * 304.4
  297.28 N
3 * 314 * 0.8 mm 2

477 - 297.28
M.f  0.55   1.32  2
120(0.9  1.05)
Allowable span/d ratio= 1.32*26=34.32
Actual span/d =3500/110= 31.8
The slab is satisfactory with respect to deflection

g. Crack control
Because the steel grade is 460, the slab depth is less than 200mm and the clear spacing does not exceed
3d=330mm, the slab is satisfactory with respect to cracking (BS 8110, Part 1, clause [Link].7)

h. Sketch of cross-section of slab (see figure 6.54)

6.3 Restrained solid slab
6.2.2 Design and arrangement of reinforcement
The design method for restrained slabs is given in BS 8110, part 1, clause [Link]. In these slabs the
corners are prevented from lifting and provision is made for torsion.
The maximum moments at mid-span on strip of unit width for spans lx and ly are given by:

Msx = βsx*n* l x2

Msy = βsy*n* l x2
The clause states that the equations may be used for continuous slabs when the following provisions are
satisfied:
1. The characteristic dead and imposed loads are approximately the same on adjacent panel as on the
panel being considered;

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2. The spans of adjacent panels in the direction perpendicular to the line of the common support is
approximately the same as that of the panel considered in that direction.
The moment coefficients βsx and βsy in the equations above are given in BS 8110, part 1, table 3.14.
Equations are also given for deriving the coefficients.
Exercise 6.1:

Figure 6.55
The design rules for slabs are as follows:

1. The slabs are derived in each direction into middle and edge strips as shown in figure below:

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 Figure 6.56
2. The maximum moments defined above apply to the middle strips. The moment reinforcement is
designed using the same formula for under-reinforced beam. The amount of reinforcement provided
must not be less than the minimum area given in BS 8110, part 1, table 3.25. The bars are spaced
uniformly across the middle strip.
3. The reinforcement is to be detailed in accordance with the simplified rules for curtailment of bars in
slab given in clause [Link] and shown in figure 25 of the code. At the discontinuous edge, top
steel of one half the area of the bottom steel at mid span is to be provided as specified in clause
[Link] to control cracking.
Provisions are given in the same clause regarding shear resistance at the end support. This depends
on the detailing of the bottom reinforcement and was discussed in section above (6.2.4).

4. The minimum tension reinforcement given in table 3.25 of the code is to be provided in the edge
strip together with the torsion reinforcement specified in the rule 5 below.
5. Torsion reinforcement is to be provided at corner where the slab is simply supported on both edges
meeting at the corners. Corners x and y shown in figure below require torsion reinforcement.

Figure 6.57
This is to consist of a top and bottom mesh with bars parallel to the sides of the slab and extending
from the edges a distance of one fifth of the shorter span. The area of bars in each of the four layers
should be, at X, three-quarters of the area of bars required for the maximum mid-span moment and, at

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Y, one half of the area of the bars required at corner X. Note that no torsion reinforcement is required at
the internal corners Z shown in the figure above.

6.3.2 Adjacent panels with markedly different support moment

The moment coefficients in table 3.14 of the code apply to slabs with similar spans and loads giving
similar support moments. If the support moments for adjacent panels differ significantly the adjustment
procedure set out in clause [Link] of the code must be used.

6.3.3 Shear force and shear resistance

(a) Shear forces
Shear force coefficients βvx and βvy for various support cases for continuous slabs are given in table
3.15 of the code. The design loads on supporting beams per unit width are given by:

Vsx= βvx*n*lx
Vsy= βvy*n*lx
Exercise 6.2:

Figure 6.58

Shear force coefficient:

Location Ly/lx= 1.0 Ly/lx= 1.5

Short span 1 0.4 0.54

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 2 0.2 0.34
Long span 3 0.4 0.4
4 0.26 0.26

Table 6.5: Shear force coefficients

b. Shear resistance
Shear resistance was discussed in section 6.2.4
6.3.4 Deflection
Deflection is checked in accordance with section 3.4.6 of the code by checking the span –to –effective
depth ratio. Clause 3.5.7 states that the ratio is to be based on the shorter span and its amount of tension
reinforcement in that direction.

6.3.5 Cracking
Cracks control is discussed in BS 8110: Part1, Clause 3.5.8. This states that the bar spacing rules given
in clause 3.12.11 are the best means of controlling flexural cracking in the slabs. For slabs only check
clause [Link].7 which had been discussed in section 6.2.6 above.

Exercise 6.3:

(a) Specification
The part floor plan for an office building is shown in figure below. It consists of restrained slabs poured
monolithically with the edge beams. The slab is 175mm thick and the loading is as follows:
Total dead load=6.2kN/m2
Imposed load=2.5kN/m2
Design the corner slab using grade 35 concrete and grade 460reinforcement. Show the reinforcement
on sketches.

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 Figure 6.59: (a) Part floor plan; (b) moment coefficients

(b) Slab dimension, moments and reinforcement

The corner slab is divided into middle and edge strips as shown in figure 6.59. The moment
coefficients are taken from BS 8110: Part1, table 3.14 for a square slab for the case with two adjacent
discontinuous. The values of the coefficients and locations of moments are shown.
Design load = (1.4*6.2) + (1.6*2.5)= 12.68kN/m2

Assuming 10mm diameter bars and 20mm cover from table 3.3 in the code, the effective depth of the
outer layer is 180-20-5=155mm.
The effective depth of the inner layer is 180-20-5-10=145mm.
The moments and steel areas for the middle strips are calculated because the slab is square only one
direction need be considered.
i) Position 1 and 4: d = 155mm
msx = βsx*n* l x2 = -0.047*12.68*62
= -21.45kN/m
Mu 21.45  106
K   0.026  0.156
f cu bd 2 35  1000  1552
  K 
z  d 0.5   0.25     0.95d
  0.9  

  0.026  
z  1550.5   0.25     150.4mm
  0.9  
 0.95d  147.25mm
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 msx
Asx  mm 2 / m width of slab in direction lx and
0.95 f y * Z x
msy
Asy  mm 2 / m width of slab in direction ly
0.95 f y * Z y
Asx  Asy (squared panel)

21.45 *106
Asx   333mm 2 / m
0.95 * 460*147.25

Provide T10@200C/C; As=392mm2/m

ii) Position 2, d=145mm. Note that the smaller value of d is used.

msx=0.036*12.62*62=16.43kN/m
Repeat above calculations to give
As=293 mm2/m
Provide T8@ 160c/c; As=314mm2/m
Check the minimum area of steel in tension from BS 8110: Part1, table 3.25:
100As/Ac=0.13  As=0.13*0.13*Ac/100
=0.13*1000*180/100
=234mm2/m

iii) Position 3,5

As=0.5*293=149.2mm2/m
≮234mm2/m (minimum steel)
Provide T8 at 200c/c; As=251𝑚𝑚2 /𝑚
In detailing, the moment steel will not be curtailed because both negative and positive steel would fall
below the minimum one if 50% of the bars were cut off.
(c) Shear forces and shear resistance
i. Positions 1,4; d=155mm
Vsx = βsxnlx
= 0.4*12.68*6
= 30.43kN/m
V 30.43*103
   0.196 N mm 2
bd 155*103

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 100As 100* 393
  0.253
Ac 1000*155

100 As 1 3 1 f 1
0.79[( ) )* ( 400 ) 4 )* ( cu ) 3 ]
bd d 25
c 
1.25
30 1
0.79[( 0.253 )* ( 400 / 155 )1 / 4 * ( ) 3 ]
c  25  0.567 N mm 2
1.25
No shear reinforcement is required.

ii. Position 3,5; d=145mm

The bottom tension bars are to be stopped at the center of the support. The shear resistance is based on
the top steel with

As=251mm2/m

Vsx=0.26*12.68*

=19.78kNm

  0.136 N mm 2
 c  0.49 N mm 2

The shear stress is satisfactory

(d) Torsion steel

Torsion steel of length 6/5=1.2m is to be provided in the top and bottom of the slab at the three external
corners marked X and Y.

i) Corner x: The area of torsion steel is 0.75*298.4=219.7mm2. This will be provided by the minimum
steel of 8mm diameter bars of 200mm centers (T8 @ C/C)
ii) Corner Y: The area of torsion steel is 0.5*219.7=109.7mm2. Provide T8 a@ 200 C/C
(e) Edge strips
Provide minimum reinforcement, T8@200C/C in the edge strips.

(f) Deflection
Check using steel at mid-span with d=145mm
Basic span/d ratio = 26 (BS 8110: Part1, table 3.9)

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msx 16.43 * 106
  0.78
bd 2 103 * 1452
2 * f y * As ,req 1
fs  * , b  1
3 As , prov b
2 * 460 * 293
  268.3 N
8 * 314 mm 2
477 - f s
Modification factor  0.55  2
M
120(0.9 2 )
bd
477 - 268.3
M.f  0.55   1.59  2
120(0.9  0.78)
Allowable span/d ratio= 1.59*26=41.34
Actual span/d =3000/145= 41.37
The slab can be considered to be satisfactory. The deflection could be based on the average value of
d=(145+155)/2 and the slab would be satisfactory.

Average value of d (150)

 Modification factor = 1.62

 Allowable span/d ratio=1.62*26 = 42
 Actual span/d ratio = 6000/150=40
(g) Cracking
The bar spacing does not exceed 3d=3*145=435mm and in addition for grade 460 steel the depth is less
than 200mm. No further checks are required as stated in clause [Link] of the code.

(h) Sketch of slab

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 Figure 7.60

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 CHAPTER 7: STAIR SLABS

7.1. Types of stair slab

Stairways are sloping one-way spanning slabs. Two methods of construction are used:

Figure 7.61

a) Transverse spanning stair slabs

Figure7.62 (a) Transverse section; (b) longitudinal section; (c) assumptions for design

Transverse spanning stair slabs span between walls, a wall and stringer (an edge beam), or between two
stringers. The stair slab may also be cantilevered from a wall. Each step is usually designed as having a

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breadth b and an effective depth of d=D/2 as shown in the figure; a more rigorous analysis of the
section is rarely justified. Distribution steel in the longitudinal direction is placed above the main
reinforcement.

The moment reinforcement is generally one bar per step. Details of a cantilevered stair are shown in
figure 7.62(b). The effective depth of the member is taken as the mean effective depth of the section
and the main reinforcement must be placed in the top of the stairs and anchored into the support. A
light mesh of the reinforcement is placed in the bottom face to resist shrinkage cracking.

b) Longitudinal spanning stair slab

The stair slab spans between supports at the top and bottom of the flight. The supports may be beams,
walls or landing slabs.

Figure 7.63

If the total design loads on the stair is W the positive design moment at mid-span and the negative
moment over top beam B on both taken as W *l 10 . The arrangement of moment reinforcement is
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shown in the figure 7.63. Secondary reinforcement runs transversely across the stair. The effective span
l of the stair is defined in the code. The maximum moment near mid-span and over supports is taken as
Wl/10 where W is the total design load on the span.

7.2 Code design requirement

a) Imposed loading
The imposed loading on stairs is given in BS 6399: Part 1, Table1. From this table the distribution
loading is as follows:
(1) Dwelling not over three storeys, 1.5kN/m2
(2) All other buildings, the same as the floors to which they give access but not less than 3kN/m2 or
more than 5kN/m2
b) Design provisions
Provisions for design of staircases are set out in BS 8110: Part 1 section 3.10.
7.3 Loading on stairs
The dead load is calculated along the slope length of the stairs but the live load is based on the plan
area. Loads common to two spans which intersect at right angles and surround an open well may be
assumed to be divided equally between the spans. The effective span (l) is measured horizontally
between the centers of the supports and the thickness of the waist is taken at the slab thickness.

Stair slabs which are continuous and constructed monolithically with their supporting slabs or beams
can be designed for a bending moment of Wl/10, where W-is the total ultimate load. But in many
instances the stairs are precast or constructed after the main structure, pockets with dowels being left
in the supporting beams to receive the stairs, and with no appreciable end restraint the design moment
should be Wl/8.

a) Distribution of loads

Figure 7.64: Loads distribution

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b) Load estimator

Figure 7.65
Dead load: Dead load of waist Gk is in first computed at right angle to the slope.
Dead load of step is computed by treating a step to be equivalent to horizontal slab of
thickness R/2
Live load: Uniform distributed on the plan area.
Exercise 7.1:
(a) Specification
Design the side flight of a stair case surrounding an open stair well. A section through the stairs is
shown in figure 7.66 (a). The stair slab is supported on a beam at the top and on the landing of the
flight at right angles at the bottom. The imposed is 5kN/m2. The stair is built 110mm into the side wall
of the stairwell. The clear width of the stairs is 1.25m and the flight consists of eight risers at 180mm
and seven goings of 220mm with 20mm nosing. The stair treads and landings have 15mm granolithic
finish and underside of the stair and landing slab has 15mm of plaster finish. The materials are grade 30
concrete and 460 reinforcement.

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 Figure 7.66: (a) Section through stairs; (b) loading diagram

b) Loading and moment

Assume the waist thickness of structural concrete is 100mm, the cover is 25mm and the bar diameter is
10mm. The loaded width and effective breadth of the stair slab are shown in section A-A in figure
7.66(a). The effective span of the stair slab is the clear horizontal distance (1540mm) plus the distance
of the stair to the center of the top beam (235mm) plus one-half of the breadth of the landing (625mm)
i.e. 2400mm.
The design ultimate loading on the stairs is calculated first.

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i) Landing slab
The overall thickness including the top and underside finish is 130mm

Dead load= 0.13*24*1.4=4.4kN/m2

Imposed load = 5*1.6=8kN/m2
Total design load ultimate load=12.4kN/m2

50% of landing load = 0.5*12.4*0.625*1.1=4.26kN

One half of the load on the landing slab is included for the stair under consideration. The loaded width
is 1.1m.

ii) Stair slab

The slope length is 2.29m and the step project 152mm perpendicularly to the top surface of the waist.
The average thickness including finishes is
100+152/2+30=206mm
Dead load =0.206*24*2.29*1.1*1.4= 17.44kN
Imposed load = 5*1.78*1.1*1.6=15.56kN
Total load= 33.1kN
The dead load is calculated using the slope length while the imposed load acts on the plan length.
The loaded width is 1.1m.
The total load on the span is 4.26+33.1=37.36kN
The maximum shear at the top support is 21.44kN.
The design moment for sagging moment near mid-span and the hogging moment over the supports are
both Wl/10.
37.36*2.4/10=8.97kNm.
c) Moment reinforcement
The effective depth d=100-25-5 = 70mm
The effective width b will be taken as the width of the stair slab 1250mm.
Mu 8.97  106
K   0.049  0.156
f cu bd 2 35  1250  702
  K 
z  d 0.5   0.25     0.95d
  0.9  

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   0.049  
z  700.5   0.25     66mmmm
  0.9  
 0.95d  66.5mm

M 8.97 *106
As    311mm 2 for the full 1250mm width.
0.95 f y * Z 0.95* 460* 66

Provide 8T8@180C/C with As=402mm2

The same steel is provided in the top of the slab over both supports.
Minimum area of reinforcement is
100As/Ac=0.13
As=Ac*0.13/100
= (0.13*100*1000)/100
= 130mm2/m
Provide T8@300c/c with As=167mm2/m transversely as distribution steel.
d) Shear resistance
Shear = 21.4kN
V 21.4 *103
   0.25 N mm 2
bd 1250* 70
100As 100 * 402
  0.46
Ac 1000 * 70
400 400
 5.7  1
9 70
100 As 1 3 1 f 1
0.79[( ) )* ( 400 ) 4 )* ( cu ) 3 ]
bd d 25
c 
1.25
30 1
0.79[( 0.46 )* ( 5.7 )1 / 4 * ( ) 3 ]
c  25  0.8 N mm 2
1.25
No shear reinforcement is required.

e) Deflection

The basic span/d ratio is 26 as the slab is effectively continuous at both ends of the 2.4m span
considered.
M/bd2=8.97*106/(1250*702)=1.47

fs= 2/3*460*(311/402)=237N/mm2
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 477−237
0.55+120(0.9+1.47) = 1.39

Allowable span/d=26*1.39*1.15=41.68

Actual span/d=2400/70=34.3

Note that the stair flight with a plan length of 1540mm occupies 64% of the span and the allowable
span/d ratio can be increased by 15% (BS 8110:Part1, clause [Link])

f) Cracking
For crack control the clear distance between bars is not to exceed 3d=210mm. The reinforcement
spacing of 180mm is satisfactory.
g) Reinforcement

Figure 7.66

Exercise 7.2: Simply supported

The stairs are of the type shown in figure7.67 spanning longitudinally and set into pockets in the two
supporting beams. The effective span is 3m and the rise of stairs is 1.5m, with 260mm treads and
150mm risers. The live load is 3.0kN/m2 and the characteristic material strength are fcu=30N/mm2 and
fy=250 N/mm2
Try a 125mm thick waist, effective depth, d=90mm.

Figure 7.67: Stairs supported by beams

Solution:

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Slope length of stairs= (32  1.52 )  3.35m
Considering a 1m width of stairs

Figure 7.68

0.15 cos
Weight of waist plus steps= (0.125  3.35  * 3.35)  10.11kN
2
Live load = 3*3=9kN

Ultimate load F = 1.4*10.11+1.6*9=28.6kN

Fl 28.6 * 3
M   10.7 kNm
8 8

Mu 10.7  106
K   0.044  0.156
f cu bd 2 35  1000 902
  K 
z  d 0.5   0.25     0.95d
  0.9  

  0.044  
z  d 0.5   0.25     0.95d
  0.9  
0.95d  85.5mm

M 10.7 *106
As    527mm 2 / m
0.95 f y * Z 0.95 * 250 * 85.5

Provide R12@180 with As=628mm2

Minimum area of reinforcement is

100As/Ac=0.13  As=Ac*0.24/100
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 0.24∗1000∗125
= 100

As=300mm2
Provide R10@250 with As=314mm2

Continuity bars at the top and bottom of the span should be provided and about 50% of the main steel
would be reasonable, while satisfying maximum spacing limits of 3d=270mm.

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 CHAPTER 8: COLUMNS

8.1 Types loads, classification and design considerations

8.1.1 Types and loads
Columns are structure members in buildings carrying roof and floor loads to the foundations. Columns
primarily carry axial loads, but most columns are subjected to moment as well as axial load.

Figure 8.69: Floor plan

Referring to that part floor plan in the figure 8.69, the internal column A is designed for axial load
while edge columns B and corner column C are designed for axial load and moment.
Design of axially loaded columns is treated first. Then methods are given for design of sections
subjected to axial load and moment. Most columns are termed short columns and fail when the material
reaches its ultimate capacity under the applied loads and moments.
Slender columns buckle and the additional moments caused by deflection must be taken into account in
design. The column section is generally square or rectangular, but circular and polygonal columns are
used in special cases. When the section carries mainly axial load it is symmetrically reinforced with
four, six, eight or more bars held in a cage by links

8.1.2 General code provisions

General requirements for design of columns are treated in BS8110: Part 1, Section 3.8.1. The provision
apply to columns where the greater cross-sectional dimension does not exceed four times the smaller
dimension.
The minimum size of a column must meet the fire resistance requirements given in the figure 3.2 of the
code. For example, for a fire resistance period of 1.5h a fully exposed column must have a manimum
dimension of 250mm. The covers required to meet durability and fire resistance requirements are given
in table 3.4 and 3.5 respectively of the code.
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The code classifies columns first as:
1. Short columns when the ratios lex/h and ley/b are both less than 15 for braced columns and less than
10 for unbraced columns and
2. Slender columns when the ratios are larger than the values given above

Here: b: is width of the column cross-section,

h: is the depth of the column cross-section,
lex: is the effective height in respect of the major axis and
ley: is the effective height in respect of the minor axis.

Defining slenderness ratios for short columns

lex/h ley/b
Braced columns 15 15
Unbraced columns 10 10

Table 8.6: Slenderness ratios for short columns

Any column which has a slenderness ratio greater than the values given in the table 8.6, should be
considered as slender.
The effective height (le) can be evaluated using the recommendations given in the clause [Link], table
3.1.9 and table 3.20 of the code. i.e: le= βlo

Where:
β: is a coefficient which is dependent on the end condition of the column, and
lo: is the clear height between the end restraints.
The end conditions are graded from 1 to 4, in which 1 corresponds to a significant fixity and 4
represents a free end. These conditions are defined in clause [Link].2 of the code.

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 Figure 8.70:
Note: h is the column depth perpendicular to the x-x axis;
b is the column width perpendicular to the y-y axis;
lex is the effective height in respect of the x-x axis and
ley is the effective height in respect of the y-y axis
In second classification the code defines columns as braced or unbraced. The code states that a column
may be considered to be braced in a given plane if lateral stability to the structure as a whole is
provided by walls or bracing designed to resist all lateral forces in that plane. Otherwise the column
should be considered as unbraced.

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Lateral stability in braced reinforced concrete structures is provided by shear walls, lift shafts and stair
wells. In unbraced structures resistance to lateral forces is provided by bending in the columns and
beams in that plane
8.1.3 Slenderness limits for columns
The slenderness for columns are specified in clause [Link] and [Link] as fellows.
1) Generally the clear distance lo between end restraints is not to exceed 60 times the minimum
thickness of the column.
lo ≤ 60*minimum thickness generally
2) For unbraced columns, if in any given plane one end is unrestrained, e.g a cantilever, its clear
height lo should not exceed
100b '2
lo  '
 60b '
h
Where h ' and b ' are the larger and smaller dimensions of the column
8.1.4 Practical design provisions
The following practical considerations with regard to design of columns are extracted from BS8110
Part 1 section 3.12. The minimum number of longitudinal bars in a rectangular column is four and six
bars in circular column.
(a) Minimum percentage of reinforcement
The minimum percentage of reinforcement is given in table 2.25 of the code for both grade 250 and
grade 460 reinforcement as 100Asc/Acc = 0.4
Where Asc is the area of steel in compression and Acc is the area of concrete in compression.
(b) Maximum area of reinforcement
Clause [Link] states that the maximum area of reinforcement should not exceed 6% of the gross
cross-sectional area of a vertically cast column except at laps where 10% is permitted. For horizontally
cast column, the maximum area is 8%.
(c) Requirements for links
Clause 3.12.7 covers containment of compression reinforcement:
1. The diameter of links should not be less than 6mm or one-quarter of the diameter of the longest
longitudinal bar;
2. The maximum spacing is to be 12 times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar;
3. The links should be arranged so that every corner bar and each alternate bar in an outer layer is
supported by a link passing round the bar and having an included angle of not more than 135°.

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 No bar is to be further than 150mm from a restrained bar. These requirements are shown in the
figure 8.71:

Figure 8.71: Arrangement of links

c) Compression laps
Compression lap lengths are given in table 3.27 of the code. Laps in columns are located above the
base and floor lever as shown in figure 8.72.

Figure 8.72: (a) Column lap; (a) Column base

8.1.5 Design of short columns

Short columns are divided into three categories according to the degree of eccentricity of the loading as
described in the following sections.
[Link] Short braced axially loaded columns
This type of column can occur in precast concrete construction when there is no continuity between the
members. Also it can be considered to occur when the columns support a symmetrical and very rigid
structure.
When the load is perfectly axial the ultimate axial resistance is:
N=0.45fcuAc+0.95fyAsc
Where: Ac is the net area of the concrete and
Asc is the area of the longitudinal reinforcement

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Perfect conditions never exist and to allow for a small eccentricity the ultimate load should be
calculated from N=0.4fcuAc+0.75fyAsc
To allow the area of concrete displaced by the longitudinal reinforcement this equation may be
modified to N=0.4fcuAc- Asc*0.4fcu+0.75fyAsc

N=0.4fcuAc+ Asc (0.75fy-0.4fcu)

Exercise: Asc*0.4fcu+0.75fyAsc
Design the longitudinal reinforcement for a 300mm square column which supports an axial load of
1700kN at the ultimate limit state. The characteristic material strengths are fy=460N/mm2 for the
reinforcement and fcu=30N/mm2 for the concrete.
[Link]. Short braced columns supporting an approximately symetrical arrangement of beams
The moments on these columns will be small and due primarily to unsymmetrical arrangements of the
live load. Provided the beam spans do not differ by more than 15% of the longer, and the loading on the
beams is uniformly distributed, the column may be designed to support the axial load only. The
ultimate load that can be supported should then be taken as:

N=0.35fcuAc + 0.67fyAsc

To take account of the area of concrete displaced by the reinforcement the equation may be written as:

N=0.35fcuAc + (0.67fy - 0.35fcu)Asc

For a rectangular section N=0.35fcubh + (0.67fy - 0.35fcu) Asc

[Link] Short columns resisting moments and axial forces

a) Short columns subjected to axial load and bending about one axis-symmetrical reinforcement
 Code provisions
The design of short columns resisting moment and axial load is covered in various clauses in BS8110:
Part1, section 3.8. The main provisions are as follows:

1. Clause [Link] states that in column and beam construction in monolithic braced frames the axial
force in the column can be calculated assuming the beams are simply supported. If the arrangement
of beams is symmetrical, the column can be designed for axial load only as set out above.

The column may also be designed for axial load and a moment due to the nominal eccentricity
given in provision 2 below:

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2. Clause [Link] states that in no section in a column should the design moment be taken as less than
the ultimate load acting at a minimum eccentricity emin equal to 0.05 times the overall dimension of
the column in the plane of bending but not more than 20mm;
3. Clause [Link] states that in the analysis of cross sections to determine the ultimate resistance to
moment and axial force the same assumptions should be made as when analyzing a beam. These
assumptions are given in clause [Link] of the code;
4. Clause [Link]. states that design charts for symmetrically reinforced columns are given in BS
8110:Part3;
5. Clause [Link] states that it is usually only necessary to design short columns for the maximum
design moment about one critical axis.
 Design method
(1) Design charts method
Exercise:
Figure 8.73shows a frame of a heavily loaded industrial structure for which the centre columns along
line PQ are to be designed in this Exercise. The frames at 4m centers, are braced against lateral forces,
and support the following floor loads:
Dead load gk=10kN/m2
Live load qk=15kN/m2
Characteristic material strengths are fcu=30N/mm2 for the concrete and fy=460N/mm2 for the steel.

Figure 8.73

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b) Short columns subjected to axial load and bending about one axis-unsymmetrical
reinforcement
 Design methods
An unsymmetrical arrangement of reinforcement provides the economical solution for the design of a
column subjected to a small axial load and a large moment about one axis.
Such member occurs in single storey reinforced concrete portals. Three methods of design are:
1. General method using successive trials
2. Use of design charts
3. Approximate method

In the cases steel is in tension on one side and the neutral axis lies between the rows of steel.

c) Column sections subjected to axial load and biaxial bending

For most columns, biaxial bending will not govern the design. The loading patterns necessary to cause
biaxial bending in a building’s internal and edge columns will not usually cause large moments in both
directions. Corner columns may have to resist significant bending about both axes, but the axial loads
are usually small and a design similar to the adjacent edge columns is generally adequate.

In the following, a design for biaxial bending is based on a simplified method as described in BS 8110:
Part1, clause [Link]. This method specifies that a column subjected to an ultimate load N and moments
Mx and My about the x-x and y-y axes respectively may be designed for single axis bending but with an
increased moment and subjected to the following conditions:
Mx My
i. If  '
h' b
Then increased single axis design moment is
h'
M  Mx   ' *My
'
x
b
Mx My
ii. If  ' then increased single axis design moment is
h' b
b'
M  M y   ' *Mx
'
y
h
The dimensions h’ and b’ are defined in the figure 8.74 and the coefficient β is specified in the table
3.22 of the code.

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 Figure 8.74

Table 3.22 of the code: Values of coefficient β for biaxial bending

N
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5  0.6
bhfcu

 1.00 0.88 0.77 0.65 0.53 0.42 0.30

Exercise:

The column section shown in the figure 8.75 is to be designed to resist an ultimate axial load of
1200kN plus moments of Mxx=75kNm and Myy=80kNm. The characteristic material strengths are
fcu=30N/mm2 and fy=460N/mm2.

Figure 8.75

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8.1.6 Design of slender columns
A column is classified as slender if the slenderness ratio about either axis is
>15 for a braced column
Or <10 for an non-braced column
There is a general restriction on the maximum slenderness of lo≯60 b ' and for an unbraced column
b '2
lo  100 ≯60 b '
h'
where lo is the clear distance between end restraints and b’ and h’ are respectively the smaller and
larger dimensions of the column section.

A slender column must be designed for an additional moment caused by its curvature at ultimate
conditions. The expressions given in BS8110 for the additional moments were derived by studying the
moments’ curvature behavior for a member subject to bending plus axial load. The equation for
calculating the design moments are only applicable the columns of rectangular or circular section and
with symmetrical reinforcement.
A slender column should be designed for an ultimate axial load (N) plus an increased moment given
by:
Mt=Mi +Madd
=Mi+N*au
Where
Mi -is the initial moment in the column
Madd -is the moment caused by the deflection of the column
au- is the deflection of the column
The deflection of rectangular or circular column is given by au   a Kh

1 le 2
The coefficient βa is calculated from equation  a  ( )
2000 b '
With b ' being generally the smallest dimension of the column section except when biaxial bending is
considered.
The value for K is given by the equation
N uz  N
K  1.0
N uz  N bal
N uz  0.45 f cu Ac  0.95 f y Asc
N bal  0.25 f cu Ac

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 h le 2
Therefore M t  M i  N * ( ) *K
2000 b '
In order to calculate K, the area Asc of the columns reinforcement must be known and hence the design
is first made with K=1 and then the K is corrected and a second design is made. The value of K
converges quickly to its final result.

[Link] Design moments in a braced column bent about a single axis

The distribution of moments over the height of a typical braced column in a concrete is shown in figure
3.20 in the code. The maximum additional moment occurs at the center of the column where the
deflection due to building is greatest. The initial moment at the point of maximum additional moment
is given in clause [Link] of the code by

Mi = 0.4M1 + 0.6M2 ≥ 0.4M2

Where M1 – is the smallest initial end moment and

M2 – is the largest initial end moment
M1 should be taken as negative and M2 as positive.
The code states that the maximum design moment is the greatest of the following:

M2

Mi+Madd

M add
M1 
2

emin*N,
Where emin is 0.05h or 20mm maximum.

[Link].1 Further provisions for slender columns

Further important provisions regarding the design of slender columns set out in BS8110:Part1, Clause
[Link] – [Link], are as follows:
a) Slender columns bent about a single axis (major or minor)
If the longer side h is less than three times the shortest side (h<3b) for columns bent about the major
axis and le/h≯20, the design moment is Mi+Madd as set out above.

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b) Columns where le/h>20 bent about the major axis

The section is to be designed for biaxial bending. The additional moment occurs about the minor axis.
c) Columns bent about their major axis
If h>3b, the section is to be designed for biaxial bending as in above.
d) Slender columns bent about both axes
Additional moments are to be calculated for both directions of bending. The additional moments are
added to the initial moments about each axis and the column is designed for biaxial bending.

[Link] Non-braced structures

The additional moment is assumed to occur at the stiffer end of the column. The additional moment at
the other end is reduced in proportion to the ratio of joint stiffnesses at the ends.

Exercise 1:

A braced column of 300*350 cross-section resists at the ultimate limit state an axial load of 1700kN
and end moments of 70kNm and 10kNm causing double curvature about the minor axis x-x as shown
in figure8.76. The column’s effective heights are lex=6.75m and ley=8.0m and the characteristic material
strengths fcu=30N/mm2 and fy 460N/mm2

Figure 8.76: Slender column example

Solution:

Slender ratios are:

lex/h= 6.75/0.3 = 22.5>15
ley/b= 8/0.45=17.8>15
Therefore the column is slender.
As the column is bent in double curvature
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M1= -10kNm and
Mi = 0.4M1+0.6M2 = 0.4*-10+0.6*70
= 38kNm
and Mi is therefore greater than 0.4M2.
The additional moment induced by deflection of the column is
Nh le 2
M add  ( ) *K
2000 b '
1700∗300 67502
= ∗ ∗ 1.0 ∗ 103
200 300

= 129kNm
With K=1.0 for the initial value.
For the first iteration the total moment is

Mt = Mi + Madd
= 38+129= 167kNm
1700∗103
N/bh= = 12.6
450∗300
167∗106
M/bh2 = 450∗3002 = 4.12

From the design chart No 22 (BS 8110:Part3)

100As/bh=3.2
And K=0.65
This new value for K is used to recalculate Madd and hence Mt for the second iteration. The design chart
is again used to determine 100Asc/bh and a new K is shown in the table 8.7.

Table 8.7
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
k Mt M/bh2 100Asc/bh K
1.0 167 4.12 3.2 0.65
0.65 122 3 2.2 0.6

The iteration are continued until the value of k in columns (1) and (5) of the table are in reasonable
agreement, which in this design occurs after two iterations. So that the steel area required is
Asc=2.2bh/100 =2.2*450*300/100=2970mm2

Exercise 2:

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Design the column length AB in the building frame shown in Figure 8.77 for the two cases where the
frame is braced and unbraced. The bending moment diagrams for the column bent about the YY axis
and the axial loads for dead, imposed and wind loads are shown in Figure 8.78.
The materials are grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement.

Figure 8.77: (a) Side elevation; (b) transverse frame; (c) column UU; (d) beam VV.

Figure 8.78: (a) Dead load; (b) imposed load; (c) wind load; (d) column section.

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 CHAPTER 9: DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS

9.1 Introduction
The main purpose of footings and other foundation systems is to transfer column loads safely to the
soil. Since, the soil bearing capacity is much lower than the concrete columns; the loads need to be
transferred safely to the soil by using larger areas usually called shallow foundations.

If the soil has low bearing capacity, on the applied loads are very large, it may be necessary to transfer
the load to a deeper soil through the use of piles or caissons usually called deep foundations.

Foundation design requires both a soil investigation, to determine the most suitable type of foundation,
and a structural design; to establish the depth and reinforcement of the different foundation elements. It
is customary for the geotechnical engineers to carry out the soil investigation, and propose the best
foundation system that fits a particular location. It is the responsibility of the structural engineer to
establish the size and amount of reinforcement for each component of the proposed foundation system.

9.2 Types of foundations

The choice of a particular type of foundation depends on a number of factors, such as the soil bearing
capacity, the water table, the magnitude of the loads that needs to be transferred to the soil, and site
constraints such as the existence of a property line.
Generally, foundations may be classified as follows:
 Shallow foundations: this type includes strip footing, isolated footings, combined footing, strap
footing, and raft footing.
 Deep foundation: this type includes isolated pile caps or raft on piles.

A strip footing: is used under reinforced concrete walls to distribute the vertical loads over the soil. The
load is transferred mainly in one direction perpendicular to the center line of the wall.

Isolated footings: are the most common type of foundations in ordinary structures. They used to
distribute column load on relatively large area of soil. They transfer the load in two directions.
If two columns or more are closely spaced or the required footing sizes overlap each other, the two
footings are combined in one big footing called combined footing.

If one of the footings is very close to a property line, then a stiff beam is used to connect this column to
an interior column. This type is called strap footing.

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If the applied loads are heavy or more than 60% of the isolated footings overlap, a raft foundation is
used to support the entire structure.
This is similar to an inverted flat slab in which it contains column and field strips. Finally, if the
applied loads are large or weak soil encountered, it may be practical to support the structure into deeper
more stiff soil through the use of pile foundations. Pile caps are used to distribute column loads to a
group of piles.

9.3 Isolated pad bases (isolated footings)

Isolated pad bases (=isolated footing or pad foundations) are square or rectangular slabs provided under
individual columns. They spread the concentrated column load safely to the ground and may be axially
or eccentrically loaded. When only concentric vertical loading is applied, square pads are used,
assuming a uniform pressure under the whole base area. If the loading is eccentric or if a moment is
applied to the base then it is more efficient to adopt a rectangular base. In this case the pressure under
the base is assumed to very linearly.

9.3.1 Axially loaded pad bases

The following symbols are used:

Gk – characteristic dead load from the column (kN)
Qk – characteristic imposed load from the column (kN)
W – Weight of the base (kN)
Lx, ly – base length and breadth (m)
Pb – safe bearing pressure (kN/m2)
The areas of the bases in contact with the ground should be such that the safe bearing pressures will not
be exceeded. The design loading to be considered when calculating the base areas should be those
that apply to the serviceability limit state, and typical values that can be taken are:
(1) Dead plus imposed load: 1.0Gk+1.0Qk
(2) Dead plus wind load: 1.0Gk+1.0Wk
(3) Dead plus imposed plus wind load: 1.0Gk+0.8Qk+0.8Wk

These partial factors of safety are suggested as it is highly unlikely that the maximum imposed load and
the worst wind load will occur simultaneously.
It may be necessary to check the possibility of uplift on the foundations and the stability of the structure
when it is subjected to lateral loads. To ensure adequate safety, the stability calculations should also be
for the loading arrangement associated with the ultimate limit state.
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The critical loading arrangement is usually the combination of maximum lateral load with minimum
dead load and no live load that is 1.4 Wk + 1.0Gk.
Minimum dead load can sometimes occur during erection when many of the interior finishes and
fixtures may not have been installed.
The area required is found from the characteristic loads including the weight of base:
Gk  Qk  W
Area   lx * l y m2
pb
The weight of the footing and the soil above is about 5%-10% of the column load. The design of the
base is made for the ultimate load delivered to the base by the column shaft, i.e. the design load is
1.4Gk+1.6Qk.
The critical sections in design are set out in clause [Link] and 3.11.3 of the code and are as follows.

(a) Bending
The critical section is at the face of the column on a pad footing or the wall in a strip footing. The
moment is taken on a section passing completely across a pad footing and is due to the ultimate loads
on one side of the section. No redistribution of moments should be made. The critical sections are x-x
and y-y in the figure 9.79.

Figure 9.79: Critical section for bending moment calculation

(b) Distribution of reinforcement

Refer to the figure 9.80. The code states that where lc exceeds (3c/4+9d/4), two thirds of the required
reinforcement for the given direction should be concentrated within a zone from the centerline of the
column to a distance 1.5d from the face of the column (c-is the column width, d- is the effective depth
of the base slab and lc-is half the spacing between column centers(if more than one) or the distance to
the edge of the pad, whichever is the greater). Otherwise the reinforcement may be distributed
uniformly over lc.

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 Figure 9.80: Base reinforcement

(c) Shear on vertical section across full width of base

Figure 9.81: Critical section for shear force calculation

The vertical shear force is the sum of the loads acting outside the section considered. The shear stress is
V
 where l is the length or width of the base.
ld
If the shear stress is checked at d from the support and  is less than the value of  c from table 3.9 of
the code, no shear reinforcement is required and no further checks are needed. If shear reinforcement is
required, refer to table 3.17 of the code.

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It is normal practice to make the base sufficiently deep so that shear reinforcement is not required. The
depth of the base is controlled by the design for shear. The thickness of the plain concrete footing is
usually assumed from 250-500 mm depending on the soil type and the magnitude of the applied loads.

(d) Punching shear around the loaded area

Figure 9.82: Critical section for punching shear force calculation

The punching shear force is the sum of the loads outside the periphery of the critical section. The shear
stress is checked on the perimeter at 1.5d from the face of column. If the shear stress  is less than the
value of c in the table 3.9 no shear reinforcement is needed and no further checks are required. If shear
reinforcement is required refer to clause [Link] of the code. The maximum shear stress at the column
face must not exceed 0.8 f cu1/ 2 or 5 N mm2 .

e) Anchorage of column starter bars

The code states in clause [Link] that the compression bond stresses that develop on starter bars within
bases, do not to be checked provided that :

(1) The starter bars extend down to the level of the bottom reinforcement.
(2) The base has been designed for the moments and shear set out above
f) Cracking
See rules for slabs in clause [Link].7 of the code. The bar spacing is not to exceed 3d or 750mm.
g) Minimum grade of concrete
The minimum grade of grade of concrete to be used in foundation is grade35.

h) Nominal cover

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Clause [Link] of the states that the minimum cover should be 75mm if the concrete is cast directly
against the earth or 40mm if cast against adequate blinding. Table 3.2 of the code classes non-
aggressive soil as a moderate exposure condition.

Exercise:

A column 400mmx400mm carries a dead load of 800kN and an imposed load of 300kN. The safe
bearing pressure is 200kN/m2. Design a square base to resist the loads. The concrete is grade 35 and the
reinforcement grade 460N/mm2.

9.4 Eccentrically loaded Pad bases

9.4.1 Vertical pressure

Figure 9.83: Vertical pressure

The characteristic loads on the base are the axial load P, moment M and horizontal load H as shown in
figure 9.83.
The base dimensions are length l, width b and depth h.
area A=b*l
modulus Z=bl2/6
The total load is P+W and the moment at the underside of the base is M+H*h. The maximum earth
P  W M  Hh
pressure is Pmax  
A Z
This should not exceed the safe bearing pressure. The eccentricity of the resultant reaction is
M  Hh
e
P W

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If e<l/6 there is pressure over the whole of the base, as shown in figure 9.83(b)
If e>l/6 part of the base does not bear on the ground, as shown in figure 9.83(a).
2( P  W )
In this case c  l 2  e and the length in bearing is 3c. The maximum pressure is Pmax 
3bc
Sometimes a base can be set eccentric to the column by, say ei to offset the moments due to permanent
loads and gives uniform pressure

Figure 9.84: (a) Bearing on part of base; (b) base set eccentric to column

M  Hh
Eccentricity ei 
P
9.4.2 Resistance to the horizontal loads

Horizontal loads applied to bases are resisted by pressure earth against the end of the base, friction
between the base and the ground for cohesionless soils such as sand or adhesive for cohesive soils such
as clay. In general, the load will be resisted by the combination of all actions. The ground floor slab can
also be used to resist horizontal load. Formulae from soil mechanics for calculating the resistance
forces are given for the cases of cohesive and cohesive soils.

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 Figure 9.85: (a) Base; (b) cohesionless soil; (c) cohesive soil.

(a) Cohesion less soils

Refer to the figure 9.85(b). Denote the angle of the internal friction and the soil density 𝛾. The
1  sin 
passive earth pressure p at depth hp is given by: p  h p
1  sin 
If p1 and p2 are passive earth pressures at the top and bottom of the base, then the passive resistance is:
p1  p2
p  h( ) where b* h=base breadth*base depth
2
If 𝝁 is the coefficient of friction between the base and the ground, generally taken as tan the
frictional resistance is R3   ( p  w)

(b) Cohesive soils

Refer to figure 9.85(c). For the cohesive soils =0. Denote the cohesion at zero normal pressure C and
the adhesion between the base and the load β. The resistance of the base to horizontal load is:

R=R2+R4+R3
R=2Cbh+0.5hb (p3+p4) + βLb
Where p3= 𝛾h1 (passive pressure at the top)
p4=𝛾h2 (passive pressure at the bottom)
L=length of the base

The resistance forces to the horizontal loads derived above should exceed the factored horizontal loads
applied to the foundation. Wind load has to be resisted by passive earth pressure, friction or adhesion.

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9.4.3 Structural design

The structural design of a base subjected to ultimate loads is carried out for the ultimate loads and
moments delivered to the base by the column shaft.

Exercise:
The characteristic loads for the internal column footing in a building are given in the table 9.8.

Type of load Vertical load (kN) Horizontal load (kN) Moment (kNm)
Dead 770 35 78
Imposed 330 15 34

Table 9.8

The proposed dimensions for the column and the base are:
Base: length=3600
Width=2000
Column: 450x450
The soil is firm well-drained clay with the following properties:
Density: 18kN/m3
Safe bearing pressure 150kN/m2
Cohesion 60kN/m2
The materials to be used in the foundation are grade 35 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement.
Design the base.

9.4 Combined bases

When two columns are close together and separate footings would overlap, a combined base can be
used. If possible, the base is arranged so that its centerline coincides with the center of gravity of the
loads because this will give a uniform pressure on the soil.
In a general case with an eccentric arrangement of loads, moments of forces are taken about the centre
of the base and the maximum soil pressure is determined from the total vertical load and moment at the
underside of the base. The pressure is assumed to vary uniformly along the length of the base.

In the longitudinal direction the actions for design may be found from statics. At any section the shear
is the sum of forces and the moment the sum of the moments of all the forces on one side of the
section.

Design Standard-BS 8110:1997 Page107

ULK POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE/C.E. Dept NKIRANUYE BONAVENTURE
In the transverse direction, the critical moment and shear are determined in the same way as for a pad
footing, the critical shears at the column face and at 1.5times the effective depth from the column face
must be also checked.

Exercise:

Design a rectangular base to support two columns carrying the following loads.
Column1 Dead load 310kN, Imposed load 160kN,
Column2 Dead load 430kN, Imposed load 220kN.
The columns are each 350mm square and are spaced at 2.5m centers. The width of the base is not to
exceed 2.0m. The safe bearing pressure on the ground is 180kN/m2. The materials are grade 35
concrete and grade 460 reinforcement.

Design Standard-BS 8110:1997 Page108

ULK POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE/C.E. Dept NKIRANUYE BONAVENTURE