Ethics class 6

Normative ethics-2
Deontological ethics
• The term” deontology” derives from the Greek “deon” meaning “obligation” or
“duty”, and “logos” meaning “speaking” or “study”, and was rst used in this
way in 1930, in the book “Five Types of Ethical Theory” by C. D. Broad (1887 -
1971).

• Deontology (or Deontological Ethics) is an approach to Ethics that focuses on

the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness
or wrongness of the consequences of those actions (Consequentialism) or to
the character and habits of the actor (Virtue Ethics).Therefore it is sometimes
described as “duty-based” or “obligation-based” ethics, because
Deontologists believe that ethical rules bind people to their duty.

• Deontology may sometimes be consistent with Moral Absolutism (the belief

that some actions are wrong no matter what consequences follow from them),
but not necessarily. E.g. lying two perspectives 1. Absolutism 2. Relativism.

fi
KANTIAN ETHICS AND CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
• Immanuel kant believed that morality is universal and absolute, moral acts are
inherently right or good, one must strive for it. According to kant these moral
acts are one’s duty so one must not have any other motivation to achieve it.

• According to kant these moral duties are categorical imperatives. An

imperative is a command. So, “Pay your taxes!” is an imperative, as are “Stop
kicking the football!” and “Don’t kill animals!”

• There are two types of imperatives:

• Hypothetical Imperatives: these imperatives command conditionally on
your having a relevant desire. E.g.

• Categorical Imperatives: These imperatives command unconditionally. E.g.

• According to Kant morality must be based on the categorical imperative
because morality is such that you are commanded by it, and is such that you
cannot opt out of it or claim that it does not apply to you.

• A categorical imperative have three formulations. If any action follows these

three formulation that action is moral duty or categorical imperative.

• 1) The First Formulation: Formula of Universality and the Law of Nature:

• “Act according to that maxim whereby you can and at the same time will that
it should become a universal law” - immanuel kant

• More accurately, it commands that every maxim you act on must be such that
you are willing to make it the case that everyone always act on that maxim
when in a similar situation.

• e.g.
• 2) The Second Formulation: The Formula of Humanity
• “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in
the person of any other, never merely as a mean to an end, but always at the
same time as an end”. - Immanuel Kant

• Every rational action must set before itself not only a principle, but also an
end. Most ends are of a subjective kind, because they need only be pursued
if they are in line with some particular hypothetical imperative that a person
may choose to adopt. For an end to be objective, it would be necessary that
we categorically pursue it.

• E.g.
•
• 3) The Third Formulation: The Formula of Autonomy
• “Thus the third formulation follows (from the rst two) as the ultimate
condition of their harmony with practical reason. The idea of the will of
every rational being as a universally legislating will.” - Immanuel Kant

• Kant claims that the rst formulation lays out the objective conditions on the
categorical imperative: that it be universal in form and thus capable of
becoming a law of nature. Likewise, the second formulation lays out
subjective conditions: that there be certain ends in themselves, namely
rational beings as such. This leads to the concept of self-legislation. Each
subject must through his own use of reason will maxims which have the form
of universality, but do not impinge on the freedom of others: thus each
subject must will maxims that could be universally self-legislated.

• third formulation makes it clear that the categorical imperative requires

autonomy. It is not enough that the right conduct be followed, but that one
also demands that conduct of oneself.
fi
fi
• According to Kant a good person is someone who always does their duty
because it is their duty. It is ne if they enjoy doing it, but it must be the case
that they would do it even if they did not enjoy it. The overall theme is that to
be a good person you must be good for goodness sake.

• “Act according to maxims of universally legislating member of a merely

possible kingdom of ends” - Immanuel Kant

• Features of Kantian morality:

• One must act according to moral maxims(rules) in any situation
• Nature of an act and motivation of an actor are important rather than its
consequences. E.g.

• Kant is not against happiness and good he wanted to achieve universal

happiness rather individual happiness.
fi
Ethics of Geeta
• Nishkam karma yoga
Criticism of deontological ethics
• Robert Nozick (1938 - 2002) famously points out what has become known as
the Paradox of Deontology, that Deontology forbids some acts that
maximise welfare overall.

• The example usually used is that of a trolley hurtling towards ve innocent

and immobile people at the end of a track, where the only way to stop the
trolley and save the ve is to throw one innocent bystander in front of the
trolley.

• Utilitarians like Jeremy Bentham have criticized Deontology on the grounds

that it is essentially a dressed up version of popular morality, and that the
objective and unchanging principles that deontologists attribute to natural law
or universal reason are really just a matter of subjective opinion.
fi
fi
• deontologists usually fail to specify which principles should take priority when
rights and duties con ict, so that Deontology cannot o er complete moral
guidance. E.g.

fl
ff
Virtue ethics
• Virtue ethics is currently one of three major approaches in normative ethics. It
may, initially, be identi ed as the one that emphasizes the virtues, or moral
character, in contrast to the approach that emphasizes duties or rules
(deontology) or that emphasizes the consequences of actions
(consequentialism).

• Virtue ethics teaches:

• An action is only right if it is an action that a virtuous person would carry
out in the same circumstances.

• A virtuous person is a person who acts virtuously

• A person acts virtuously if they “possess and live the virtues”

• A virtue is a moral characteristic that a person needs to live well.

fi
• Socrates’s virtue ethics : Socrates was rst person in classical greek philosophy
who argued about virtue ethics. He consider himself a moral teacher and by his
dialectical method he refuted many wrong notions of greek ethics.

• all virtue is knowledge; virtue is su cient for happiness.

• He believed that wrongdoing was a consequence of ignorance and those who
did wrong knew no better (sometimes referred to as Ethical Intellectualism).

• He believed the best way for people to live was to focus on self-development
rather than the pursuit of material wealth, and he always invited others to try to
concentrate more on friendships and a sense of true community.

• He was convinced that humans possessed certain virtues(particularly the

important philosophical or intellectual virtues), and that virtue was the most
valuable of all possessions, and the ideal life should be spent in search of the
Good (an early statement of Eudaimonism or Virtue Ethics).
ffi
fi
PLATO’S VIRTUE ETHICS
• Plato has described fourimportant virtues in his theory of Morality-
• 1) Wisdom
• 2) Courage
• 3) Temperance
• 4) Justice
• According to him the cultivation of these four virtues constitutes a morally good life,
Later on; these four virtues came to be called ‘Cardinal virtues’. The term ‘cardinal’ is
derived from the word Cardo.’ Cardo’ means a hinge or a hook which supports the
door, and on which the door turns. The four virtues are cardinal because they support
moral life of man in society. They are fundamental virtues. Other virtues depend upon
them and are therefore subordinate to them.
• According to Plato, the key to moral life is the proper integration of the three
parts of the self. The three elements or parts of human beings are:

• Passionate or Appetitive Element (Passions)

• Spirited or Dynamic & Executive Element (Will)
• Philosophical or Rational Element (Reason or Intellect)
Aristotle’s virtue ethics
• According to Aristotle if we can just focus on being good people the right
actions will follow e ortlessly. According to Aristotle knowledge, courage,
bravery, and perseverance by themselves donot make a morally good
character or man. Their ethical signi cance depends or the motives and the
values to which they are related. Aristotle, therefore, rightly distinguishes the
moral virtues from the intellectual virtues.

• The Nicomachean Ethics is the name normally given to Aristotle’s best-

known work on ethics. Aristotle aims to identify the highest good for human
beings. While most people believe that the highest good is acquisition of
material wealth, pursuit of honour or satisfaction ofnbodily pleasures. Aristotle
argues that all of these goods are de cient in the highest good in some way.
Material wealth is always acquired for the purpose of attaining something
else.
ff
fi
fi
• Aristotle feels that the HIGHEST GOOD must be something that is consistent
with our faculties as a human being. What separates human beings from non-
human animals is our capacity to reason. And a life that only seeks bodily
pleasures is not t for human beings but for cattle (read animals). So he argues
that a good life for human beings would focus to a signi cant extent on
contemplation on learning or acquiring the intellectual virtues.

• Aristotle argues that it is not about God’s plan but nature has built into us
the desire to be virtuous.

• Aristotle says that having virtue just means doing the right thing, at the right
time, in the right way, in then right amount, toward the right people. Aristotle
understood virtue as a robust character trait that once developed would lead
to predictably good behaviour. Virtue is the mid-point between two extremes.

• The doctrine of the golden mean is central in Aristotle’s concept of character

virtues. These virtues occupy a middle ground between the vices of excess
and de ciency.
fi
fi
fi
• According to Aristotle Virtue is a skill, a way of living, and that’s something
that can only be learned through experience. Virtue is a kind of knowledge
that Aristotle called practical wisdom.

• But how can we know in the rst place what is virtuous thing to do?
• Aristotle says that we must look up to people who are virtuous-They are
called moral exemplars. We must look upto them and try to emulate them.
Over time such emulation would ingrain these virtues into our character and
eventually we will develop a virtuous character.

• Acquisition of both the intellectual virtues and virtue of character makes up

Aristotle’s highest good- summum bonum.

• Summum bonum is an essence of EUDAIMONIA (which roughly translates to

a life well lived; human ourishing or happiness)
fl
fi