South African Journal of Animal Science 2013, 43 (No.

2)

Growth responses, excreta quality, nutrient digestibility, bone development and

meat yield traits of broiler chickens fed vegetable or animal protein diets

M.A. Hossain, A.F. Islam & P.A. Iji#

Department of Animal Science, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale,
NSW 2351, Australia

(Received 19 April 2012; Accepted 5 March 2013; First published online 31 July 2013)

Copyright resides with the authors in terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 South African Licence.
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Condition of use: The user may copy, distribute, transmit and adapt the work, but must recognise the authors and the South African Journal of
Animal Science.
________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract
This study was carried out to compare the performance of broilers fed diets containing only vegetable
protein (VP) with birds that received an animal protein (AP) in their diets. Cobb 500 day-old male broiler
chicks (n = 256) were randomly divided into four experimental groups. The two AP diets contained fish meal
and soybean (SBF) and fish meal with canola (CMF); while the two VP diets contained predominantly
soybean (SBM) or canola (CAN) meals. All diets were isoenergetic and isonitrogenous, and were pelleted,
but amino acid levels were formulated on a total and not digestible basis. Feed intake up to 21 days was
highest on the AP diets, and the lowest in the SBM treatment. Birds in the AP diet groups were significantly
heavier at 21 days and 35 days than those on the VP diets. Up to 35 days, birds on AP diets had superior feed
conversion ratio, while the CAN treatment was the poorest. Excreta moisture level was significantly higher
in birds fed the VP diets than those on AP diets. Excreta pH and ammonia concentration were similar
between treatments. Protein digestibility was higher in the AP than in the VP diets. Birds raised on VP diets
had a significantly lower abdominal fat content than birds on the AP diets. Other meat characteristics
measured in this experiment did not differ significantly. Bone development, in terms of breaking strength
and latency-to-sit time, was significantly better on the AP diets than that of birds on the VP diets. The birds
on the CMF diet had the longest tibia bone, while birds on SBM diet, the shortest. Total tibia ash content on
the CMF diet was significantly increased, along with its iron and copper concentration, which were also
significantly higher in birds on the same diet than the others. The responses of birds generally indicated that
the AP diets were superior to the VP diets.
________________________________________________________________________________
Keywords: Growth, digestibility, fish meal, bone growth, meat quality, soybean meal, canola meal
#
Corresponding author: piji@[Link]

Introduction
Animal by-products and processed animal proteins are commonly used in poultry diets as
conventional feed resources to meet the essential nutrient requirements of broiler chickens. In some countries
these feedstuffs are excluded from poultry diets in order to prevent cross-contamination of diets for ruminant
animals in situations where feed mills are shared. The exclusion of these feed ingredients from formulations
not only reduces the nutritive value of the diets, but also limits the ability of the formulations to meet the
essential nutrient requirements for poultry (Hossain et al., 2011a).
The protein requirements of poultry are most commonly met by vegetable and animal proteins.
Animal by-products (meat meal, meat and bone meal, fish meal) are the most commonly used animal
proteins in poultry diets and are considered excellent protein sources for chickens (Parsons et al., 1997;
Giang et al., 2001). Despite being satisfactory sources of quality proteins, there are many constraints to the
extensive use of animal by-products in diet formulation for poultry, the key one being the risk of zoonotic
diseases. Furthermore, a critical cost appraisal of poultry feed formulations shows that protein of animal
origin is more expensive than vegetable protein (VP) sources (Oluyemi & Roberts, 2000).

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ISSN 0375-1589 (print), ISSN 222-4062 (online)
Publisher: South African Society for Animal Science [Link]
Hossain et al., 2013. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. vol. 43 209

In view of this, there is a need to investigate the possibility of developing alternative VP diets for
poultry. Meat chicken productions based entirely on vegetable ingredients may be an emerging trend for
producers, and be in great demand from consumers as well. Broilers grown exclusively on VP diets are
preferred in the European Union and Middle East (Mendes, 2003). This tendency is intensifying the pressure
on feed formulators and nutritionists to supply organic, safe and hygienic poultry products to consumers, by
providing quality diets to poultry without using animal by-products or growth promoters. Incorporation of
vegetable ingredients, notably soybean, canola, sunflower and mustard, in diets, instead of using animal
meals as a protein source, can lead to satisfactory broiler performance as long as the diets are properly
balanced with necessary nutrients such as digestible amino acids. These ingredients are a good source of
nutrients, are comparatively inexpensive, easily available, and easy to process, and pose less risk of disease
contamination.
However, vegetable sources contain numerous anti-nutritive factors (ANF), are lower in protein
quality, have a lower digestibility and a lower biological value than animal protein sources (Liener, 1980;
Tacon, 1992). Diets formulated with vegetable proteins may possibly be nutritionally inferior to diets with
animal protein (AP), and broilers fed solely on vegetable proteins will respond negatively. This study was
undertaken to ascertain the growth responses, excreta quality, nutrient digestibility, leg bone development
and meat yield characteristics of broiler chickens fed diets containing either vegetable or animal protein
sources.

Materials and Methods

Two hundred and fifty-six day-old male Cobb 500 broiler chicks, weighing 46.0 ± 0.88 g, were
randomly distributed into four dietary treatment groups. Each treatment had eight replicates consisting of
eight birds per replicate. The birds were reared from day 1 to 35 days of age. The chicks were reared in
brooder cages (42 × 75 × 25 cm) set up in an environmentally controlled room for the first three weeks and
then transferred to larger AME cages. For the first two days, the birds were provided with a temperature of
33 ºC. The temperature was then gradually reduced by 1 ºC or 2 ºC every one or two days until the chicks
were 19 days old, at which point the temperature was maintained at 24 ºC for the rest of the trial. Eighteen
hours of lighting per day was provided throughout the trial period.
The experimental diets were formulated from maize, wheat and vegetable oil as the main energy
sources, and protein sources in different combinations (Tables 1 and 2), and the diets were pelleted. The diets
were formulated to meet or exceed NRC (1994) recommendations. The VP diets contained predominantly
soybean (SBM) or canola (CAN) meals; diet SBM contained soybean and canola at a ratio of 3 : 1, and the
CAN diet at a ratio of 1 : 3. As protein sources the two animal protein diets contained fish meal, and different
ratios of soybean and canola meal. Diet SBF contained soybean and canola at a ratio of 2 : 1, and diet CMF
at a 1 : 2 ratio. Fish meal was included at 7.74% and 8.39% in the SBF and CMF starter diets, respectively,
and at 7.18% and 7.0% in finisher diets, respectively. All experimental diets were isoenergetic and
isonitrogenous and supplemented with exogenous enzymes (Avizyme 0.5 g/kg and Phyzyme, 0.1 g/kg diet)
as well as zinc bacitracin (0.5 g/kg). Titanium dioxide (TiO2) was incorporated into each diet at a rate of 5
g/kg as an indigestible marker to enable assessment of nutrient digestibility. The birds were fed starter diets
for the first three weeks and finisher diets for the last two weeks of the experiment.
Mortality was recorded as it occurred, while body weight and feed intake were recorded weekly for the
calculation of body weight gain and feed conversion ratio (FCR), after correcting for mortality. On day 14,
excreta samples were collected from each cage to determine the ammonia concentration, pH and moisture
content as measures of excreta quality. Four birds from each cage were randomly selected, weighed and
killed by cervical dislocation to collect digesta samples from the ileum for the assessment of nutrient (gross
energy, protein and starch) digestibility on day 21. On day 28, leg bone development was assessed through
latency-to-sit (LTS) and gait scoring tests. The LTS test was performed according to the method of Berg &
Sanotra (2003), with some modifications. A plastic tub containing warm water (32 ºC) to a depth of 3 cm
was used. Two birds from each replicate were randomly selected from the cage and put into the water tub.
The birds were observed and left standing in the tubs of water for up to 15 minutes. The time that elapsed
before the birds first attempted to sit down in the water was recorded in seconds with the aid of a stopwatch.
If any bird was still standing after 15 minutes, the test was terminated.
210 Hossain et al., 2013. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. vol. 43

Table 1 Composition of starter diets

Experimental treatments
SBM CAN SBF CMF
Ingredient composition (g/kg)
Maize 405.9 377.5 414.0 617.0
Wheat 210.0 187.5 203.8 0.0
Vegetable oil 0.0 20.0 0.0 0.0
Soybean meal 246.9 93.8 154.9 84.0
Canola meal 82.3 281.3 77.5 167.9
Fish meal 0.0 0.0 77.5 84.0
Limestone 20.1 13.5 25.7 12
Dicalcium phosphate 18.4 10.9 30.0 14
DL-Methionine 2.0 1.4 2.2 1.5
Lysine 1.7 1.2 2.1 1.9
Sodium chloride 3.5 4.0 3.2 3.7
Vit.-min. premix1 2.5 2.25 2.5 2.5
Choline chloride 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Avizyme 1502 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Phyzyme XP 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Zinc bacitracin 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Marker (TiO2) 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Nutrient composition (g/kg)
ME (MJ/kg) 12.38 12.38 12.39 12.38
Crude protein 210.0 211.1 211.1 211.5
Crude fibre 30.5 37.0 28.0 34.0
Ether extract 24.0 28.4 29.3 32.2
Calcium 11.5 11.0 12.8 12.4
Available P 5.2 5.3 6.4 6.2
Sodium 2.0 2.0 2.2 2.1
Chlorine 2.5 2.7 2.7 2.5
Lysine 13.0 12.1 13.7 13.4
Methionine +cystine 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.4
Threonine 8.2 8.4 8.4 8.5
Arginine 14.2 13.0 14.0 13.0

SBM: vegetable protein diets containing predominantly soybean;

CAN: vegetable protein diets containing predominantly canola;
SBF: animal protein diet containing fish meal and soybean;
SMF: animal protein diet containing fish meal with canola.
1
Provided per kg of diet (mg): 3.6 mg vitamin A (as all-trans retinol); 0.09 mg cholecalciferol; 44.7 mg
vitamin E (as d-α-tocopherol); 2 mg vitamin K3; 2 mg thiamine; 6 mg riboflavin; 5 mg pyridoxine
hydrochloride; 0.2 mg vitamin B12; 0.1 mg biotin; 50 mg niacin; 12 mg D- calcium pantothenate; 2 mg
folic acid; 80 mg Mn; 60 mg Fe; 8 mg Cu; 1 mg I; 0.3 mg Co; 1 mg Mo.

The gait-scoring test followed the 3-point scoring system developed by Webster et al. (2008) and
Kestin et al. (1992). To conduct the test, two birds were randomly selected from each replicate group, and
allowed to walk freely on the floor. The birds were then scored by visual observation against a number of
criteria. On day 35, two birds per replicate were selected randomly, weighed and killed in a similar way to
obtain the right tibia bone samples for measurements of bone strength and mineral concentration, meat yield
Hossain et al., 2013. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. vol. 43 211

and carcass fat content. Right tibia bones, collected on day 35, were boiled for 10 minutes in deionized water
to remove all the soft tissue and defatted. Length and head width were measured using digital callipers
(Mitutoyo, Japan) and the weight was recorded. The bones were then placed horizontally between brackets
set 10 mm apart and the breaking strength was measured by positioning a 10 mm diameter compression rod
against the bones and applying pressure (Lloyd, Hampshire, UK). After that, the bones were ashed at 550 ºC
for 4 h to measure the total ash content. The ash was further analysed using inductively coupled plasma-
atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) to determine the concentrations of calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, manganese, iron, copper and zinc.

Table 2 Composition of finisher diets

Experimental treatments1
SBM CAN SBF CMF
Ingredient composition (g/kg)
Maize 412.7 393.4 430.0 413.0
Wheat 200.0 200.0 210.0 230.0
Vegetable oil 0.0 21.2 0.0 0.0
Soybean meal 225.0 81.0 143.7 70.0
Canola meal 75.0 243.0 71.8 140.0
Fish meal 00.0 00.0 71.8 70.0
Limestone 35.2 22.0 24.5 23.6
Dicalcium phosphate 34.5 21.1 30.4 35.75
DL-Methionine 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.6
L-Lysine 2.0 2.6 1.8 1.8
Sodium chloride 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Vit.-min. premix2 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Choline chloride 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Avizyme 1502 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3
Phyzyme XP 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3
Zinc bacitracin 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Marker (TiO2) 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Nutrient composition (g/kg)
ME (MJ/kg) 12.4 12.4 12.4 12.4
Crude protein 191.5 191.4 191.5 191.1
Crude fibre 28.0 36.5 28.0 33.0
Ether extract 24.0 27.6 26.11 27.6
Calcium 14.8 14.2 14.6 14.7
Available P 5.6 5.6 5.7 5.6
Sodium 2.3 2.4 2.7 2.7
Chloride 3.3 3.3 3.7 3.7
Lysine 12.3 12.0 12.4 12.4
Methionine+cysteine 8.2 8.1 8.2 8.2
Threonine 7.7 7.6 7.9 7.6
Arginine 13.1 12.0 13.0 12.0
1
Experimental treatments as described in Table 1.
2
Vitamin - mineral composition as in Table 1.
212 Hossain et al., 2013. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. vol. 43

Gross energy content of diets and ileal digesta were determined using an IKA bomb calorimeter (IKA-
WERKE, C7000, Staufen, Germany). The nitrogen content of digesta and diets was determined according to
the Dumas combustion technique as described by Sweeney (1989), using a LECO FP-2000 automatic
nitrogen analyser (LECO Corp., St. Joseph, MI, USA). Bone mineral was measured as per the method
described by Anderson & Henderson (1986). Copper, Fe, Mn, Zn, Ca, P and Mg were measured at 327 nm,
238 nm, 257 nm, 213 nm, 616 nm, 231 nm, and 279 nm wavelength, respectively. The TiO2 concentration of
the digesta and diet samples was measured as per the method of Short et al. (1996). Aliquots of the solutions
were obtained and, along with a similarly prepared standard solution, were analysed using a Hitachi150-20
UV spectrophotometer (Hitachi Science System Ltd., Ibaraki, Japan), measuring the absorbance at 410 nm.
Diets and ileal digesta were analysed for protein and gross energy as described above, and starch was
determined with a Megazyme assay kit (Megazyme International Ireland, Bray Business Park, Bray, Ireland)
as described by McCleary et al. (1994). The digestibility coefficient of nutrients was calculated according to
the following equation:
Digestibility coefficient = 1-[{digesta nutrient (g/kg DM)/digesta TiO2 (g/kg DM)}/diet nutrient (g/kg
DM)/diet TiO2 (g/kg DM)]
Excreta moisture content was determined according to the method described by the AOAC (2002).
The pH of excreta samples was measured using a pH meter (Model LS, Sargent-Welch Co., Springfield, NJ).
Excreta ammonia was measured as described in the Sigma-Aldrich ammonia assay kit (Catalogue Number
AA0100), (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO). The experimental protocol was approved by the Animal Ethics
Committee of the University of New England, Australia (approval number AEC10/076). Statistical analyses
were performed using Minitab software (Minitab version 15, 2000). The data were analysed using a one-way
ANOVA with diet as factor. The significance of differences between means was determined by Fisher’s least
significant difference at P ≤0.05.

Results
Results shown in Table 3 indicate that, during the period of days 1 - 21, birds on the SBF diet
consumed more (P <0.001) feed (1344 g/b) than birds fed the VP diets. Over the 1 - 35 day period, the CAN
group consumed the most feed (3879 g/b) while the SBM group ate the least (3678 g/b). Feed intake was
similar between the groups during the first week. Live weight gain was significantly greater for the birds fed
the two AP diets (SBF; CMF) than the VP (CAN; SBM) diet groups during days 1 - 7 (P <0.001), days 1 -
21 (P <0.001), and for the overall period (P <0.05). Feed conversion ratio to 35 days was superior on the
CMF diet while the birds on the CAN diet had the poorest conversion. Birds in the CMF diet group had
similar FCR values to birds on SBF diet over 35 days, and this differed significantly (P <0.05) from those on

Table 3 Growth responses of broiler chickens fed on different diets from hatch to 35 days

Experimental treatments1
Days Pooled SEM
SBM CAN SBF CMF

Feed intake (g/b) 1-7 135.4 136.8 149.4 145.1 2.07

1-21 1154.7c 1252.7b 1344.2a 1290.4ab 13.36***
1-35 3677.7 3879.4 3856.6 3840.6 48.86
Live weight gain(g/b) 1-7 113.1b 104.0b 132.9a 123.0a 2.03***
1-21 762.9b 784.0b 900.6a 909.6a 12.28***
1-35 2037.4b 2110.5b 2219.1a 2228.3a 24.56*
Feed conversion ratio 1-7 1.20b 1.31a 1.12c 1.18bc 0.017*
1-21 1.51b 1.59a 1.50b 1.42c 0.020*
1-35 1.80a 1.84a 1.73b 1.72b 0.017*
1
Experimental treatments as described in Table 1.
a, b, c
Means within a row with different superscripts are significantly different at *P <0.05 and *** P <0.001;
SEM: standard error of means.
Hossain et al., 2013. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. vol. 43 213

Table 4 Moisture, pH and ammonia concentration of excreta material of broilers

Experimental treatments1
Pooled SEM
SBM CAN SBF CMF

Moisture (%) 77.6a 78.3a 72.5b 73.0b 0.64*

pH 7.4 7.4 7.2 7.3 0.07
Ammonia (mg/L) 10.0 10.1 9.3 9.4 0.98
1
Experimental treatments as described in Table 1.
Data represent mean values of eight replicate groups consisting of eight broiler chickens per replicate at 14
days of age.
a, b
Means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly at * P <0.05.

the VP diets. The FCRs on the SBM, CAN, SBF and CMF diets were 1.80, 1.84, 1.73 and 1.72, respectively
to 35 days. Mortality over the experimental period was similar, with no significant (P = 0.16) differences
between treatments. The mortality rate to 21 days was nil in the CAN diet group, 6.2% in the SBM, and
4.6% in the SBF and CMF groups. Over the 35 days, mortality was 10.9%, 6.2%, 10.9% and 12.5% in the
SBM, SBF, CAN and CMF groups, respectively, but not affected significantly (P >0.05).
Higher (P <0.05) moisture levels (78.3 and 77.6) were found in the excreta of the VP diet groups
(CAN and SBM, respectively) than of the AP diet groups (Table 4). Although the excreta pH values and the
concentration of ammonia in the broilers fed the VP diets were higher than those of birds the AP diets, these
differences were not significant (P >0.05). Table 5 shows that protein digestibility was higher (P <0.05) on
the AP diets than on the VP diets. Gross energy and starch digestibility were not significantly (P >0.05)
affected by dietary treatment.

Table 5 Ileal digestibility of gross energy, protein and starch by chicks on different diets

Experimental treatments1
Pooled SEM
SBM CAN SBF CMF

Gross energy 0.77 0.77 0.78 0.77 0.058

Protein 0.77b 0.76b 0.81a 0.80a 0.007*
Starch 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.003
1
Experimental treatments as described in Table 1.
Data represent mean values of eight replicate groups consisting of four broiler chickens per replicate during
the first 21 days.
a, b
Means within a row with different superscripts are significantly different at *P <0.05.

The results of the latency-to-sit and gait-scoring tests are presented in Table 6. Birds fed the SBF and
CMF diets spent the longest (P <0.05) time (14.6 and 13.3 min) standing in the water, while birds on the
SBM diet spent the shortest time (8.84 minutes). Statistically similar times (14.6 and 13.3 min) were spent by
the birds of CMF and SBF diet groups, respectively. There were no significant (P >0.05) differences in the
gait scores of the different dietary groups. However, comparatively higher scores were recorded on the SBM
and CAN diets compared to the values recorded for both SBF and CMF.
The highest (P <0.05) abdominal fat content (24.9 g) was found in the CMF diet and the lowest (14.7
g) was on the SBM diet (Table 7). The abdominal fat contents of broiler chickens fed animal protein diets
were similar between treatments. Other characteristics such as dressing percentage, breast, drumstick, thigh,
neck, giblet, shank and feather were not significantly different between dietary treatments.
214 Hossain et al., 2013. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. vol. 43

Table 6 Leg bone abnormalities measurement (latency-to-sit and gait-scoring tests)

Experimental treatments1
Pooled SEM
SBM CAN SBF CMF

Time spent (minutes) 8.84 c 11.28b 14.58a 13.26a 0.504*

Gait score 1.56 1.56 1.31 1.31 0.080
1
Experimental treatments as described in Table 1.
Data represent mean values of eight replicate groups of four chickens taken at 28 days of age.
a, b, c
Means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly at *P <0.05.

Table 7 Carcass characteristics and meat yield (g/b) of chickens

Experimental treatments1
Pooled SEM
SBM CAN SBF CMF

Feather 92.8 88.4 117.8 115.4 6.04

Carcass weight 1558.0 1644.0 1640.0 1667.0 27.05
Dressing percentage 74.6 74.5 74.0 73.9 0.38
Breast 519.0 496.7 519.4 519.0 9.26
Drumstick 186.0 190.5 191.3 197.2 2.89
Thigh 218.8 224.4 218.5 229.6 4.32
Abdominal fat 14.7c 18.2b 20.2a 24.9a 0.87*
Giblet 117.3 114.4 119.2 118.4 2.46
Shank 52.7 51.6 53.6 56.3 0.99
Neck 58.7 59.6 61.3 62.5 0.99

1 Experimental treatments as described in Table 1.

Data represent mean values of two chickens of eight replicate groups taken at the end of 35 day trial period;
a, b, c
Means within a row with different superscripts are significantly different at *P <0.05.

The results of bone characteristics (length, weight, width, breaking strength), and total bone ash and
bone mineral concentrations are presented in Tables 8 and 9, respectively. Birds on the CMF diet had the
longest (P <0.05) tibia bone (67.1 mm), while those on SBM had the shortest (62.9 mm). Bone length for the
other dietary groups was 65.7 and 64.7 mm, respectively, in the SBF and CAN groups. Similarly, birds on
SBF had the highest (P <0.05) bone breaking strength (31.3 kg). The lowest bone strength (21.5 kg) was
recorded in birds fed the SBM diet (Table 8). Statistically similar bone strength of 31.3 kg, 30.0 kg and 28.2
kg were found in birds fed the SBF, CMF and CAN diets, respectively.
Bone ash content of birds on the CMF diet was the highest (1.70 mg/g), while the birds on SBM diet
had the lowest (1.51 mg/g) bone ash content. Diets SBF and CMF produced a similar bone ash content, but
differed significantly (P <0.001) from other diet groups. Macro-mineral concentrations (Ca, P and Mg) on
various treatments were identical. Of the micro-mineral concentrations, only Fe and Cu differed (P <0.05)
between diet groups, with the highest concentrations (µg/g bone ash) of Fe (2.86) and Cu (0.048) in the CMF
diet group, while the CAN and SBM diet groups contained the lowest concentrations of 2.29 and 0.030,
respectively. Statistically similar Cu concentrations of 0.03 μg/g, 0.032 μg/g and 0.033 μg/g bone ash were
found in the bones of birds fed SBM, CAN and SBF diets, respectively. The Fe concentration of CAN diet
group of birds was also similar to that of the SBF diet group.
Hossain et al., 2013. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. vol. 43 215

Table 8 Bone (right tibia) characteristics and quality of broiler chickens

Experimental treatments1
Pooled SEM
SBM CAN SBF CMF

Length of bone (mm) 62.9c 64.7b 65.7b 67.1a 0.37*

Weight of bone (g/kg body
3.5 3.4 3.6 3.7 0.07
weight of bird)
Width of bone (mm) 11.5 11.3 11.9 11.6 0.12
Breaking strength (kg ) 21.5c 28.2ab 31.3a 30.0a 1.05 *
1
Experimental treatments as described in Table 1.
Length and width of bone are measured in millimetres per bone per bird; breaking strength is expressed in kg
force required to break each bone per bird.
a, b, c
Means within a row bearing uncommon superscripts in a row are significantly different at *P <0.05.

Table 9 Mineral concentrations in tibia bone

Experimental treatments1
Pooled SEM
SBM CAN SBF CMF

Tibia bone ash (mg/g

1.51c 1.57b 1.64a 1.70a 0.009***
bone weight)
Macro minerals (g/kg bone ash)
Calcium 236.30 243.60 246.60 246.50 3.500
Phosphorus 111.00 112.30 113.20 114.30 1.520
Magnesium (µg/g
47.62 46.77 45.88 46.98 0.618
bone ash)
Trace minerals (µg/g bone ash)
Magnesium 47.62 46.77 45.88 46.98 0.618
Manganese 0.063 0.057 0.058 0.048 0.0024
Zinc 3.36 2.66 2.77 2.81 0.132
Iron 2.78b 2.29c 2.43c 2.86a 0.074*
Copper 0.03b 0.032b 0.033b 0.048a 0.0019*
1
Experimental treatments as described in Table 1.
Data represent means of eight replicates of 2 chicken right tibia bones at age of 35 days.
a, b, c
Means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly at *P <0.05; *** P <0.001.

Discussion
From the current study it is clear that the gross response of broiler chickens fed AP diets was better
than that of birds receiving the VP diets. Birds fed AP diets attained significantly higher body weight gain
and better feed efficiency over the entire trial period. The results suggest that the positive response to AP
diets was mainly because of the increase in feed intake. A similar increase in feed intake by broilers fed AP
diets was reported by Bhuiyan et al. (2012a; b) without any improvement in growth. The difference in
growth response between the studies might be owing to variation in feed composition and formulation. The
diets used in the current study were formulated on the basis of total amino acids, unlike those in the study by
Bhuiyan et al. (2012a; b), who formulated on the basis of digestible amino acids. The latter would generally
yield diets that are more balanced in amino acids, regardless of the source of protein.
The FCR was improved on the AP diets compared with the VP diet groups. This difference may be
because of better protein digestibility of the AP diets as well as increased efficiency in utilization of energy,
216 Hossain et al., 2013. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. vol. 43

as recently reported by Hossain et al. (2012a; b) in a trial on similar diets. Our findings are in agreement with
Solangi et al. (2002) and Alali et al. (2011), who reported that fish meal and other animal protein meals
increase feed intake and enhance the feed efficiency of broiler chickens. However, these responses may not
always be statistically significant with all animal products or feed formulations, as observed by Bhuiyan et
al. (2012a) in studies on high-quality meat meal.
The birds on the VP diets voided excreta with a significantly higher moisture content than those on the
AP diets. The moisture content of the excreta of broilers in the VP groups was about 5% higher than levels in
the AP diet groups. Many dietary factors, including protein level, electrolytic balance, ionophores,
cereal/fibre/legume contents and non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) are known to affect excreta/litter
moisture and quality (Smith et al., 2000; Murakami et al., 2001). Our findings support the results of Vieira &
Lima (2005) and Eichner et al. (2007), who reported that broilers fed diets formulated solely with vegetable
ingredients produce a higher amount of moisture and ammonia in their excreta. This excess moisture affects
the litter quality adversely and leads to an increased risk of footpad dermatitis and other diseases.
Ileal protein digestibility in the VP diets was lower than in the AP diets. This finding supports the
report of Vieira & Lima (2005). This may partly be responsible for the better growth of broiler chickens on
the AP diets observed in this study. The poor protein digestibility of VP diets may be owing to various
factors, including the presence of ANF, the nature of the protein and amino acid balance, as well as a higher
proportion of crude fibre of vegetable feeds (Hossain et al., 2011b). No two protein sources are similar in
properties such as mode of digestibility, biological value, protein quality, and physical and chemical
properties (Sing & Panda, 1992). These characteristics of individual protein sources may affect the protein
digestibility and performance of birds when used in feed formulation. However, several researchers (Gatel,
1994; Smits & Annison, 1996) reported that the major factor limiting the use of vegetable proteins in
practical diets is the existence of naturally occurring deleterious factors, including NSP, tannins and trypsin
inhibitors, which have adverse effects on nutrient digestibility and absorption. Although properly processed
oilseed meals may have little or no residual ANF, the complex structure, physical and chemical properties of
all-vegetable diets might prevent the birds from obtaining full nutritional benefits by suppressing their
nutrient digestibility and energy utilization. In this study, the ileal energy digestibility of broilers of all
dietary groups was similar, which would be because similar cereals (maize and wheat) constituted the major
proportion of the basal diets.
The results of the LTS test show better leg bone development in birds on the AP diets than was
observed with the gait scores. Berg & Sanotra (2003) found dissimilar results between the LTS and gait-
scoring data, the latter being more subjective than the former. The poor leg health of broilers on the VP diets
(SBM; CAN) may have resulted from the phytate content of the plant feeds, although these diets were
supplemented with microbial enzymes. The anti-nutritive properties of phytate may not have been
completely eliminated by phytase supplementation (Selle & Ravindran, 2007).
Most of the meat yield traits were similar, and the differences between treatment groups were non-
significant. These findings support the report of Al-Masri (2003), who observed no significant differences in
the various carcass traits of broiler chickens fed VP diets and those fed AP diets, with meat-bone meal or fish
meal as animal protein. The difference in the abdominal fat content observed in this study was similar to the
findings of previous researchers who evaluated diets containing animal proteins (Janocha & Milczarek,
2006). The probable reason for the increase in abdominal fat on AP diets may be more rapid growth, leading
to earlier transition from muscle to fat deposition.
Although there were no significant differences in the macro-mineral concentration from different diet
groups, total bone ash contents of the birds on AP diets were significantly higher than those of birds on VP
diets in this study. The increased length, width and weight of bones of the birds on the AP diets may
contribute to higher bone ash content in birds fed on these diets. Apart from this, despite the lack of major
differences in bone macro-mineral concentrations between treatments, the major mineral elements, Ca and P,
which are closely related to bone development, were found in comparatively higher concentrations in the
bones of broilers fed the AP diets than those fed the VP diets. Conversely, the concentrations of Mg and Mn
were found to be slightly higher in birds on the VP diets than those on the AP diets. However, these two
minerals are only required in trace amounts and may contribute less to bone development than Ca and P. The
higher concentrations of Cu and Fe in bone ash in birds on the CMF diet may stimulate bone growth and
increase bone strength, as these trace minerals are linked to use of the main minerals, Ca and P, in bone
development (Medeiros et al., 1997).
Hossain et al., 2013. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. vol. 43 217

Conclusion
The present study shows that broiler chickens fed on AP diets had comparatively better performance,
in terms of feed intake, live weight gain and FCR than those fed VP diets. This may be owing to higher ileal
digestibility of protein and better bone development on the former diets than on the latter. However, chicks
on AP diets were fatter than those on VP diets. It is not known whether and how these results will be
sustained if diets were formulated based on digestible rather than total amino acids. A recommendation of
either set of diets would also depend on a full economic analysis of the costs associated with their feeding.

Acknowledgement
The project was funded by the UNE, Australia, and Danisco Animal Nutrition, UK, supplied the
enzyme.

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