Introduction to Computer networks

UNIT 1
Computer Network
• A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to share
information and resources.
• The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable media or
wireless media.
• The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Advantages of Computer Networks

• File sharing
The major advantage of a computer network is that allows file sharing and remote file access. A person
sitting at one workstation that is connected to a network can easily see files present on another workstation,
provided he is authorized to do so.
• Resource sharing
All computers in the network can share resources such as printers, fax machines, modems, and scanners.
Better connectivity and communications
It allows users to connect and communicate with each other easily. Various communication
applications included e-mail and groupware are used. Through e-mail, members of a network can send a
message and ensure safe delivery of data to other members, even in their absence.
• Internet access
Computer networks provide internet service over the entire network. Every single computer attached
to the network can experience the high-speed internet.
• Entertainment
Many games and other means of entertainment are easily available on the internet.
Furthermore, Local Area Networks (LANs) offers and facilitates other ways of enjoyments, such as many
players are connected through LAN and play a particular game with each other from a remote location.
Inexpensive system
Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files mean reduction in memory
requirement, which indirectly means a reduction in file storage expenses. A particular software can be
installed only once on the server and made available across all connected computers at once. This saves the
expense of buying and installing the same software as many times for as many users.
• Flexible access
A user can log on to a computer anywhere on the network and access his files. This offers
flexibility to the user as to where he should be during the course of his routine.
• Instant and multiple access
Computer networks are multiple processes. Many users can access the same information at the
same time. Immediate commands such as printing commands can be made with the help of
computer networks.

Disadvantages of Computer Networks

• Lack of data security and privacy
Because there would be a huge number of people who would be using a computer network to
get and share some of their files and resources, a certain user’s security would be always at risk. There
might even be illegal activities that would occur, which you need to be careful about and aware of.
• Presence of computer viruses and malware
If even one computer on a network gets affected by a virus, there is a possible threat for the
other systems getting affected too. Viruses can spread on a network easily, because of the inter-
connectivity of workstations. Moreover, multiple systems with common resources are the perfect
breeding ground for viruses that multiply
 Lack of Independence
Since most networks have a centralized server and dependent clients, the client users lack any
freedom whatsoever. Centralized decision making can sometimes hinder how a client user wants to
use his own computer.
• Lack of Robustness
As previously stated, if a computer network’s main server breaks down, the entire system would become
useless. Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking server that fails, the entire network would also
come to a standstill.
• Need an efficient handler
For a computer network to work efficiently and optimally, it requires high technical skills and know-
how of its operations and administration. A person just having basic skills cannot do this job. Take note that
the responsibility to handle such a system is high, as allotting permissions and passwords can be daunting.
Similarly, network configuration and connection is very tedious and cannot be done by an average
technician who does not have advanced knowledge.
Use (Applications) of Computer Networks
• Financial services
Nowadays, almost all the financial services depend on the computer network. You can access the
financial services across the world. For example, a user can transfer money from one place to another by
using the electronic fund transfer feature. You can use networking in various financial areas such as
ATM, foreign exchange and credit history search.
• Business
Nowadays, most of the works of businesses are done over the computers. To exchange the data
and ideas, you need effective data and resources sharing features. To do this, you need to connect
the computer with each other through a network. For example, a person of one department of an
organization can share or access the electronic data of other departments through a network.
Email services
A computer network provides you the facility to send or receive emails across the globe in few
seconds.
• Mobile applications
By using mobile applications, such as cellular or wireless phones, you can communicate
(exchange your views and ideas) with one other.
• Directory services
It provides you the facility to store files on a centralized location to increase the speed of search
operation worldwide.
• Teleconferencing
It contains voice conferencing and video conferencing which are based on networking. In
teleconferencing, the participants need not be presented at the same location

Types of Computer Networks

LAN (Local Area Network)

• It is privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.

• They are widely used to connect personal computers
and workstations in company offices and factories to
share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
• LANs are easy to design and troubleshoot
• In LAN, all the machines are connected to a single
cable.
• Different types of topologies such as Bus, Ring, Star,
and Tree are used.
• The data transfer rates for LAN is up to 10 Gbits/s.
• They transfer data at high speeds. The high transmission
rate is possible in LAN because of the short distance
between various computer networks.
• They exist in a limited geographical area.
• Advantages
➢ LAN transfers data at high speed.
➢ LAN technology is generally less expensive.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

• MAN is a larger version of LAN which covers an area that is larger than the covered by LAN but smaller
than the area covered by WAN.
• A metropolitan area network or MAN covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the cable
television network available in many cities.
• MAN connects two or more LANs.
• At first, the companies began jumping into the business, getting contracts from city
governments to wire up an entire city.
• The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only

WAN (Wide Area Network)

• WAN spans a large geographical area, often a country or region.

• WAN links different metropolitan's countries and national boundaries thereby enabling easy
communication.
• It may be located entirely within a state or a country or it may be interconnected around the
world.
• It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs.
We will follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts.
• The communication between different users of WAN is established using leased telephone
lines or satellite links and similar channels.

PAN (Personal Area Network)

  It is the smallest network of computers.
 Bluetooth or other infrared-enabled devices could be used to connect devices.
 It has a 10-metre range of connectivity.
 It can cover up to 30 feet in diameter.
 PAN network enables a single person's personal devices to connect with each other.

Campus Area Network (CAN)

It is a group of interconnected Local Area Networks (LAN) within a limited geographical area like school
campus, university campus, military bases, or organizational campuses and corporate buildings etc. A
Campus Area Network is larger than Local Area Network but smaller than Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN).
Campus Area Network is network of interconnected Local Area Networks where these LANs are connected
via Switches and routers and create a single network like CAN. Campus Area Network covers areas of
around 1 to 5 km range and it can be both wired or wireless connectivity.

The Network Edge

• It defines those computers of the network used at the edge (end) of the network. These computers
are known as hosts or end system.
• A host can be classified into the following two types:
➢ Clients: Refer to the computer systems that request servers for the completion of a task.
The clients are generally called desktop PCs or workstations.
➢ Servers: Refer to the computer systems that receive requests from the clients and
process them. After the processing is complete, the servers send a reply to the clients
who sent the request.
The concept of clients and servers is essential in the network design. The various networks.
design models are as follows:
1. Peer to Peer network
2. Client-Server network

Peer to Peer network

• In this network group of computers is connected together so that users can share resources and
information.
• There is no central location (server) for authenticating users, storing files, or accessing resources and each
of them works as both client and server.
• This means that users must remember which computers in the workgroup have the shared resource
or information that they want to access.
• Advantage:
➢ It is easy to set up.
➢ There is no need for any committed server as each peer acts as both server and client.
➢ The network implementation is quite cheap.
➢ The resources of a peer can be shared with other peers very easily in the network.

• Disadvantage:
➢ The speed of the network decreases due to heavy usage.
➢ It is not easy to keep track of information on each computer.
➢ There is no central backup of files and folders.
➢ Network and data security are weak.

Client/Server network
• A client/server network is a system where one or more computers called clients to connect to a central
computer named as a server to share or use resources.
• The client requests a service from a server, which may include running an application,
querying a database, printing a document, performing a backup or recovery procedure. The
request made by the client is handled by a server.
• A client/server network is that in which the files and resources are centralized. This means
that the server can hold them and other computers (Client) can access them.

• Advantage:
➢ The server system holds the shared files.
➢ The server system can be scheduled to take the file backups automatically.
Network access is provided only to authorized users through user security at the
server.
➢ The server system is a kind of central repository for sharing a printer with clients.
➢ Internet access, e-mail routing, and such other networking tasks are quite easily
managed by the server.
➢ The software applications shared by the server are accessible to the clients.

• Disadvantage:
➢ The implementation of the network is quite expensive.
➢ An NOS (Network Operating System) is essential.
➢ If a server fails, the entire network crashes.
➢ There may be congestion if more than one client requests for a service at the same
Time.

Topologies (Network Topologies)

• Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
• A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are connected to
each other.
Types of network topologies
1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology

Bus topology
Bus topology, alternatively known as line topology, is a type of network topology where all devices on a
network are connected to a single cable, called a bus or backbone. This cable serves as a shared
communication line, allowing all devices (computers, printers, etc.) to receive the same signal
simultaneously.
Bus topology is bi-directional, i.e., data is transmitted in both directions on the backbone cable to ensure it
reaches the recipient, regardless of its position on the bus. Depending on the type of network card, a twisted-
pair cable ( RJ-45 network cable) or a coaxial cable is utilized as a bus (backbone cable) to link network
devices, computers or nodes together.
Advantages of Bus topology
 Less cabling: A single cable connects all nodes in a bus topology.
 Easy to install: This topology is easy to install and requires minimal configuration.
 Less Expensive: Bus topology is cheaper because it uses a common cable for data transmission.
 Fast: This topology provides high-speed data transfer as there are no intermediary devices between
the nodes.
 Upgradeable: A new node can be added or removed in this topology without affecting the other
nodes.
 Small network: This is best suited for situations where only a few computers are required for
connection establishment.
 Scalable: It can be easily scaled up by adding repeaters or hubs to extend the network's range.
 Efficient: Bus topology is an efficient way of transmitting data, allowing multiple nodes to transmit
data simultaneously.
 Reliable: Since all the nodes are connected to a single wire, it provides redundancy and ensures that
the network remains operational even if one node fails.
Disadvantages of Bus topology

Core failure: The entire network will fail if the central cable (bus or backbone) gets damaged or
faulty.
 Low security: This is a notable security issue. All nodes in the network can hear what data is
transmitted to other nodes in the network.
 Limited speed: The network's performance decreases as the number of devices connected increases,
as all devices share the same bandwidth.
 Not suitable for large networks: Due to cable length limitations, bus topology is unsuitable for
large networks.

Star Topology
The star topology is a standard and popular network setup. it is also known as a star network in
terms. This topology is a network topology in which each piece of the network each attached to a central
node. This central node is called a switch or a hub. In this network configuration, every node connects to a
central network device like a switch, hub, or computer.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. User friendly:
Without affecting the rest of the network, the new nodes can be added easily to the star topology. In that
manner, we can easily remove the components in it. So it is convenient to add more computers to the
network. It also becomes easier to replace a damaged unit to maintain our productivity levels.
2. Centralized network:
The network is monitored with the help of a centralized management system using the hub, central
computer, or switch.
3. Very reliable:
When a device or a cable fails, then the other devices which are connected to it will Work. Hence the rest of
the network is not affected by the failure of one node or link.
4. Highly efficient:
Within the star topology, when each device is connected to the central core with the help of cables, then the
chances of collision of data are relatively lower. From that, it means the system's performance level is higher
than expected compared to other network designs.
5. Easily manageable:
Within the star topology, fault detection is easily manageable. It is because the link is often easily identified.
On the other hand, in the star topology, troubleshooting and detecting failure is very easy.
6. No point-to-point connection:
A start apology system is very useful for networks that are practical of any size. Within this network, the
signal reflection is at zero risk. With the help of point-based communication connections and unicast
communication, it creates a secure way to transmit data packets.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
Like many advantages of a star topology, there are also many disadvantages. The disadvantages of star
topology are given below;
1. High cost:
Within the star topology implementation of a router or switch, it's very costly, especially when using a router
or a switch as the central network device.
2. Central device Dependency:
Within the star topology, when a hub malfunctions, then everything goes down because no devices can work
without a hub. The main negative point in this whole network is when the central device goes down or fails,
the whole system goes down.
3. High maintenance:
Within the star topology, regular maintenance and more resources are required by the hub because it is the
central system of the star.
4. Prone to damage:
Within the star topology, more potential damage exposure is created by the cables are wires used in it.
It needs to go behind under floors, walls, and through other obstacles To reach the intended peripherals or
workstations. Also, if the LAN needs installation work on the exterior building, it becomes susceptible to
changing wildlife impacts or weather conditions.
5. Low data transfer rates in the wireless system:
To manage heavy loads when we require a network,
Then a wired star topology system works better instead of a wireless one. A wireless LAN (WLAN) mobs
much slower, so the risk of a bottleneck rises.
6. Immobile network system:
Although wireless star topology systems are available today, We are the most dependent on wired
connections. So that it means the fixed length of the cable restricts the movement of the individual
employees. Dramatically over time, this type of issue can reduce the level of productivity because one gets
bound to sit at a particular distance from the central hub of the network system.

Ring Topology
In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in such a way that they make a closed loop.
Each workstation is connected to two other components on either side, and it communicates with these two
adjacent neighbors. Data travels around the network, in one direction.
Token contains a piece of information which along with data is sent by the source computer. This token then
passes to next node, which checks if the signal is intended to it. If yes, it receives it and passes the empty to
into the network, otherwise passes token along with the data to next node. This process continues until the
signal reaches its intended destination.
The nodes with token are the ones only allowed to send data. Other nodes have to wait for an empty token to
reach them. This network is usually found in offices, schools and small buildings.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1) This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it receives an
empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision. Also in ring topology all the traffic flows in only
one direction at very high speed.
2) Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of Bus topology.
3) There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
4) Additional components do not affect the performance of network. 5) Each computer has equal access to
resources.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1) Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination. This makes it
slower than Star topology.
2) If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
3) Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.
Tree Topology
Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus Topology. Earlier we saw how in Physical Star
network Topology, computers (nodes) are connected by each other through central hub. And we also saw in
Bus Topology, work station devices are connected by the common cable called Bus. After understanding
these two network configurations, we can understand tree topology better. In Tree Topology, the number of
Star networks is connected using Bus. This main cable seems like a main stem of a tree, and other star
networks as the branches. It is also called Expanded Star Topology.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. It is an extension of Star and bus Topologies, so in networks where these topologies can't be implemented
individually for reasons related to scalability, tree topology is the best alternative.
2. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
3. Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star networks), which can be easily managed and
maintained.
4. Error detection and correction is easy.
5. Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central hub.
6. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it breaks whole
network is crippled.
2. As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.
3. Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.
Mesh Topology
In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are interconnected with
one another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other nodes. In fact a true
mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network. This type of
topology is very expensive as there are many redundant connections, thus it is not mostly used in computer
networks. It is commonly used in wireless networks. Flooding or routing technique is used in mesh
topology.
Advantages of Mesh topology
1) Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology can withstand high traffic.
2) Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So data transfer doesn’t get
affected.
3) Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
1) There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.
2) Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.
3) Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the network is tough.
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid, as the name suggests, is mixture of two different things. Similarly in this type of topology we
integrate two or more different topologies to form a resultant topology which has good points(as well as
weaknesses) of all the constituent basic topologies rather than having characteristics of one specific
topology. This combination of topologies is done according to the requirements of the organization. For
example, if there exists a ring topology in one office department while a bus topology in another
department, connecting these two will result in Hybrid topology. Remember connecting two similar
topologies cannot be termed as Hybrid topology. Star-Ring and Star-Bus networks are most common
examples of hybrid network.
Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology
1) Reliable : Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type of topology. The
part in which fault is detected can be isolated from the rest of network and required corrective measures can
be taken, WITHOUT affecting the functioning of rest of the network.
2) Scalable: Its easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without disturbing existing
architecture.
3) Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the organization and by
optimizing the available resources. Special care can be given to nodes where traffic is high as well as where
chances of fault are high.
4) Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more topologies, so we can design it in such a
way that strengths of constituent topologies are maximized while there weaknesses are neutralized. For
example we saw Ring Topology has good data reliability (achieved by use of tokens) and Star topology has
high tolerance capability (as each node is not directly connected to other but through central device), so
these two can be used effectively in hybrid star-ring topology.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1) Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawback of hybrid topology is its design. Its not easy to
design this type of architecture and its a tough job for designers. Configuration and installation process
needs to be very efficient.
2) Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensive. These hubs are
different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with different architectures and
should be function even if a part of network is down.
3) Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they require a lot of cables,
cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single medium. The
process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is
known as a multiplexer.
Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines to
generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.
Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving
end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say
that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the signals to
form a composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a signal to
component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.
Advantages of Multiplexing:
o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.
Types of Multiplexing

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a single
transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.
 o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency channels,
and each frequency channel is given to different devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of range
from 1 to 5.
o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation techniques, and they are
combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different frequency channels
and allocate them to different devices.
o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency bands and then
combined to form a composite signal.
o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers. They are
represented as f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are transmitted
through the fibre optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with the help of
multiplexer.
o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their respective
destinations
Time Division Multiplexing
o It is a digital technique.
o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with different
frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same
frequency with different time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is distributed
among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time interval known as a Time
slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the data is
transmitted one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of time slots in
which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex digital
signals.
There are two types of TDM:
o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM
o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.
o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that the device
contains the data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized in the form of
frames. If a device does not have data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be
transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and SONET
multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
Concept Of Synchronous TDM

In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device is allocated with some
time slot. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether the sender has data to send or not.

OSI Model:
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to
the software application in another computer.
 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Sta dardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
  OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

 The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
 The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they
are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the
end user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer
refers to the layer just above another layer.
 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and
the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest
layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly
responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.
7 Layers of OSI Model:
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. Lists of seven layers are given
below:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
1) Physical layer:
  The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It establishes, maintains a nd deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
Line Configuration: It
defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.

Data Transmission: It d efines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or

full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
2) Data-Link Layer:

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of th e data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device t at resides on a local
network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer:
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the

receiver t at is receiving.
h
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.

o It also provides flow control.

 o Media Access Control Layer:
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logi cal Link Control layer
and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer:
 Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as
Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is
added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.


 Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The
frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
 Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no
data
get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing
speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
 Error Control: Error c
ontrol is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then the
receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
 Access Control: When
two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over
the link at a given time.
3) Network Layer:
  It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service and other factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices; they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing
services within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of Network Layer:
 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It
provides a logical connection between different devices.
 Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of
the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
 Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the
best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
 Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper la er
y and converts them
into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
4) Transport Layer:

 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known
as segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
o Transmission Control Protocol:
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data
into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using
multiple routes and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The
transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the
receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol:
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer:
Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this
reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to
another computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the
header that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The
responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another
computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct
process.
Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the
upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with
a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at
the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence
numbers.
Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet,
and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service
makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the
packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-
end rather than across a single link.
 Error control: The tran sport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures
that message reach at the destination without any error.
5) Session Layer:

 It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be
either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when trans mitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission
will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and
recovery.
6) Presentation Layer:

 A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
  This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from ne presentation format
o to another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods,
the
presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It
converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
 Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting
the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over
the network.
 Compression: Data co mpression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as
text, audio, video.
7) Application Layer:

 An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
 File transfer, access and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a rem ote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the
files in a remote computer.
 Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
  Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.
TCP/IP Model:
1. The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
2. The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
3. The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer,
data link layer and physical layer.
4. The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four
layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the appli ation layer.
5. TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides
specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level
protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer:

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the
OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data sh ould be sent physically through the network.
 o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the
same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer:
 An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

 IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP
addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide
internetwork routing.
 Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
 Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer
protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely; it encapsulates
the data into message known as IP datagram.
 Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data
link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram
is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so
that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or
intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an
original message.
 Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is
known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the
IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through
various devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol:

 ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

 ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
address.
 The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it
broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and
process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and send back its
physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address
both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol:

 ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

 It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram
problems back to the sender.
 A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable
to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on
fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the
datagram is undeliverable.
 An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:

ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.

 The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them. The
responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
 ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because
the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the router
that it is passed to.

Transport Layer:

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control and correction of data which
is being sent over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission control
protocol.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP):

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.

o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error and ICMP protocol reports the error to
the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application
program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the
application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not
contain any ID of a data segment.

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):

1. It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

2. It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for
the duration of the transmission.
3. TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ens ures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
 4. At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.
5. At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.

Application Layer:
 An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
 This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
 When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it
forwards its data to the transport layer.
 There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system.
 For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser
using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application
layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

 HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data
over the World Wide Web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is
known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext
environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
 SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
 SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the
e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to
another e-mail address.
 DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection
of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses.
Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
 TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between
the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be
a terminal at the remote system.
 FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
Transmission media:
What is Transmission media?
 Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender
to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
 The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form
of bits through LAN (Local Area Network).
 It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
 In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
 In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
 In OSI (Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer 1.
Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
 The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere, water
and vacuum.
 The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the characteristics of
medium and signal.
 Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media,
medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics
are more important.
 Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and
ease of installation and maintenance.
 The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model,
i.e., Physical layer.
Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:
o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a medium,
the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the transmitted one
due to the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will get destroyed due to
transmission impairment.
o Interference: Interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it travels over
a communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.
Causes of Transmission Impairment:

Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal decreases
with increasing the dista ce which causes the loss of energy.
n
Distortion: Distortion o curs when there is a change in the shape of the signal. This type of
c
distortion is examined from different signals having different frequencies. Each frequency
component has its own propagation speed, so they reach at a different time which leads to the
delay distortion.
Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwa nted signal is added to
it which creates the noise.
Classification of Transmission Media:

1. Guided Transmission Media

2. Unguided Transmission Media
Guided Media:
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also known as
Bounded media.
Types of Guided media:
Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical medi a made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted pair
cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy,
and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
The degree of reduction in n oise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot.
Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following ar
e the categories of the
unshielded twisted pair cable:
 Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed
ata.
 Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
 Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.

 Category 4: It can su port upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
p
communication.
 Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
1. It is cheap.
2. Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
3. It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
Shielded Twisted Pair:
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher
transmission rate.
Characteristics of Shielded Twisted Pair:
 The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
 An installation of STP is easy.
  It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
 It has a higher attenuation.
 It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages:
It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial Cable:
 Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a
coaxial cable.
 The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
 It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
 The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is
made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that
separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
 The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents
from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high
speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
Advantages of Coaxial cable:
 The data can be transmitted at high speed.
 It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
 It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Coaxial cable:
o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
Fibre Optic:
 Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
  Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send
the data by pulses of light.
 The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
 Fibre optics provides faster data transmission than copper wires.
Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

1. Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core
is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the more light will be
transmitted into the fibre.
2. Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the
cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the
reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
3. Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose of
a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre protection.
Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:
 Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared copper.
Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
 Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the fibre optic
cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
 Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as compared to
copper cable.
 Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is immune
to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
 Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can withstand
more pull pressure than copper cable.
Unguided Transmission:
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any
physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow easily.
Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
1. Radio waves:
1. Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of
free space.
2. Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
3. The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
4. In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave
sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
5. An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications of Radio waves:

 A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
 An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages of Radio transmission:
 Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile ce lular phones.
 Radio waves cover a large area and they can penetrate the walls.
 Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
2. Microwaves:
Microwaves are of two types:
1. Terrestrial microwave
2. Satellite microwave communication.
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission:
 Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a
radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
 Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz to
1000 GHz.
 Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the
waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focused.
 In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which
is km away.
 It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are
the direct sight of each other.
Characteristics of Microwave:
 Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23
GHz.
 Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
 Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
 Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
 Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions and
antenna size.
Advantages of Microwave:
Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of
cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
 Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can
catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
 Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
 Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather
condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the
 signal.

 Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.

 Satellite Microwave Communication
 A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
 Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and
fibre optic systems.
 We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the signal.
The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

Advantages of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of
the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal
broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave Communication:
 Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
 The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains
in orbit.
 The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the
satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.
Infrared:
1. An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short ranges.
2. The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
3. It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell phones, TV
remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides in the same
closed area.
Characteristics of Infrared:
 It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
 Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in one
 room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.

 An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.

 Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will interfere
with the infrared waves.
Multiplexing:
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single
medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing
and hardware used for
multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
n a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that co m
Multiplexing is achieved by using
bines n input lines to
generate a single output line.
Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output
line.
Demultiplexing is achieved by
using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the
receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one
nput and n outputs).
Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.
Why Multiplexing?
 o m is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The medium can
The transmission medium
only have one signal at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in such
a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For example: If there
are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each
signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.
Concept of Multiplexing:

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the
signals to form a composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a signal
to component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.

Advantages of Multiplexing:
o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.
Multiplexing Techniques:
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM):

  It is an analog technique.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a single
transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.

 In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided i to several frequency

channels, and each frequency channel is given to different devices. Device 1 has a frequency
channel of range from 1 to 5.
 The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation techniques and they
are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
 The main aim of the F DM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different frequency
channels and allocate them to different devices.
 Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency bands
and then combined to form a composite signal.
 The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers. They are
represented as f1, f2… fn.
 FDM is mainly used in r adio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages of FDM:
 FDM is used for analog signals.
 FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
 A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
 It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
Disadvantages of FDM:
  FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
 It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
 A Large number of modulators are required.
 It requires a high bandwidth channel.
Applications of FDM:
o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
o It is used in FM and A
M broadcasting. Each FM radio station has diff rent frequencies, and
they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in the
air.
Wavelength Division Multiple x ing (WDM):

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are
 transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
 WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.

 It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
 It is an analog multiplexing technique.
 Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with the
help of multiplexer.
 At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their respective
destinations.
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
 Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals to form a
composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical
 v a re erse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.
cable. Prism also performs

Time Division Multiplexing:

o It is a digital technique.
o In Frequency Division
Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with
different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate
at the same frequency with different time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is distributed
among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time interval known as
a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing
p technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the
data is transmitted one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contai an cycle of time slots
in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex digital
signals.
There are two types of TDM:
1. Synchronous TDM
2. Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM:
 A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.
 In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that the
device contains the data or not.
 If the device does not hav e any data, then the slot will remain empty.
 In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized in the
form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot
will be transmitted.
 The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing and SONET
multiplexing.
 If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Disadvantages of Synchronous TDM:

The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also transmitted which
is having no data. In the above figure, the first frame is completely filled, but in the last two
frames, some slots are empty. Therefore, we can say that the capacity of the channel is not
utilized efficiently.
The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the input lines.
An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time Division
Multiplexing.
Asynchronous TDM:
 An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
 An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case of
Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data to
send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the
data from active workstations.
 An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
  In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity of the
channel.
 Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data treams
s and creates a
frame that contains only data with no empty slots.
 In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the source of the
data.

Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many slots in

 The difference between
Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized. This
leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of the channel.
 In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In
Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots where m is
less than n (m<n).
 The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of then umber of input lines.
Concept of Asynchronous TDM:

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending t he data, i.e., A and C.
Therefore, the data of A and C are only transmitted through the transmission line.
Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

The above figure shows that the data part contains the address to determine the source of the data.