INTERACTION & INTERDEPENDENCE

CELLS

C2.2. Neural signalling

GUIDING QUESTIONS
• How are electrical signals generated and moved within neurons?
• How can neurons interact with other cells?
 C2.2.1—Neurons as cells within the nervous system that carry electrical
CELLS
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE impulses

● There are two systems in the body for internal

communication: the endocrine system and the
nervous system.
● The nervous system consists of nerve cells called
neurons.
● These transmit information via nerve impulses that
are electrical signals.
 C2.2.1—Neurons as cells within the nervous system that carry electrical
CELLS
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE impulses

● The cytoplasm and a nucleus form the cell

body of a neuron, with elongated nerve
fibres of varying length projecting from it.
● An axon is a long single fibre that carries
information away from the cell body.
● Axon terminals transmit impulses to
other neurons or effector cells.
● Dendrites are multiple shorter fibres that
receive impulses from other neurons.
● Electrical impulses are conducted along
these fibres.
 C2.2.2—Generation of the resting potential by pumping to establish and
CELLS
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE maintain concentration gradients of sodium and potassium ions

● Membrane potential is a property of

membranes caused by an imbalance of
charges on either side of the membrane. It
is expressed as a voltage.
● The cytoplasm is more negative than the
extracellular fluid. As such, the resting
membrane potential is negative.
● The resting membrane potential of neurons
is around -70mV.
 C2.2.2—Generation of the resting potential by pumping to establish and
CELLS
maintain concentration gradients of sodium and potassium ions
● The sodium-potassium pump helps to establish
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

the resting membrane potential.

● This uses active transport (and therefore ATP) to
pump sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions in
and out of the cell.
● Three Na+ ions are pumped out of the cell
whilst only two K+ ions are pumped in. This
creates an imbalance of charges that helps to
establish the resting potential.
● The ions can diffuse back across the membrane,
but the membrane is more permeable to K+ than
to Na+, which contributes to the imbalance.
 C2.2.3—Nerve impulses as action potentials that are propagated along nerve
CELLS
fibres
● Once resting potential is reached, the neuron
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

membrane is said to be polarized.

● Impulses are electrical because they involve the
movement of positively charged ions.
● Impulses are transmitted along neurons in the
form of action potentials.
● Action potentials are rapid changes to membrane
potential (depolarization) caused by the
movement of ions across the membrane.
● Action potentials in one part of the axon trigger
action potentials in the next part of the axon,
effectively moving the impulse along.
HL
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE C2.2.8—Depolarization and repolarization during action potentials CELLS

● During an action potential, voltage-gated

sodium channels open and sodium ions
rapidly move into the neuron.
● This reverses the membrane potential,
depolarizing the membrane to around
+30mV.
● Voltage-gated potassium channels open
and K+ ions move out the neuron, reversing
the membrane potential to around -90mV.
● This is called repolarization.
HL C2.2.8—Depolarization and repolarization during action potentials CELLS

Although the membrane potential is negative,

INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

●
the distribution of ions is not yet back to the
resting state.
● The sodium-potassium pump corrects the ion
imbalance back to the resting membrane
potential. This period of is called the
refractory period.
● Once the membrane potential is back to
-70mV and the ions are distributed
appropriately, the axon can receive another
action potential.
HL Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ Na+

Na+
Na+ K+
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

Na+ K+ Na+
+
Na+ Na
Na+ Na+

Na+
K+
+
K +
K
+
Na Na +
K+

Na+
K+ Na+

K+ Na+

K+ K+ K+

-70mV Resting +30mV Depolarisation -70mV Repolarisation

HL
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE C2.2.8—Depolarization and repolarization during action potentials CELLS

● For an action potential to be initiated, a

threshold potential must be reached.
● This triggers the voltage-gated sodium
channels to open to initiate full depolarization.
● Therefore, action potentials are
“all-or-nothing”: they will only be initiated if
the threshold potential is reached.
● As such, the magnitude of an action potential
doesn’t change in response to a stronger
stimulus, but the frequency of action
potentials does.
 C2.2.9—Propagation of an action potential along a nerve fibre/axon as a
HL CELLS
result of local currents
● Local currents cause the membrane potential to reduce to the threshold potential in the next part of the
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

neuron.
● In the section of the neuron that has already depolarized, there is a high concentration of Na+ ions inside the
neuron. These diffuse laterally inside the neuron to the area of the neuron that is still polarized and has a
lower [Na+].
● In addition, Na+ outside the neuron will also diffuse away from the polarized region as the concentration in
the depolarized area is lower.

● This decreases the membrane potential

in the next part of the neuron.
● Once the membrane potential reaches
-50mV, the Na+ channels will open and
full depolarization will occur.
 C2.2.9—Propagation of an action potential along a nerve fibre/axon as a
HL CELLS
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE result of local currents
HL
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE TASK CELLS

1. Explain the role of the sodium-potassium pump in neural signalling. [3]

2. Describe the role of voltage-gated ion channels in an action potential. [4]
3. Explain how action potentials are initiated in the next part of the axon. [4]
4. Explain how an action potential is generated. [7]
HL
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE C2.2.10—Oscilloscope traces showing resting potentials and action potentials CELLS
 C2.2.4—Variation in the speed of nerve impulses CELLS
● Many factors can influence the speed of transmission along
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

an axon:
○ Diameter of axon
○ Myelination
● The larger the diameter, the faster transmission speed, as
there is less resistance inside the axon for ions to move
around.
● The giant axons in squid have diameters of 500µm and
transmission speeds of 25 m/s (human axons have
diameters of around 1µm and speeds of 1 m/s)
● However, giant axons take up a lot of space and resources
and so are only reserved for actions where speed is vital.
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE C2.2.4—Variation in the speed of nerve impulses CELLS

● Myelination is the deposition of a myelin sheath around an

axon.
● Myelin is a fatty substance that is secreted by Schwann
cells. This wraps around the axon in sections, creating a
myelin sheath.
● This insulates the axons and massively speeds up
transmission to around 100 m/s.
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE C2.2.4—Variation in the speed of nerve impulses CELLS
HL C2.2.11—Saltatory conduction in myelinated fibres to achieve faster impulses CELLS

● The gaps between sections of myelin sheath are called nodes of Ranvier. The impulse jumps from
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

one node to the next.

● As the myelin sheath prevents ion movements, ion channels and pumps are clustered at the nodes
of Ranvier. As such, the action potentials are propagated at the nodes and jump between nodes.
● This is called saltatory conduction and massively speeds up transmission.
 C2.2.5—Synapses as junctions between neurons and between neurons
CELLS
and effector cells
● Synapses are the junctions between neurons.
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

● These can be:

○ Between receptors cells and neurons
○ Between neurons
○ Between a neuron and an effector (muscle or
gland cell)
● Signals can only pass in one direction across a synapse.
● The presynaptic neuron (axon terminals) bring the
signal to the synapse; the postsynaptic neuron
(dendrites) carry the signal away from the synapse.
● Impulses are transmitted across synapses via
neurotransmitters.
 C2.2.6—Release of neurotransmitters from a presynaptic membrane CELLS

When an impulse reaches the presynaptic

INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE
●
membrane:
○ Depolarization of the presynaptic
membrane causes calcium channels
to open.
○ Ca2+ diffuse into the presynaptic
membrane.
○ Vesicles containing
neurotransmitters move to the
presynaptic membrane.
○ They release the neurotransmitters
via exocytosis into the synaptic cleft.
 C2.2.7—Generation of an excitatory postsynaptic potential CELLS

● Once the neurotransmitters diffuse across the

INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

synaptic cleft, the neurotransmitters bind to

transmembrane receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane.
● This causes ion channels to open and for ions to
diffuse into the postsynaptic neuron.
● This causes the postsynaptic neuron to depolarize,
effectively transferring the impulse from one neuron
to another.
● This is an example of an excitatory postsynaptic
potential.
● The neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are
rapidly broken down and removed.
 C2.2.7—Generation of an excitatory postsynaptic potential CELLS

● Acetylcholine (ACh) is a
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

neurotransmitter that has actions

across many different synapse, e.g.
neuromuscular junction.
● The enzyme, acetylcholinesterase
breaks down ACh in the synaptic cleft
once an action potential has been
initiated in the postsynaptic neuron.
 C2.2.13—Inhibitory neurotransmitters and generation of inhibitory
HL CELLS
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE postsynaptic potentials

● Some neurotransmitters are inhibitory, rather

Action

than excitatory: they inhibit transmission in potential

Threshold

the postsynaptic neuron. Excitatory

postsynaptic
potential

● These cause hyperpolarization in the

postsynaptic neuron (e.g. by opening K+ or Cl-
channels), making it more difficult to reach Inhibitory
postsynaptic
Resting
potential
the threshold potential.
potential
 C2.2.14—Summation of the effects of excitatory and inhibitory
HL CELLS
neurotransmitters in a postsynaptic neuron
● More than one presynaptic neuron can synapse
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

with a postsynaptic neuron, especially in the brain.

● A single excitatory postsynaptic potential may not
be sufficient to reach the threshold potential.
● Often, several presynaptic neurons must release a
neurotransmitter simultaneously to initiate an
action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. This is
called summation.
● This can also combine the effects of inhibitory and
excitatory neurotransmitters.
● The integration of signals from different sources is
what underpins decision-making in the CNS: both
conscious and unconscious.
HL C2.2.12—Effects of exogenous chemicals on synaptic transmission CELLS

● Exogenous chemicals are those that

INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

arise from an outside source.

● These may be ingested, absorbed
through the skin, injected, etc.
● Many exogenous chemicals can affect
neural transmission, e.g.
○ Neonicotinoids
○ Stimulants, e.g. cocaine
○ Depressants, e.g. alcohol
HL C2.2.12—Effects of exogenous chemicals on synaptic transmission CELLS

● Neonicotinoids are synthetic compounds similar to

INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

nicotine that are commonly found in pesticides.

● These block synaptic transmission at cholinergic
synapses in insects by binding to ACh receptors.
● This binding is irreversible, as acetylcholinesterase
cannot break down neonicotinoids.
● As the ACh receptors are blocked, ACh is unable to bind,
which stops impulses from being transmitted across
synapses.
● This leads to paralysis and death in insects.
HL C2.2.12—Effects of exogenous chemicals on synaptic transmission CELLS

Neonicotinoids are considered to be especially suitable as

INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE
●
pesticides because they're not toxic to humans and other
mammals:
○ A much larger proportion of synapses in insects are
cholinergic compared to mammals
○ Neonicotinoids bind much more strongly to
acetylcholine receptors in insects
● However, there is a great deal of controversy over the use of
neonicotinoid pesticides because of the impact that they
are thought to have on essential pollinators such as bees.
HL C2.2.12—Effects of exogenous chemicals on synaptic transmission CELLS
● Cocaine is a drug that blocks the reuptake of dopamine into
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

the presynaptic knob, as it binds to the dopamine transporter

protein.
● This prevents the reuptake of dopamine into the presynaptic
neuron.
● Dopamine builds up in the synapses, continually exciting the
postsynaptic neuron. As such, cocaine is a stimulant and this
leads to feelings of euphoria.
● In regular users of cocaine, the brain responds by increasing
numbers of dopamine receptors to respond to the high levels
of dopamine.
● Once levels return to normal, more dopamine receptors
results in increased sensitivity and depression.
HL C2.2.15—Perception of pain by neurons with free nerve endings in the skin CELLS

Pain receptors (nociceptors) are sensory

INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE
●
receptors.
● These trigger the opening of positive ion
channels when they are stimulated.
● Receptors detect different stimuli that then
sends a signal down the sensory neuron.
● Stimuli might include:
○ High temperature
○ Acid
○ Chemicals e.g. capsaicin in chilli peppers
HL C2.2.15—Perception of pain by neurons with free nerve endings in the skin CELLS

● Opening of positively charged ion channels

INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

causes entry of positive ions and the threshold

potential to be reached.
● An action potential is generated, it moves along
the axon of the sensory neuron to the central
nervous system.
● Nerve impulses then pass through the neurons
to the cerebral cortex in the brain, where pain is
perceived and a protective response results.
● The sensitivity of an organism to these stimuli
provides a survival and reproductive advantage.
 C2.2.16—Consciousness as a property that emerges from the interaction of
HL CELLS
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE individual neurons in the brain
 C2.2.16—Consciousness as a property that emerges from the interaction of
HL CELLS
individual neurons in the brain
Consciousness is an emergent property of the many
INTERACTIONS & INTERDEPENDENCE

●
interactions that take place in our CNS, especially the
brain.
● Emergent properties arise when the system has greater
properties than the sum of its parts.
● Consciousness is a state of awareness; when we are
asleep we are partially conscious, when we are under
general anaesthetic we are unconscious.
● The huge number of interactions that take place in the
brain that allow us to have awareness of so many things
at the same time has developed into consciousness.