CEC331 4G/5G COMMUNICATION NETWORKS CKCET

CEC331 - 4G / 5G COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

UNIT IV DYNAMIC SPECTRUM MANAGEMENT AND MM-WAVES

Mobility management, Command and control, spectrum sharing and spectrum trading, cognitive radio
based on 5G, millimeter waves.

Mobility Management

Basically, mobility management is a function belonging to GSM or UMTS cellular

networks. The primary task of the mobile management function is detecting the locations of
the users and tracing them in order to provide cellular network service. Actually, mobility is
the feature that enables users to connect to the network from anywhere. In a case without
mobility management, subscribers would need to change their services or SIM cards when they
change their location. That is, owing to mobility management functions, connection and
communication constancy, reliability, and performance were provided.

Location Management

Location management function is responsible for location update and paging. The UE
notifies the network that it belongs to about its location by transmitting signals. That is, MS
(Mobile Station) gives location information to the network according to update procedures.
These update signals might be sent only when location is changed or periodically. By
evaluating these location signals, the network operates call delivery or paging process.

Handover Management

Handover management is the system guaranteeing that mobile station has continuous
connection to the network during mobility. That is, it is a process that manages routing data
packets or the connection between MS and network from an AP (Access Point) to another AP.
Handover is performed in order to refresh the receiving signal, balance the load, reduce the
cost, decrease energy consumption. The whole handover process can be described in three
stages. First is initiating handover, second is preparation for handover. In the preparation step,
network should make a decision about new target resource for connection and the operations
needed to establish new connections. And, the last stage of the handover process is the
execution of the operation. This execution should be held according to connection protocols
and handover procedures to fulfill the QoS requirements. Since there are plenty of different
possible scenarios for handover, the type of the parameter, handover procedure, and the
parameters are needed to be defined. Signal interference, power requirements, QoS

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requirements, efficient allocation of resources, reliability, and robustness must be considered

to build a proper handover management. The classification of handover processes can be
according to the network types, frequencies, techniques, and controller type.

Handover Types

Handover Types Based on Networks

Horizontal Handover: Horizontal handover is the type of handover that is occurred in

homogenous technologies, that is, performed between same access technologies e.g. Wi-Fi to
Wi-Fi, GSM to GSM, WiMAX to WiMAX, etc. Horizontal handover is also known as intra-
system handover. Vertical Handover: When the handover is occurred in heterogenous
technologies, that is, operated between different access technologies e.g. Wi-Fi to GSM, GSM
to WiMAX, LTE to Wi-Fi, etc. Vertical handover is also known as intersystem handover.

Handover Types Based on Frequency

Intra-frequency Handover: It is the type of handover performed between two different

access points operating with same frequency bands. Inter-frequency Handover: The handover
process occurred between two different access points with different frequency bands is called
as inter-frequency handover.

Handover Types Based on the Techniques

Hard Handover: It is a type of handover method in which all the wireless connections
with UE are detached before the new ones are built. That is, in this handover type, process is
held as break-before-make which causes the loss of continuity of the communication link. The
hard handover may be seamless or not. Soft Handover: Soft handover is a handover technique
that is performed according to make-before-break principle. That is, the new connections
between UE and the network were set up before breaking the old connections. Hence, both
connections run at the same time for a while.

Handover Types Based on the Controller

This classification is used when the second and third stages of handover, planning and
execution stages, are operated by mobile station or a controller. There are three types of
handover such as NCHO (Network-controlled Handover), MCHO (Mobile-controlled
Handover), and Mobile-assisted Handover. In NCHO, while handover initiation stage is
performed by mobile station, the decision step is held by a controller or the network. That is to
say, firstly, the UE initiates the handover process, determines the target AP and inform the
network that decides whether the handover is performed or not. In MCHO, the both initiation
and decision stages are controlled by the mobile node. On the other hand, in a MAHO process,

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mobile nodes collect all of the data like SINR (Signal to Interference-plus-Noise Ratio), RSSI
(Received Signal Strength Indication), error rate, etc. and send them to the network that chooses
the best target points

MOBILITY MANAGEMENT IN 5G NETWORKS

Throughout last decades, cellular networks have become disorderly spread on the globe.
To organize the wireless networks, mobility management (e.g. handover management) is
utilized. To mention about mobility management in LTE networks, this type of network utilizes
only hard handover. As mentioned before, hard handover process run in break-beforemake
principle and it causes some significant issues in mobility management processes. In order to
provide a continuous connection to UE, eNB need to support as LTE does not include an RNC
(Radio Network Controller) entity. On the other hand, because of massive increase in data
traffic, grown in demand the LTE structures will not be applicable for future network scenarios.
These current methods will be inadequate for cases of 5G future networks.

As the use of 5G networks is more adopted, the main differences between 4G and 5G
networks will be the outstanding benefits owing to mm-wave frequency bands, beam
directional antennas, higher data rates, wider coverage, lower costs, higher capacities, etc. The
mobility management scheme for 5G networks shown in Figure 1. The mobility management
services in 5G can be provided on cloud systems. 5G technology that is a packet switched
system with outstanding results provides a more efficient and higher performance
communication opportunities. And, users are able to utilize the technology and broadband
internet connection by their mobile phones.

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Mobility Registration

A high-level outline of the Registration Update procedure due to mobility (i.e. with Registration
type set to Mobility Registration Update – MRU) is shown in Fig. and contains the following
steps

1. When the UE reselects a new cell and realizes that the broadcast TA ID is not in the list of
TAs in the RA, the UE initiates an MRU procedure to the network, the NG-RAN routes the
MRU to an AMF serving the new area.

2. Upon receipt of the MRU message from the UE, the AMF checks if a context for that
particular UE is available; if not the AMF checks the UE’s temporary identity (5G-GUTI) to
determine which AMF keeps the UE context. Once this is determined the AMF asks the old
AMF for the UE context.

3. The old AMF transfers the UE context to the new AMF.

4. Once the new AMF has received the old UE context, it informs the UDM that the UE context
has now moved to a new AMF by registering itself to the UDM, subscribing to being notified
when the UDM deregisters the AMF and as well to get the subscriber data for the UE from the
UDM.

5–6. The UDM de-registers the UE context (for 3GPP Access Type) in the old AMF.

7. The UDM acknowledges the new AMF and inserts new subscriber data in the new AMF.

8. The new AMF informs the UE that the MRU was successful and the AMF supplies a new
5G-GUTI (where the GUAMI points back to the AMF).

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In the last decades, there has been a rapid increase in demand for wireless communication that
cellular communication is seen a major part of. And the latest cases in communication need
throughput with the best performance. Because of the innovative differences in 5G technology,
it becomes inapplicable to utilize previous traditional mobility management strategies that are
used in LTE systems. Therefore, to handle the mobility issues in 5G wireless networks, various
techniques have been developed.

Command and control Method

In the Command-and-Control Method, the radio spectrum is divided into different bands, each
allocated exclusively to specific radio communication services, such as satellite services,
mobile communication, and broadcasting.

Drawbacks of Command-and-Control Method:

Inefficiency: The method is considered inefficient because spectrum assigned to a particular

service cannot be easily reassigned to other services even if it is underutilized.

Lack of Flexibility: Once spectrum is allocated to a user, there is no flexibility to question or

modify the allocation during the licensing period, if the user adheres to the terms and
conditions.

Urban-Rural Divide: The method does not promote efficient spectrum utilization in rural
areas, where spectrum may be underutilized compared to urban regions.

Issues with Underutilization and Inaccessibility: about underutilization of spectrum and the
fact that it is not accessible to all, particularly in rural areas. This lack of efficient spectrum use
can hinder the development of communication services, including 4G.

Addressing spectrum issues requires serious steps, including the implementation of

sophisticated technologies. It advocates for solutions like spectrum trading, which involves the
buying and selling of spectrum rights, to improve spectrum utilization and facilitate the
development of advanced communication technologies, such as 5G.

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Spectrum Sharing

The demand for multimedia content and information processing, services such as e-education
and e-health, mobile broadcasting, enormous increase in the electronic gadgets necessitate
efficient use of all available and usable frequency spectrum. The new generation of mobile
broadband networks will require supporting higher data throughput rates.

Many sophisticated technologies have been implemented for making the efficient use of
available spectrum. For example, line-of-sight (LOS) systems are usable up to 100 GHz now.
Running down the size of electronic components and systems introduces the multiple
frequency bands in single equipment leading to the efficient use of available spectrum by the
enhanced dynamic sharing of frequency bands.

Spectrum management should be in such a way that there should be always optimum spectral
sharing. Greater sharing of frequencies and bands allows more data to be sent by different users
in the same amount of available spectrum.

Spectrum sharing has basically three dimensions: frequency, time and location. The Collective
Use of Spectrum (CUS) allows spectrum to be used by more than one user simultaneously
without requiring a license. Some of the examples that come under spectrum sharing are
frequency reuse concept in the existing telecom networks, FDMA, TDMA. Another important
challenge is the sharing of spectrum among the heterogeneous networks. While it is easier to
achieve efficient and successful spectrum sharing among the homogeneous or similar networks
or applications, there arises complexity in heterogeneous networks.

The spectrum sharing methods are classified into three categories based on based on the priority
level of accessing the radio spectrum as follows:

a. Horizontal spectrum sharing: all the devices have equal rights to access the spectrum.

b. Vertical spectrum handover only: the primary users are allotted priorities to access the
spectrum.

c. Hierarchical spectrum sharing: it is an enhanced variant of the vertical spectrum sharing.

Spectrum Sharing Mechanism in CR Networks

➢ Cognitive Radio (CR) is an efficient mechanism to expand the spectrum-efficiency and

potentially upgrade the spectrum scarcity problems.
➢ Generally, CR networks contain two capabilities, including; spectrum sensing and cognitive
transmission.

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➢ In spectrum sensing, cognitive users can sense the radio frequency and collect the spectrum
information like; traffic, energy usage, channel gain.
➢ While in cognitive transmission, the cognitive users chooses the suitable spectrum band and
adapt transmissions based on the collected information.
➢ Cognitive users perform spectrum sensing operation to determine whether current users
engage the spectrum band.
➢ Two performance metrics are widely utilized to evaluate the accuracy of spectrum sensing,
i.e., spectrum detection and false alarm probability.
➢ The cooperative spectrum sensing between many cognitive users can be adopted to improve
spectrum accuracy.
➢ Specifically, cognitive users independently perform the spectrum sensing and take local
decisions. Later they deliver the local decisions to the fusion node. Based on local decisions,
the fusion node takes the final decision.
➢ As stated above, the cognitive users select suitable spectrum bands and perform cognitive
transmission. It contains two scenarios viz overlay spectrum sharing and underlay spectrum
sharing.
➢ In overlay spectrum-sharing, there is no sub channel interference among the current users
and cognitive users.
➢ In underlay spectrum-sharing, cognitive users can cause interference in current users, and
cognitive transmission performs for a long duration to satisfy interference constraints. It is
clear that from the underlay, spectrum-sharing can achieve good spectrum accuracy and
reutilize the spectrum bands by comparing overlay spectrum-sharing in the following figure
presenting the typical spectrum sharing scenario over CR networks, where a Macro Base
Station (M-BS) and Macro User Equipment (M-UE)represents current macro nodes.

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In the above figure, there are several cases where downlink transmission may cause
interference as an example; the cognitive downlink from cognitive-BS2 to cognitive UE2 and
cognitive downlink from cognitive-BS3 to cognitive-UE3 exchange the spectrum bands taken
by a current link from M-BS to M-UE2. In that scenario, MUE2 can be interfered with by
cognitive-BS2 and cognitive-BS3. Usually, when there are many cognitive downlinks/current
downlinks, the energy transmission model design is quite challenging and complicated. In the
prior study, the optimal energy transmission model design is obtained in a centralized manner.

Spectrum Trading

Spectrum trading is a case of spectrum sharing with the involvement of commercial activities.
Spectrum trading is found to be a more economical way of efficient use of spectrum. It is an
option through which flexibility can be increased and spectrum assigned to a particular service,
and can be easily transferred for other usage. To explain it in brief, spectrum trading is a market
based mechanism where buyers and the sellers determine the assignments of spectrum and its
uses in which seller transfers the right of spectrum usage, in full or part, to buyer while retaining
the ownership. In many countries spectrum trading is already running and the trading procedure
is confined to specific bands, which are in demand for commercial use with specified
conditions. Spectrum trading improves the efficiency and facilitates new services to enter in
the market by making slight modification in the regulatory provisions.

The difference between spectrum sharing and spectrum trading can be explained as follows:

In spectrum trading the usage rights are transferred completely from the seller for a specified
period. However, in spectrum sharing buyer gets a temporary right of spectrum usage with the
exclusive rights resting with the seller. Trading becomes effective only when it is clubbed with
liberalization. Spectrum trading can be implemented if there is solid base in understanding
advanced technologies and operating systems as the spectrum flexibility demands new
approaches and practical methods for monitoring compliance, enforcement and conflict
resolution.

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Spectrum Trading Merits

The merits of spectrum trading are as follows

• Improves efficient spectrum usage

• Facilitates the evaluation of spectrum licenses, and gaining knowledge of market value of
spectrum

• Quicker process, with better and faster decision-making by those with information

• Removes barriers to entry by allowing small operators and start-ups to acquire spectrum rights
of use more readily, thereby facilitating the development of market competition

• There is an opportunity for more rapid redeployment and faster access for spectrum

• Encourages new technologies to gain access to spectrum more quickly

• Existing operators gain an opportunity to sell unused or under-used spectrum and make more
flexible use of spectrum

• Reduction in the transactions costs of acquiring rights to use spectrum

• Allows operators increased flexibility to accommodate shifting demand driven by market

changes.

Cognitive Radio

➢ Cognitive radio (CR) is a form of wireless communication in which a transceiver can

intelligently detect which communication channels are in use and which are free, and
quickly move into free channels while avoiding occupied ones. This reduces the
interference to other user and optimizes the use of radio frequency spectrum.
➢ The Cognitive Radio is a hybrid technology that involve software defined radio (SDR) as
applied to spread spectrum communication. The cognitive radio has the ability of encrypt
and decrypt the signals, to fine and authorize its user, transceiver to identify its geographic
location, and adjust output power and modulation characteristics.
➢ A Cognitive Radio is a radio that can replace its transmitter parameters according to
interaction with the environment in which it operates. After the selection of the best
available channel the next task of the cognitive radio is to make the network protocols
adaptive to the available spectrum. In which the new functionalities are required in an xG
network to support its adaptivity.
The functions of cognitive radios in xG networks are as follows:

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1. Spectrum management: Identify the best spectrum which provides the best
communication advantage to the user.
2. Spectrum sensing: Detect the unused frequency spectrum and use that spectrum by
sharing with other without harmful interference with another user.
3. Spectrum mobility: Maintaining the seamless communication requirements during the
transition to best spectrum.
4. Spectrum sharing: Giving the good spectrum scheduling method between coexisting
xG users

Characteristics of cognitive radio

Cognitive capability:

Cognitive capability is the ability of the radio technology to sense the information from its
radio environment. In this there are some sophisticated techniques are required to capture the
temporal and spatial variation in the radio environment instead of simply be realized by
monitoring the power and avoid interference to other users. By this capability, the unused
spectrum can be identified at a specific time and location. Whereas the best spectrum and
appropriate operating parameters can be selected. The cognitive capability enables real time
interaction with its atmosphere to determine suitable communication parameters and adjust to
the dynamic radio environment.

The three steps of cognitive cycle under this category are:

1. Spectrum sensing: A cognitive radio detects the available spectrum bands, take their
information, and then detects the spectrum holes.
2. Spectrum analysis: The spectrum holes that are detected by the spectrum sensing are
estimated.
3. Spectrum decision: A cognitive radio analyze the data rate, the bandwidth of the
transmission mode. Then the suitable spectrum band is select according to the spectrum
characteristics and user requirements. Once the spectrum band is detected, the
communication can be begun by this band.

Reconfigurability:

Spectrum awareness is selected by the cognitive capability, on the other hand

reconfigurability tells the radio that how to program the radio environment dynamically. The
cognitive radio can transmit and receive on several frequencies and to Use different
transmission access technologies supported by its hardware design. Reconfigurability is the

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capability of adjusting operating parameters for the transmission on the fly without any
modifications on the hardware components.

There are several reconfigurable parameters:

Operating frequency: Operating frequency can be changed by the cognitive radio. The most
suitable operating frequency can be determined and the communication can be dynamically
performed on the appropriate operating frequency based on the information about the radio
environment.

Transmission power: Within the power constraints Transmission power can be reconfigured.
Power control enables the dynamic transmission power configuration within the permissible
power limit. There is no need of high power operation, at lower level the cognitive radio allow
more users to share the spectrum and to decrease the interference.

Modulation: The modulation scheme adaptive to the user requirements and channel conditions
should reconfigure by the cognitive radio. For example, in the case of delay sensitive
applications, data rate is more important than error rate. In which the modulation scheme that
enables the higher spectral efficiency should be selected.

Need of cognitive radio

In many bands, spectrum access is a big problem than physical scarcity of spectrum. Due to
legacy commandand-control regulation the ability of potential spectrum users to obtain such
access is limited.

By scaning the portions of the radio spectrum we find that:

1) Some frequency bands in the spectrum are highly unoccupied most of the time.

2) Some other bands of frequency are partially occupied.

3) The remaining bands of frequency are largely used.

The under processing of the electromagnetic spectrum known as spectrum holes, that can be
defined as-A spectrum hole is that in which a particular bands of frequencies are assigned to a
particular user at some specific geographical region for some specific time, and this band is not
used by the another user at that time. The cognitive radio enables the usage of unused spectrum,
which is known as white space or spectrum hole.

When one user is not using the specific band, at that time the another user can use that band
and improve the spectrum utilization Cognitive radio can be used to make efficient use of
spectrum.

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Spectrum Sharing Mechanism in CR Networks

➢ Cognitive Radio (CR) is an efficient mechanism to expand the spectrum-efficiency and

potentially upgrade the spectrum scarcity problems.
➢ Generally, CR networks contain two capabilities, including; spectrum sensing and cognitive
transmission.
➢ In spectrum sensing, cognitive users can sense the radio frequency and collect the spectrum
information like; traffic, energy usage, channel gain.
➢ While in cognitive transmission, the cognitive users chooses the suitable spectrum band and
adapt transmissions based on the collected information.
➢ Cognitive users perform spectrum sensing operation to determine whether current users
engage the spectrum band.
➢ Two performance metrics are widely utilized to evaluate the accuracy of spectrum sensing,
i.e., spectrum detection and false alarm probability.
➢ The cooperative spectrum sensing between many cognitive users can be adopted to improve
spectrum accuracy.
➢ Specifically, cognitive users independently perform the spectrum sensing and take local
decisions. Later they deliver the local decisions to the fusion node. Based on local decisions,
the fusion node takes the final decision.

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➢ As stated above, the cognitive users select suitable spectrum bands and perform cognitive
transmission. It contains two scenarios viz overlay spectrum sharing and underlay spectrum
sharing.
➢ In overlay spectrum-sharing, there is no sub channel interference among the current users
and cognitive users.
➢ In underlay spectrum-sharing, cognitive users can cause interference in current users, and
cognitive transmission performs for a long duration to satisfy interference constraints. It is
clear that from the underlay, spectrum-sharing can achieve good spectrum accuracy and
reutilize the spectrum bands by comparing overlay spectrum-sharing in the following figure
presenting the typical spectrum sharing scenario over CR networks, where a Macro Base
Station (M-BS) and Macro User Equipment (M-UE)represents current macro nodes.

In the above figure, there are several cases where downlink transmission may cause
interference as an example; the cognitive downlink from cognitive-BS2 to cognitive UE2 and
cognitive downlink from cognitive-BS3 to cognitive-UE3 exchange the spectrum bands taken
by a current link from M-BS to M-UE2. In that scenario, MUE2 can be interfered with by
cognitive-BS2 and cognitive-BS3. Usually, when there are many cognitive downlinks/current
downlinks, the energy transmission model design is quite challenging and complicated. In the
prior study, the optimal energy transmission model design is obtained in a centralized manner.

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Millimeter Wave

Mm-wave is a promising technology for future cellular systems. The available spectrum for
cellular systems is limited. So, various techniques are used to increase the spectral efficiency.
These include orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), multipleinput multiple-
output (MIMO), efficient channel coding techniques, and interference coordination. Recently
network densification has also been studied to optimize the area spectral efficiency, in addition
to the use of heterogeneous infrastructure such as macro, Pico, Femtocells, relays, distributed
antennas. But increased spectral efficiency alone is not sufficient to guarantee high user data
rates. The solution is the usage of the mm-wave spectrum. 4G Customers use the existing
bandwidth of 20MHz channels. The service providers can use the mm-wave spectrum to
significantly increase the channel bandwidth. Widening the bandwidth of the RF channel
increases the data capacity. Also, the latency problem is can be reduced for digital traffic. This
provides enhanced internetbased access and applications that require minimal latency.
Polarization and new spatial processing techniques such as massive MIMO and adaptive
beamforming can be exploited since mm-wave frequencies have a much smaller wavelength.
The spectral allocations in the mm-wave spectrum are much closer. This makes the propagation
characteristics of mm-wave bands more comparable and homogenous.

In particular, the unbalanced temporal and geographical variations of spectrum usage along
with the rapid proliferation of bandwidth-hungry mobile applications, such as video streaming
with high definition television (HDTV) and ultra-high-definition video (UHDV), have inspired
millimeter-wave (mmWave) communications as a promising technology to alleviate the
pressure of scarce spectrum resources for fifth-generation (5G) mobile broadband.

FIFTH GENERATION WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Untapped mm-wave frequency bands, highly directional beamforming antennas both at mobile
and base stations, extended battery life, lower outage probability, higher bit rates in bigger
coverage areas, lower infrastructure costs and higher aggregate capacity for simultaneous users
in both licensed and unlicensed spectrum leads to the advancement and implementations of

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fifth-generation (5G) compared to that of the 4G that uses a greater spectrum allocation.
Millimeter wave wireless connection is considered to be one of the major strengths of 5G
networks that are transformed from copper and fiber optic which deploys mesh-like
connectivity to assist among the base stations. Mobile Phone users can easily access their 5G
using any electronic gadgets like Laptops or tablets to obtain accessible broadband internet
connectivity in addition to which this 5G technology provides more features and competence.
Bidirectional huge bandwidth, high data rates, high resolution, and finest Quality of Service
(QoS) are the best features that are offered and implemented by 5G technology as of now.

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES

Within the mm-Wave band, up to 252 GHz spectrum could be easily be exploited by the
cellular mobile communications system. The main technologies needed to enable the 5G
mobile system to efficiently exploit the mm-wave band is listed below.

Beamforming

For improving the base station antenna gain and focusing antennas energy in a preferred
direction, the beamforming technique will be deployed. Additionally, narrow beams and
directional transmissions for a cellular application are useful to reduce interference introduced
by spatial reuse which leads to increase the signal to interference ratio (SINR)

Massive Multi Input Multi Output (MMIMO)

In radio, multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO, is the usage of multiple antennas at

both the transmitter and receiver to enhance the mobile system performance. MIMO systems
have gained increased attention due to their ability to enhanced spectral efficiency and improve
network capacity. Generally, the more antennas the transmitter/receiver comes with, the more
signal paths and the better the reliability of the link and the data rate. MIMO techniques were
previously presented in the current 4G mobile systems. The next thing with MIMO is to
maintain increasing antenna arrays with an order of magnitude, more elements than in systems
being built presently, for instance, 100 antennas or more; this was popularly known as massive
MIMO. Massive MIMO also called large-scale antenna systems, very large MIMO, hyper
MIMO, and full-dimension (FD) MIMO and it will be going to lead the way to 5G cellular
systems.

Small Cell Deployment

Network densification is an approach to add more cell sites for supporting thigh traffic demand,
especially in densely populated cities and hot spots like stadiums and shopping malls. Small
cell sites, inside the coverage area of the already-deployed macro sites, resulting in what is

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called multi-layer or multi-tier network. Through the deployment of small cell sites,the distance
between the users and the base stations is reduced, which leads to lower propagation losses,
energy efficiency, and higher data rates. The high-speed user equipment and those not covered
by the small cells receive data and control from the macro cell. UEs covered by the small cells
receive control from the macrocells and data from the small cells. Consequently, it is useful to
transmit particular important control channel signals using the microwave.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF MM-WAVE

Advantages

1. The larger bandwidth of mm-wave is able to provide higher transmission rate, spread
spectrum capability and more immune to interference.

2. Multiple short distances are often achieved at very high-frequency ranges (i.e., Multiple
transmitters are often placed in proximate location to every other) usages at a similar frequency
while not busy one another.

3. Beamwidth should be Narrower. Once the frequency is hyperbolic for an analogous size of
the antenna, the beam breadth gets decreased.

4. The size of the hardware is reduced i.e., the frequency and size of the antenna area unit
reciprocally proportional to every difference.

Limitations

1. Small size elements with bigger exactitude increase the producing prices.

2. Substantial attenuation happens at very high frequencies which will hardly be used for
longdistance applications.

3. Millimeter-wave has less penetration power through objects like concrete walls.

4. Interferences with element & rain occur at higher frequencies as a result more analysis goes
on to scale back the interference levels.

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