Yeshwant Rural Education Society’s
BAPURAO DESHMUKH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SEVAGRAM
(WARDHA)
CO BASED ACTIVITY
Topic : Solution of first and second order differential
equations of different combinations of series RLC
networks.
Name of Student : Chaitanya N Khadse
Subject : Network Analysis
Roll No. : 53
Branch : Electrical Engineering
Semester : Third Semester
Academic Year : 2025 - 26
Under the : Prof. S. D. Zilpe
guidance
VISION :- Produce Professional Electrical Engineering, to accept to new challenges, to serve the society center
of excellence
Introduction
Electrical circuits containing resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors (C) form the foundation of
circuit analysis in electrical engineering. These circuits are described by differential equations whose
order depends on the number of energy storage elements present. First-order circuits contain a single
energy storage element (either a capacitor or an inductor), while second-order circuits contain two
energy storage elements. Understanding the mathematical solutions to these differential equations is
crucial for predicting circuit behavior during transient and steady-state operation.
First-Order Circuits
First-order circuits are characterized by first-order differential equations and contain either a resistor-
capacitor (RC) combination or a resistor-inductor (RL) combination.
Series RC Circuit
In a series RC circuit consisting of a resistor R, capacitor C, and voltage source V, Kirchhoff's voltage
law yields:
1
𝑅𝑖 + ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉
𝐶
Differentiating with respect to time produces the first-order differential equation:
𝑑𝑖 𝑖
𝑅 + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Alternatively, expressing the equation in terms of capacitor voltage 𝑣𝐶 :
𝑑𝑣𝐶 1 𝑉
+ 𝑣𝐶 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
General Solution:
The complete solution consists of homogeneous and particular solutions. For a constant voltage source,
the solution is:
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉 + (𝑉0 − 𝑉)𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
where 𝑉0 is the initial voltage across the capacitor and 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 is the time constant.
Time Constant: The time constant 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 represents the time required for the voltage or current to
reach 63.2% of its final value. After approximately 5-time constants, the circuit is considered to have
reached steady state.
Series RL Circuit
For a series RL circuit with resistor R, inductor L, and voltage source V, Kirchhoff's voltage law gives:
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑉
𝑑𝑡
This is a first-order linear differential equation with the general solution:
𝑉 𝑅
𝑖(𝑡) = (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )
𝑅
𝐿
Time Constant: For RL circuits, the time constant is 𝜏 = . This parameter determines how quickly
𝑅
the current builds up from zero to its steady-state value of 𝑉/𝑅.
At one time constant (𝑡 = 𝜏), the current reaches approximately 63.2% of its steady-state value. The
exponential nature of this response is identical in form to the RC circuit, differing only in the time
constant calculation.
Second-Order RLC Circuits
Second-order circuits contain two energy storage elements and are described by second-order
differential equations. The RLC circuit exhibits rich dynamic behavior including oscillations and
various damping characteristics.
Series RLC Circuit Differential Equation
For a series RLC circuit with applied voltage 𝐸(𝑡), applying Kirchhoff's voltage law yields:
𝑑𝑖 1
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 + ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑞
Differentiating with respect to time and using the relationship 𝑖 = (where q is charge):
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑖 𝑑𝑖 1 𝑑𝐸
𝐿 + 𝑅 + 𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
This can be rewritten in standard form by dividing by L:
𝑑 2 𝑖 𝑅 𝑑𝑖 1 1 𝑑𝐸
2
+ + 𝑖=
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
Characteristic Equation and Natural Frequency
The characteristic equation for the homogeneous differential equation is obtained by assuming an
exponential solution of the form 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑡 :
1
𝐿𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝑠 + =0
𝐶
Solving for the roots:
𝑠 = −𝛼 ± √𝛼 2 − 𝜔02
where:
𝑅
• Damping factor: 𝛼 =
2𝐿
1
• Natural (resonant) frequency: 𝜔0 =
√𝐿𝐶
Types of Damping Responses
The nature of the circuit response depends on the relationship between the damping factor α and natural
𝛼
frequency 𝜔0 , characterized by the damping ratio 𝜁 = .
𝜔0
1. Overdamped Response (𝛼 > 𝜔0 or 𝜁 > 1)
𝑅 1
When > , the roots are real and distinct:
2𝐿 √𝐿𝐶
𝑠1 = −𝛼 + √𝛼 2 − 𝜔02 , 𝑠2 = −𝛼 − √𝛼 2 − 𝜔02
The general solution is:
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡
This response is characterized by a slow, non-oscillatory return to steady state without overshooting.
The system has high resistance relative to inductance and capacitance.[24][3][22]
Condition for overdamping:
𝑅 2 1
( ) >
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶
4𝐿
or equivalently: 𝐶 >
𝑅2
2. Critically Damped Response (𝛼 = 𝜔0 or 𝜁 = 1)
𝑅 1
When = , the roots are real and equal:
2𝐿 √𝐿𝐶
𝑠1 = 𝑠2 = −𝛼
The general solution requires a modified form:
𝑖(𝑡) = (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
Critical damping provides the fastest possible return to steady state without oscillation. This is the
boundary condition between overdamped and underdamped behavior.
Condition for critical damping:
𝑅 2 1
( ) =
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶
4𝐿
or equivalently: 𝐶 =
𝑅2
3. Underdamped Response (𝛼 < 𝜔0 or 𝜁 < 1)
𝑅 1
When < , the roots are complex conjugates:
2𝐿 √𝐿𝐶
𝑠 = −𝛼 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑
where the damped frequency is 𝜔𝑑 = √𝜔02 − 𝛼 2 .
The general solution is:
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝐴1 cos (𝜔𝑑 𝑡) + 𝐴2 sin (𝜔𝑑 𝑡))
or equivalently:
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 cos (𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙)
This response exhibits decaying oscillations (ringing) before settling to steady state. The oscillation
frequency is lower than the natural frequency due to damping.[27][28][24]
Condition for underdamping:
𝑅 2 1
( ) <
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶
4𝐿
or equivalently: 𝐶 <
𝑅2
Parallel RLC Circuit
For parallel RLC circuits, Kirchhoff's current law is applied instead of voltage law. The differential
equation in terms of voltage v across the parallel combination is:
𝑑 2 𝑣 1 𝑑𝑣 1
𝐶 2+ + 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
Dividing by C yields the standard form:[30]
𝑑2 𝑣 1 𝑑𝑣 1 1 𝑑𝑖𝑠
+ + 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
Key difference from series circuit: The damping factor for parallel RLC is:
1
𝛼𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 =
2𝑅𝐶
𝑅 1
compared to 𝛼𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = for series circuits. The natural frequency remains 𝜔0 = for both
2𝐿 √𝐿𝐶
configurations.
Complete Response: Natural and Forced Components
The complete solution to a non-homogeneous differential equation consists of two parts:
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥ℎ (𝑡) + 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡)
where:
• 𝑥ℎ (𝑡) is the homogeneous (natural) response - the transient solution that satisfies the equation
with zero input and depends on initial conditions
• 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡) is the particular (forced) response - the steady-state solution determined by the form of
the input function
Natural Response
The natural response represents the circuit's behavior due to initial energy stored in capacitors and
inductors, with input sources turned off. It contains the arbitrary constants that are determined from
initial conditions.
For RLC circuits, the natural response takes one of the three damped forms (overdamped, critically
damped, or underdamped) as described above.
Forced Response
The forced response is the particular solution corresponding to the steady-state behavior driven by the
input source. For different input types:
• Constant (DC) input: 𝑥𝑝 = 𝐴 (constant)
• Sinusoidal input: 𝑥𝑝 = 𝐵cos (𝜔𝑡) + 𝐶sin (𝜔𝑡)
• Exponential input: 𝑥𝑝 = 𝐷𝑒 𝑎𝑡
The method of undetermined coefficients or variation of parameters is used to find the particular
solution.
Initial Conditions
To determine the arbitrary constants in the complete solution, initial conditions are required:
• For capacitors: Voltage cannot change instantaneously, so 𝑣𝐶 (0+ ) = 𝑣𝐶 (0− )
• For inductors: Current cannot change instantaneously, so 𝑖𝐿 (0+ ) = 𝑖𝐿 (0− )
Second-order systems require two initial conditions, typically the initial value and initial derivative of
the variable of interest.
Quality Factor and Bandwidth
For RLC circuits, the quality factor Q characterizes the sharpness of resonance and energy efficiency.
Series RLC Circuit:
𝜔0 𝐿 1 𝐿
𝑄= = √
𝑅 𝑅 𝐶
𝐶
𝑄 = 𝑅√
𝐿
The quality factor relates to bandwidth (BW) by:
𝜔0 𝑅
𝐵𝑊 = = (for series RLC)
𝑄 𝐿
Higher Q indicates sharper resonance, narrower bandwidth, and lower energy dissipation. The damping
1
ratio and quality factor are related by 𝜁 = .
2𝑄
Laplace Transform Method
The Laplace transform provides a powerful alternative to classical differential equation methods,
converting time-domain differential equations into algebraic equations in the s-domain.
General procedure:
1. Develop the differential equation using Kirchhoff's laws
2. Apply Laplace transformation to convert to s-domain
3. Solve algebraically for the response transform
4. Apply inverse Laplace transformation to obtain time-domain solution
For the series RLC circuit, taking the Laplace transform of both sides:
1 𝐼(𝑠)
𝐿[𝑠 2 𝐼(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑖(0) − 𝑖 ′ (0)] + 𝑅[𝑠𝐼(𝑠) − 𝑖(0)] + = 𝐸(𝑠)
𝐶 𝑠
This method automatically incorporates initial conditions and is particularly effective for circuits with
discontinuous inputs or time-varying sources.
Conclusion
First and second order RLC circuits exhibit fundamentally different behaviors:
First-order circuits (RC or RL) have simple exponential responses characterized by a single time
constant. The voltage or current approaches its final value asymptotically without oscillation.
Second-order circuits (RLC) display richer dynamics with three possible response types depending
on the relative magnitudes of resistance, inductance, and capacitance. The damping ratio determines
whether the system is overdamped (slow, non-oscillatory), critically damped (fastest non-oscillatory),
or underdamped (oscillatory with decay).
Understanding these differential equations and their solutions is essential for designing filters,
oscillators, timing circuits, and resonant systems in power electronics, communications, and control
systems.
