Computers in Industry 170 (2025) 104317

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Computers in Industry
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Industrial Internet of Things: Implementations, challenges, and potential

solutions across various industries
Shaila Afrin a , Sabiha Jannat Rafa a , Maliha Kabir b , Tasfia Farah c, Md. Sakib Bin Alam d ,
Aiman Lameesa e, Shams Forruque Ahmed f,g,* , Amir H. Gandomi h,i,j,**
a
Science and Math Program, Asian University for Women, Chattogram 4000, Bangladesh
b
Cell & Developmental Biology Program, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
c
Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66103, USA
d
Department of Information Technology, University of Information Technology and Sciences, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
e
Department of Computer Science, American International University - Bangladesh (AIUB), Dhaka 1229, Bangladesh
f
School of Mathematical Sciences, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan 47500, Malaysia
g
Department of Mathematics & Physics, North South University, Dhaka 1229, Bangladesh
h
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
i
University Research and Innovation Center (EKIK), Óbuda University, Budapest 1034, Hungary
j
Department of Computer Science, Khazar University, Mahsati 41, Baku, Azerbaijan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) has emerged as a potent catalyst for transformation across many in­
Intelligent manufacturing systems dustries as a part of Industry 4.0. This review thoroughly examines IIoT applications, demonstrating how it
Artificial intelligence enhances operational efficiency, informed decision-making, cost optimization, innovation, and workplace safety.
Wireless
While prior research has often concentrated on technical dimensions such as fog and edge computing, network
Internet of things
protocols, or big data integration, several emerging and high-impact application areas remain underexplored.
Industrial IoT
IoT This study addresses that gap by systematically reviewing IIoT implementations in critical yet often overlooked
Industry 4.0 domains, including environmental monitoring, agriculture, construction, healthcare, robotics, smart grids, and
predictive maintenance. It offers fresh insights into how IIoT is being adapted to meet real-world challenges in
these sectors. In addition to outlining the current landscape, the review identifies core barriers such as data
security, interoperability, and system scalability. It underscores the importance of cross-sector collaboration and
strategic alignment to fully leverage the transformative potential of IIoT. The paper concludes by outlining key
research gaps and future opportunities to guide continued innovation and scholarly investigation.

1. Introduction intelligent devices. These devices can perceive their surroundings,

transmit and analyze the data they gather, and subsequently offer
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a widespread technological concept relevant responses to their respective environments (Asha et al., 2022;
that describes ubiquitous Internet connectivity, transforming everyday Talavera et al., 2017; Zhu et al., 2018). The capacity to connect un­
objects into interconnected devices (Malik et al., 2020; Mayordomo common assets to the Internet would increase society’s efficiency and
et al., 2011). The idea of the IoT originated in 1999 with an automated security while enabling effective communication between the digital
detection center at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology based on and physical worlds, a phenomenon known as a Cyber-physical System
networks utilizing radiofrequency technology verification (Kim et al., (CPS) (Ghayvat et al., 2015; Xu et al., 2018). The Industrial IoT (IIoT) is
2020). The primary roles of the constructed system encompass data a segment of the IoT that calls for better safety, confidentiality, and
collection, analysis, transmission, and the execution of information networking standards without interfering with actual manufacturing
outcomes (Lee et al., 2016). The core principle of the IoT concept re­ operations because of crucial industrial contexts. Industrial performance
volves around the widespread implementation of a trillion or more is crucial to a country’s economic growth, and technological

* Corresponding author at: School of Mathematical Sciences, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan 47500, Malaysia.
** Corresponding author at: Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia.
E-mail addresses: shamsfa@[Link], [Link]@[Link] (S.F. Ahmed), gandomi@[Link] (A.H. Gandomi).

[Link]
Received 20 July 2024; Received in revised form 13 May 2025; Accepted 18 May 2025
Available online 28 May 2025
0166-3615/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license ([Link]
S. Afrin et al. Computers in Industry 170 (2025) 104317

Table 1
Comparisons with other review studies published recently about the topics discussed in this review.
Study Key objective IIoT applications Comparative analysis Research Potential solutions to
(No. of sectors) of IIoT implications challenges mitigate challenges

This study Explore IIoT implementations, emphasizing their applications in √ (12) √ √ √

diverse industries, along with associated challenges and
potential solutions
Malik et al. Discuss the applications of IIoT in eleven different sectors √ (11) × × ×
(2021)
Qiu et al. Analyze the advancements in research related to edge computing √ (5) × √ √
(2020) within the IIoT.
Pivoto et al. Investigate the primary models of cyber-physical system √ (1) × × ×
(2021) architecture used in an industrial environment
Peter et al. Explore the latest manufacturing transformation technologies √ (2) × √ √
(2023) and the methods that emerging economy manufacturers require
to transform
(Gupta Provide an in-depth analysis of IIoT use cases in smart √ (1) × √ √
et al., manufacturing
2022)
Chi et al. Examine the latest developments in building knowledge bases √ (1) × × ×
(2022) for knowledge-based fault diagnosis using ontologies and
inductive/ deductive reasoning
Alabadi Provide a comprehensive analysis of IIoT and Industry 4.0, × × √ √
et al. specifying the latest developments in these areas and resolving
(2022) any current shortcomings.

√ available; × not available

advancement significantly aids the efficacy of individual organizations deliberated on their applications, were investigated within the context
and the whole industry. Maintenance planning and efficient supervision of IIoT. 5 G enhances connectivity and supports a massive number of
of industrial assets and operations are the primary objectives of IIoT devices, enabling real-time data transmission crucial for IIoT applica­
(Liu, 2019; Xu et al., 2018). Industry 4.0, on the other hand, is an evo­ tions. Meanwhile, M2M facilitates direct communication between de­
lution of the IIoT that prioritizes manufacturing efficiency and safety. vices, streamlining processes and optimizing operations, while SDN
The IoT and IIoT domains have advanced significantly, as evidenced by offers flexibility and improved security through centralized network
the latest predictions that there will be over 70 billion management. These technologies significantly enhance connectivity and
internet-connected devices by 2025 and that IIoT revenue will exceed 14 data transmission capabilities, enabling real-time communication be­
trillion dollars in 2023 (Perera et al., 2015). tween devices and systems. Their current and future impacts include
The IIoT, its developments, and its challenges have been the subject improved automation, predictive maintenance, and greater flexibility in
of numerous studies. For instance, Xu et al. (2018) emphasized the ar­ network management, all of which are essential for optimizing indus­
chitecture of the IIoT, which comprises three distinct layers: the appli­ trial processes and driving innovation in the IIoT landscape. The study
cation layer, the communication layer, and the physical layer. A also addressed the strategy for resolving wireless IIoT connectivity is­
classification of IIoT applications was provided for automation pro­ sues. Alternately, other studies provided a thorough analysis of IIoT
cesses. Various networking technologies, including 5 G, from a few distinct viewpoints, such as IIoT-based robotic automation
machine-to-machine (M2M), software-defined networking (SDN), and and an emergency response system for fire hazards (Maguluri et al.,

Fig. 1. Main structure of the present review.

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Fig. 2. Publications trends in Industrial IoT during 2011–2024: (a) by year, and (b) by industry.

2018), IIoT data transmission that incorporates energy sources (Kim complete understanding of its potential and limitations. Consequently,
et al., 2019; Thirumal and Kumar, 2022), implementation activation this paper sheds light on and critically evaluates the multifaceted utili­
techniques in IIoT systems featuring edge computing (Aazam et al., zation of IIoT in several key sectors. These sectors encompass environ­
2018; Yang et al., 2020), big data integration with IIoT to generate mental monitoring, construction, agriculture, disaster management,
business insights from industrial data (Al-Gumaei et al., 2018; Alam smart buildings, solar-assisted systems, robotics, smart grids, automo­
et al., 2017; Dautov et al., 2019) and identification of changes, pros­ tive, healthcare, coal mining, emergency response systems, and pre­
pects, and shortcomings in industry-based IoT solutions may be ad­ dictive maintenance. The primary objective is to furnish actionable
vantageous for the marketing of IIoT systems (Perera et al., 2015). insights for industry professionals looking to adopt IIoT solutions and
The IIoT produces huge amounts of data, and when it is properly researchers focused on identifying novel initiatives for IIoT imple­
analyzed, it can help industries make better decisions and predict future mentation. This review also offers a comprehensive viewpoint by out­
trends. One of the most transformative aspects of digital industrial sys­ lining the advantages and the issues related to IIoT implementation in
tems is their ability to interconnect diverse sectors, creating a unified industrial contexts. Additionally, it functions as a clear framework for
ecosystem where data and insights flow seamlessly. For example, ad­ fostering preparedness, timely decision-making, and strategic direction,
vancements in predictive maintenance from manufacturing can be ultimately leading to improved operational efficiency, heightened pro­
adapted to healthcare equipment management, while real-time moni­ ductivity, and cost optimization. Related to the focus of the present re­
toring solutions used in energy grids can inform logistics and trans­ view, Table 1 summarizes and compares the subjects discussed in recent
portation. Such cross-pollination fosters innovation and accelerates the reviews of IoMT.
adoption of best practices. This review highlights these inter-industry The present work is organized according to the structure illustrated
connections, stressing the importance of a collaborative framework in Fig. 1. To facilitate a comprehensive discussion, it is organized as
that allows technology providers, industries, and policymakers to jointly follows: Section 2 represents the literature review methodology of this
shape a resilient and intelligent industrial future. Industries are eager to work. Section 3 explores the rise of Industry 4.0 and its significance in
harness this data for better forecasting, maintenance, and risk man­ society. The applications of IIoT across various disciplines are investi­
agement, but existing reviews lack the depth needed to guide effective gated in Section 4. Section 5 delves into the comparative analysis of IIoT
implementation. Despite the expanding literature on IIoT, key chal­ in several domains, along with their advantages and challenges. Section
lenges like security, interoperability, scalability, and costs continue to 6 addresses several challenges IIoT faces and potential solutions for
obstruct its widespread adoption. This highlights a gap between the future research. Finally, in Section 7, the paper concludes by summari­
theoretical progress and the practical, large-scale use of IIoT. A zing the overall discussion on the wide-ranging applications of IIoT.
comprehensive review is needed to bridge this gap, offering guidance to
industries facing these challenges and providing researchers with a

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Table 2 (ii) Papers authored by scientists in the field were gathered.

Criteria for excluding and including articles in the current study. (iii) The collected papers were carefully curated to maintain a suitable
Inclusion Exclusion equilibrium between previous and present studies.
(iv) The analysis included commercial websites that utilized the
▪ The articles published in peer- ▪ Even if a publication is
reviewed academic journals academic or peer-reviewed, it specified keywords.
▪ The articles selected should be will not be considered if the (v) The study considered contemporary technologies pertinent to the
relevant to the field of study discussion part is inadequate research.
▪ The articles should be of high ▪ Any work that doesn’t include (vi) Relevant articles referenced in recent scholarly works were ob­
enough quality that they information about the
provide actual answers to the aforementioned key terms is
tained, and a comprehensive assessment was conducted on the
topics posed in the research excluded primary sources utilized in those studies.
▪ Grey literature, or any other ▪ The results of any grey
supplementary sources of literature that appears to be A number of questions arose regarding the recent works during the
information deemed beneficial, repetitive
present study. To address these inquiries and enhance the overall caliber
is also researched ▪ Weakly contextualized or
referenced "grey literature" of the review, additional readings and literature searches were under­
must be eliminated taken. During the process of conducting a comprehensive literature
search, we have successfully identified several pivotal phrases that will
greatly contribute to substantiating and bolstering our underlying
2. Methodology justification. The investigation was facilitated by selecting keywords,
including "Industry 4.0", "Cloud computing", "IIoT", "Internet of Things",
This study employs a comprehensive literature review methodology "Edge computing", "Big data analytics", and "Fog computing". As the
to investigate Industrial IoT by focusing on its applications, advantages, investigation progressed, the list of keywords was gradually refined. The
challenges, and future opportunities. During this process, peer-reviewed inclusion and exclusion criteria for selecting papers in this study are
and relevant papers from reputable journals and conferences were outlined in Table 2.
selected, thoroughly examined, and critically analyzed. The authors Although the exclusion criteria provided a solid basis for identifying
performed database searches utilizing reputable online resources such as reliable, peer-reviewed academic publications, some of its qualities
Scopus and Google Scholar, in addition to esteemed academic publishers looked at bias and judgment. The authors used a test-retest cycle to fix
including Nature, Elsevier, IEEE, Wiley, Taylor & Francis, ACS, SAGE, this issue. After picking primary studies at random, three extraction
Inderscience, Springer, Frontiers, and MDPI. A diverse range of key­ methods were carried out. The extracted data was meant to have a high
words, including "Industrial Internet of Things", "Industrial IoT", “IIoT”, level of consistency.
"Applications of Industrial IoT", "Advantages of Industrial IoT", "Benefits
of Industrial IoT", "Challenges of Industrial IoT", and "Disadvantages of 3. Industry 4.0 and the industrial revolution
Industrial IoT," were employed in the search for relevant articles. In
recent years, there has been a significant increase in interest and prog­ The global industrial environment has significantly transformed in
ress in Industrial IoT, as depicted in Fig. 2, across various academic recent years due to ongoing technological improvements, inventions,
disciplines. and developments. Considered to have contributed to three of the
The references and bibliographies of the works discussed above were earliest phases of industrialization (Lukač, 2015), the integration of
gathered and organized to comprehensively search for additional rele­ mass labor and electricity, the implementation of mechanical produc­
vant literature. The abstracts, introductions, and conclusions of the tion reliant on water and steam power, and the deployment of elec­
selected papers were thoroughly examined, and a classification was tronic, automated manufacturing are all regarded as having played a
performed using the following criteria: role. The concept of the purported fourth industrial revolution, also
known as Industry 4.0, originated in 2011 to advance the German
(i) Initially, publications from reputable publishers and websites economy (Hermann et al., 2016). To increase industry efficiency,
that are only peer-reviewed were taken into consideration.

Fig. 3. Industry 4.0 and the industrial revolution.

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profitability, security, and transparency, this technological change em­ challenging to implement, frequently needing substantial infrastructure,
phasizes the deployment of CPS, which can communicate with one resources, and expertise (Okafor et al., 2020). Environmental moni­
another and make independent, self-sufficient decisions. Industry 4.0 toring has entered a new era due to the availability of sensor networks
and the industrial revolution are illustrated in Fig. 3. and IoT developments, making it easier to collect high-resolution
Industry 4.0 has been characterized by Wee et al. (Wee et al., 2015) spatiotemporal information and bridge data gaps in existing datasets
as the digital transformation of the industrial sector, with built-in sen­ (Bublitz et al., 2019; Talavera et al., 2017). For instance, Cavalera et al.
sors in almost all products, production machinery, pervasive (2019) presented a smart aid system for danger and fire situations based
cyber-physical infrastructure, and analysis of any pertinent information. on the IoT technology project for fire prevention. This environmental
Additionally, Industry 4.0 incorporates the advantages of existing sec­ tracking system operates around the clock to observe and regulate
tors with cutting-edge technology, resulting in exceptional products that multiple environmental variables using specialized smart boxes placed
could be utilized in operations that merge technological and physical in each space. The system utilizes an effective cloud-based software
assets (Schmidt et al., 2015). According to Geissbauer et al. (Geissbauer platform to manage requests from several devices. Six environmental
et al., 2016), Industry 4.0 significantly emphasizes the complete auto­ sensors, linked by smart boxes, verify the presence of carbon monoxide,
mation of all physical assets and their integration with digital spaces, smoke (passive infrared sensor), humidity, and temperature, and detect
allowing them to efficiently produce, determine, and transport data. whether the area has been set on fire. It transmits information to the
Industry 4.0 is intended to strengthen and expand current cloud to be retained, filtered, evaluated, and observed via a mobile app.
manufacturing operations procedures, regulate and vital systems, as Further, the authors are developing infrastructure leveraging
well as advance to a sophisticated level by installing breakthroughs such open-source protocols to control data transactions across IoT devices
as IoT, Internet of Services (IoS), self-driving adaptable CPSs, and and the core cloud platform, applying industry-standard protocols,
interactive robotics, models that use accurate data and correspond to including message queuing telemetry transport (MQTT) and represen­
practical applications (Lasi et al., 2014). By increasing consumer and tational state transfer (REST), to suppress common risks in this field.
marketplace requirements, it also attempts to address the challenging Jhansi Rani et al. (2020) proposed an autonomous robot system to
opposition of modern businesses and the rapidly transforming global register environmental standards, including temperature, sky pressure,
market. Implementing modern technologies and systems through auto­ moisture, and toxic gases. The robot can save documents on the
mated production will pave the way for modern industry and economic ThingSpeak IoT system and uses GPS coordinates. The mobile robot is
development by asserting that an ecosystem of interconnected business controlled by running an Android-based application. The system is built
operations, companies, and corporations will emerge due to horizontal utilizing a cost-effective (<80 USD) ARM-based integrated system,
and vertical integration between systems (Lee et al., 2015). Arduino, and Raspberry Pi linked through a wireless network. The sig­
nificant benefits are the intuitive app design and the flexibility to act
4. Wide-ranging applications of industrial IoT independently after getting instructions from the user. The outcome
reveals that it sends updates every 15 seconds to the IoT server for
IoT is a novel, emerging technology with potential in nearly every sensor documentation. Renewable energy sources and growth connec­
industry. With the latest developments of smart cities and expansive tion procedures for wilderness areas are just two of the numerous areas
environments, which can enhance the quality of their citizens’ lives, for future research. Besides, the technique may be easily integrated into
research into IoT techniques has become more pertinent than ever for contemporary drone technology to make it more appealing.
these novel scenarios in globalized portals. By integrating heteroge­ Global warming has increased concern about the ocean’s ecosystem
neous devices and compatible technologies (e.g., radio frequency iden­ in recent years. Over the last two decades, many maritime environment
tification (RFID), global positioning system (GPS), sensors, actuator monitoring systems have been developed using advanced information
networks, and wireless sensor network (WSN)) that are qualified for and communication technologies. Quantitative mapping of anthropo­
tracking, monitoring, identifying, associating, and conversing with genic activities and oceanic fluctuations is required to design policies,
things (G, L. et al., 2020; Hadipour et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2018), IoT mitigation measures, and trade-offs on a global scale that conserve the
provides a promising key for monitoring systems and correlated activ­ planet’s largest living area (Duarte, 2014; Shaikh and Hussain, 2019).
ities (Zhang et al., 2016). The application of IIoT covers construction Marine-Skin, a cutting-edge ultralight environmental monitoring system
industries, environmental monitoring, smart buildings, agriculture, with advanced detection and logging characteristics, light packaging,
solar-assisted systems, disaster management, robotics technology, smart and persistence to a depth of 2 km in severely saline Red Sea water, was
grids, automotive sectors, emergency response systems, and health care. invented by Shaikh and Hussain (2019). In contrast to invasive bloggers,
While distinct, the targeted industries share critical interconnections they devised a wearable jacket made of soft polymers and successfully
that underscore the transformative impact of IIoT across various sectors. tested the feather-light gadget on seabream (<0.5 g in air, 3 g including
For example, real-time environmental monitoring is essential for opti­ jacket), common goldfish, and wobbegong sharks. It shows how a
mizing agricultural practices and strengthening disaster management. practical attachment can be used on various species of varying sizes
Similarly, smart grid innovations enhance energy efficiency in smart without interfering with the tagged animals’ normal behavior.
buildings, while advancements in robotic technology, particularly in the One of the supreme global issues of this era is air pollution. Current
construction industry, improve safety and operational efficiency, which monitoring techniques involve imprecise and insensitive laboratory
can be crucial for emergency response systems. These overlaps demon­ analysis. Dhingra et al. (2019) suggested a three-phase monitoring sys­
strate that IIoT is not just a technology applied to individual industries tem for air pollution as a solution to the issues with current methods. An
but a foundational framework that drives cross-sectoral synergy. By IoT kit was created using Arduino, gas sensors, and a Wi-Fi module. The
enabling real-time monitoring, predictive analytics, and automation, kit can be installed in different cities to track pollution intensity. They
IIoT helps diverse industries achieve common goals of efficiency, sus­ also made the IoT-Mobair Android app, enabling users to receive
tainability, and enhanced performance, creating a unified approach to pertinent, cloud-based air quality data. The forecast pollution level for
tackling shared challenges. the entire route is shown to the user, and an alert is given if the antic­
ipated level is high. The proposed approach is compatible with compact,
4.1. Environmental monitoring low-power devices such as sensors, Arduino boards, and Ubidots, despite
being more efficient and consuming less energy than conventional
As the effects of global warming continue to worsen, environmental pollution monitoring devices. The computational complexity of working
monitoring has emerged as a promising new field of study. However, with large amounts of sensor data is incredibly challenging. One way
recently developed climate monitoring procedures are expensive and would be to use fog rather than cloud computing to reduce

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Fig. 4. Smart farming system using IoT.

computational complexity and improve system efficiency. Recent agricultural product safety scandals (e.g., lean meat powder
Asha et al. (2022) developed an IoT-facilitated environmental toxi­ pork, dioxin eggs, poisonous bean sprouts, horsemeat, cadmium rice) led
cology system to monitor air pollution by operating the artificial intel­ to health risks and garnered much public attention. Therefore,
ligence technique to overcome the shortcomings of conventional enhancing the safety and quality of agricultural goods is a crucial area of
monitoring systems and reduce expenses. The sensor array calculates the research worldwide. It is challenging to promptly surveil an agricultural
pollution level and transfers it through gateways to the cloud server for commodity’s standards and safety in all facets by general processing
analysis. An artificial algae algorithm (AAA) oriented Elman neural owing to the long experimental phase in laboratories with complex tools
network (ENN) model is applied as a classifier that forecasts future air and the inability of on-site identification (Ping et al., 2018). However,
quality by classifying air contaminants. The AAA was a the appropriate execution of IoT can solve this issue. For instance,
parameter-tuning tool to dictate the ENN model values optimally. Tervonen (2018) outlined a WSN application for the food industry that
Experimental results demonstrated that the developed model exceeds allows remote environmental monitoring in an industrial storehouse.
conventional methods. The model was tested under different conditions This study verified that IoT technology can be utilized for farming and
that increased the reliability of the project. food chain operations. Even though this study omitted a real embedded
temperature control, observations showed that the storage warehouse’s
warming capacity needed to be decreased or increased. This implies that
4.2. Agriculture several measurement points at various places were necessary for quality
control with warmth and other condition monitoring to ensure the
IoT in agriculture is urgently needed because the global population desired characteristics for the entire volume. Future studies could
will rise to 9.6 billion by 2050, with a 60 % peak in food demand. The exploit the potential of data analysis and an IoT-based network of pre­
agriculture sector must ensure rapid production to satisfy demand, dictive maintenance for greenhouses that includes an interactive heat­
facilitated by leveraging the latest technologies, particularly IoT, to ing, moisture, and illumination control system.
enable labour-free operations (Acosta-Alba et al., 2019; Akhigbe et al., A multi-intelligent control system (MICS) was introduced by Hadi­
2021; Gaspar et al., 2021). IoT is widely involved in agricultural man­ pour et al. (2020) to manage water resources in the agricultural in­
agement, monitoring, control, and autonomous machinery systems. dustry, motivated by the sharp rise in water scarcity. All water resources
Additionally, IoT-based agriculture also utilizes wireless communication in this study were administered using the planned IoT-based system.
technologies, including mobile communication (2 G, 3 G, and 4 G), Three control systems comprise MICS’s primary part: a reservoir water
LoRaWAN (long-range wide area network), ZigBee, Wi-Fi, and Blue­ level sensor, an alarm control system, and an electro-pump controller. A
tooth (Kim et al., 2020). IoT is used in farm management systems for 4-state switch was built and integrated into the control system for
storage, sales, purchasing, waste management, logistics, monitoring automatic, manual, and IoT-enabled operation, along with an off mode.
significant inventories, and maintenance, as shown in Fig. 4. Farmers IoT technology can regulate the entire system, and ringtones or SMS can
can quickly retrieve all information in one place using a smartphone. be used to operate it. According to reports, the technology can save up to
Sensors are primarily used to obtain data for determining 60 % of water and has given a satisfying response to the issue of water
nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium (NPK) values, disease detection, and management in agriculture. Due to its sturdy and adaptable design, this
soil moisture content. Some of the commercially available smart sensors intelligent system can be used widely in various applications, including
for agriculture are location sensors (Sequoia), electromagnetic sensors agriculture. Significant sums of money and water can be saved using
(Crop Canopy Sensor, Clorofilog, OptRx, Veris 3100, CropCycle MICS.
Phenom, EM-38, and Soil Doctor Systems), optical sensors, and airflow Park et al. (2019) designed a wireless sensor node that complements
sensors (amplified airflow sensors) (Ratnaparkhi et al., 2020).

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Fig. 5. Smart building infrastructure and associated benefits.

the interface, enabling efficient interaction between the sensor and the Site supervisors have to scrutinize and take appropriate actions to
controller in a greenhouse. It also assessed the rate of data transmission complete projects safely. Golovina et al. (2016) suggested adopting
in proportion to distance. Up to a distance of 25 m, the data rate was point cloud-based 4D models for site management and supervision to
100 % between the wireless sensor node and controller, which were identify hazards without a physical inspection and recognize workers
built to interact using Bluetooth. The interoperability of greenhouse not wearing required personal protective equipment (PPE). A hazard
control entities can be enhanced using the libgnome library. However, index is automatically measured from spatial-temporal GPS data and
more exploration into the application of long-distance wireless displayed as a heat map. In modern BIM, the graphical depiction of
communication (i.e., Zigbee or LoRa) is needed to expand the green­ dynamically determined individual values enables the automatic gen­
house’s communication coverage area. G, L. et al. (2020) built an IoT eration of customized safety performance reports. This proposal was not
system using light-emitting diodes (LEDs), NPK sensors, and tested to upgrade work site security instantly, but it works well for
light-dependent resistors (LDRs). By observing and evaluating the soil verbal and visual directions to workers on site. Only if data are simu­
nutrients, the system guides farmers on the fertilizer needed at set in­ lated or evaluated promptly can predictive safety planning be advan­
tervals. Python is used to create the software and hardware prototypes tageous. It calls for regularly updated building information models that
for the microcontroller on the Raspberry Pi 3. Fuzzy logic is utilized to are frequently lacking in the construction industry.
determine from sensed data whether there are insufficient nutrients, and The architectural, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry has
the Mamdani inference approach is applied to assess the adequacy of used BIM extensively for concept collaboration. However, data manip­
chemical solutions in the tested soil. It is evident from the numerous ulation is a threat because of its centralized paradigm. For this purpose,
studies that have been carried out that this established IoT system is blockchain is a distributed strategy that offers immutable, traceable, and
helpful for farmers to attain high crop yields. decentralized data storage to ensure data reliability and authenticity.
Tao et al. (2022) presented a confidentiality-minded framework (CMF)
for design interaction based on blockchain. The two primary break­
4.3. Construction industry throughs of this study are an access control paradigm to guard against
prohibited access to private BIM information in a blockchain ledger and
Traditional and often physically strenuous construction methods novel techniques to ease system cooperation inside the access-controlled
further contribute to the perception of the construction industry as un­ blockchain system. The viability and performance of the recommended
pleasant and drab, discouraging school dropouts and graduates from CMF, which has a tolerable latency of approximately 0.004 s and a
entering the profession as experts. These issues can be addressed by storage cost of 144KB/day, are confirmed by an illustrative design
utilizing cutting-edge technologies under the aegis of Industry 4.0, the example. The findings also specify that when project participants work
fourth industrial revolution (Han and Golparvar-Fard, 2017; Newman within the CMF, sensitive BIM data is retained favorably as private. The
et al., 2021; Oesterreich and Teuteberg, 2016). For example, Li et al. computational performance of the model is the primary emphasis of this
(2018) developed a platform that merges IoT and building information research, but other qualitative variables, when applied to various
modeling (BIM) technologies so that managers can promptly monitor real-world projects, merit additional research.
the cost and progress of construction projects. The design integrates
various components into a unified system, including big data, RFID, and
cloud computing. This technology has proven its capacity to automate, 4.4. Smart building
visualize, and remotely control the complete prestressed structural
element procedure. This platform allows stakeholders to monitor their IoT-based technology is the beating heart of intelligent buildings
daily activities: decision-making, coordination, and inspection during since it permits user data generation and data control (Kim et al., 2020).
the prefabrication stage. However, the platform was only intended to The digitization procedures aim to improve safety, productivity, and
gather budget and scheduling information without considering data on execution quality while promoting sustainable development, teamwork,
productivity and the working environment. and innovations for a sustainable smart town. Fig. 5 illustrates various

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components of a smart building, integrating IoT technologies, such as 4.5. Disaster management
real-time analytics, cloud infrastructure, smart sensors, and connected
computing. Key components include surveillance, HVAC (heating, Conventional telecommunications networks (cellular or landline)
ventilation, and air conditioning) systems, occupancy sensors, air may sustain complete or partial destruction following a catastrophic
quality sensors, and security controls. These elements contribute to the scenario. Humans cannot prevent calamities from happening, and the
overall efficiency and safety of the building, with benefits such as energy only course of action available is to create reliable prediction systems to
efficiency, improved maintenance, comfort, productivity, electrical reduce devastation and expedite disaster management operations
safety compliance, and enhanced data analytics. through careful planning and the application of recent advances in in­
Central digital revolutions are transforming buildings and unveiling formation technology. Unstructured data can be produced by various
new trends for integrating information technologies. Sophocleous et al. sources and sent to a remote station upon request or after discovering
(2018) correlated the electrical resistivity of materials (concrete) with the overall activity. However, processing these enormous volumes of
their moisture level using an affordable, durable, and screen-printed diverse information during a real-time disaster event is rather complex
resistivity sensor. The sensor was examined in two individual concrete (Akter and Wamba, 2019). Systems for managing disasters are on the
composites (vastly absorbent particles (5.1 %) and less absorbent ag­ verge of being outfitted with a variety of novel accommodating data
gregates (1.0 %)) to compare inconsistent drying rates. The sensor used sources and affordable data processing tools for strategic planning in all
an alternating square wave with a 1 mA current source at a 1 kHz fre­ stages of an incident as a result of the emergence of the most recent
quency, which is powerful enough to preclude any polarization effects service, data analytics, and communication technologies, such as IoT,
but adequate to estimate the resistivity of any electrode capacitance big data analytics, cloud and fog computing (Shah et al., 2019).
independently. It can distinguish various types of concrete depending on Numerous research projects in flood data collection, flood detection,
the variance in their drying rates, demonstrating a considerable corre­ flood prediction, flood monitoring, and data visualization have been
lation between the sensor’s response and electrical resistivity. Because carried out to lessen the effects of flood disasters through early predic­
of the exceptional wear resistance of the alumina substrate, this type of tion. In flash flood susceptibility mapping, Costache et al. (2019)
sensor has a longer lifespan. It can be incorporated conveniently into a assessed the effectiveness of the K-Star (KS), k-nearest neighbors (kNN),
structure management platform used in smart buildings. The application analytical hierarchy process (AHP), and their combinations. There are
of inhibitory maintenance instead of reactive maintenance may 10 flash flood predictors; roughly 70 % of the areas are used as training
contribute to a more durable architecture by revealing important in­ data. Remarkably, remote sensing techniques can detect 80 % of flash
formation about the critical characteristics of the building material. flood-predicting variables. The models’ performance is assessed using
Thermal imaging was recommended by Khan et al. (2019) to identify statistical measures such as sensitivity, accuracy, and specificity. The
issues with a building’s eggshell insulation. This technique uses thermal findings are validated by building areas under the curve (AUC) and
pictures of different building sections to pinpoint temperature fluctua­ receiver operating characteristics (ROC) values, as well as by deter­
tions within a building. Higher temperature variation indicates inade­ mining the pixel density inside flash flood potential index (FFPI) classes.
quate insulation or surface defects in the walls. Fifty thermal photos of Overall, the kNN-AHP ensemble model outperformed with AUC= 0.944,
the inside and outside of the building, covering insulation, thermal with a prediction rate of 0.841. It is believed that this application of the
bridging, moisture issues, and electrical outlet holes, were gathered KS model is the first attempt to use it to evaluate receptivity to natural
using a FLIR ONE camera and an Android smartphone. The accuracy of disasters. Using the two ensembles to predict FFPI is considered the main
the study’s insulation issue identification was 75 %. However, the innovation of the research.
camera unit has a narrow field of view and a poor resolution of 16 × 4 Arbia et al. (2017) offered a cloud-based IoT platform for monitoring
thermal imaging pixels. As a result, a stepper motor that turns the entire an emergency disaster aid system. To support end-to-end network con­
system with precise motions must be mounted on top of the camera. nectivity, critical and rescue operations using a wearable wireless sensor
Future research could examine the long-term effects of leakage by network (CROW2 ) system connects heterogeneous wireless devices
constantly observing the indoor environment. Sonnekalb and Lucia (sensors and smartphones) with multiple communication protocols
(2019) initiated an IoT-based smart hot water control system that (Wi-Fi and Bluetooth). The ORACE-Net is on various devices, including
operates autonomously. The system’s control adjusts the heating times Raspberry Pi computers running Linux and Android smartphones.
according to the data accumulated about users’ behaviors. Neural net­ Findings suggest that the CROW2 system performed better than expected
works and Gaussian process models were intended to compute optimum in terms of throughput and jitter for wireless body-to-body communi­
heating plans that result in substantial energy savings (20–34 % of the cations. However, the experiment does not address outdoor conditions
energy was used compared with a baseline schedule) for all users or provide a thorough overview of the system’s behavior in various
throughout a six-month test phase. Nevertheless, the authors could not environmental circumstances.
forecast all users’ demands due to the estimated 7 % prediction error. It A novel algorithm for an ad hoc network connected to device-to-
can be tested with additional machine learning algorithms, such as long device communications for a post-disaster management framework
short-term memory (LSTM), to lower the prediction error rate further. was provided by Kamruzzaman et al. (2017). They also recommended
Jeyasheeli and Selva (2017) developed a system that utilizes tem­ integrating a disaster function in all smartphones. The smartphone
perature and light intensity to execute a lightning design that maximizes automatically switches to and begins operating in disaster mode
power efficiency throughout the day by eliminating fluorescent lighting whenever a standard cellular network is broken or unusable. Users can
and static power and reducing carbon emissions. It can adjust the power upgrade their condition and pinpoint their location promptly to receive
dynamically after detecting the light source and temperature through assistance even when the infrastructure is damaged. The system also
the LED and sensors. The system profits from LEDs and sensors, which enables battery conservation for as long as possible, delivering emer­
recognize the light source and temperature and then dynamically adjust gency messages or voice calls to the user. Once the need for
the power. Bright white light is produced using high-power LEDs rather device-to-device (D2D) communication is determined, a pre-installed
than industrial tube and compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs. Pulse program can be activated during the procedure. Relay nodes can be
width modulation (PWM) signaling is applied to dynamically modify the chosen when forming an ad hoc network, depending on the criteria
power supply depending on changes in environmental light intensity. mentioned and the aggregate effect of various cost considerations. For
The power supply reduces over time as ecological brightness rises. instance, any device with more processing power and remaining energy
Nonetheless, the system uses the same energy at night as current will be given preference when choosing a relay agent.
systems. Lin et al. (2018) reported that the simulation that dictates the

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viability of typhoon risk evaluation performs better when Spark-based power grid to collect and analyze data from the power grid (Ghasempour
computation is used for large sets of available data. Graphic process­ and Moon, 2016). A smart grid benefits a traditional power grid through
ing unit computing, multi-threading, or clustering technologies can the use of IoT to enhance the grid’s capabilities. The application of IoT in
quickly produce a significant amount of typhoon risk data and are the smart grids has immense potential. IoT can be used in the advanced
most cost-effective and practicable approach. The authors tried to metering infrastructure (AMI) of smart grids, smart distribution, and
simulate the typhoon wind field using Spark, the most recent cloud transmission tower protection (Saleem et al., 2019). AMI is one of the
computing platform; 1038 historical wind fields were computed. integral parts of the smart grid. According to the US Department of
Although the procedure model is not the center of this study, they Energy, advanced metering is integrated into the overall system to
anticipate extending Spark to different typhoon wind field concepts and collect and utilize user data in real-time (Palacios-Garcia et al., 2017).
developing a universal high-performance device that endorses all The AMI allows users to access an estimation of their power consump­
typhoon wind field models to help scientists in disaster preparedness. tion and make an informed decision based on this estimation. It will
enable a real-time demand response system from the supply station
4.6. Solar-assisted system (Chen et al., 2020). With the help of IoT, this system helps detect
companies’ energy consumption and pricing information and provides
Utilizing solar energy is the most sustainable strategy to reduce stress this to users who can use this information to save money (Gomathy
and dependence on fossil fuels. However, to maximize power output, et al., 2021). Along with AMI, transmission tower protection is one of
monitoring solar installations and adjusting their angle in real-time is the most crucial aspects of a smart grid. The traditional method for
necessary to achieve optimal alignment with the sun’s location. IoT protecting transmission towers is patrolling staff, resulting in various
technology can be feasibly adopted to accomplish this (Botero-Valencia synthetic and natural disasters such as burglary, intentional damage,
et al., 2022; Naikwade et al., 2022; Sumathi et al., 2017). To illustrate, Li cyclones, typhoons, etc. IIoT technology can be used to avoid these se­
et al. (2020) studied an approach to evaluating and enhancing a solar curity issues and protect transmission towers (Saleem et al., 2019). One
water heating (SWH) system’s energy efficiency. Corresponding control of the features of IIoT-aided transmission tower protection is remote
plans are created for various sub-systems based on the insights gleaned monitoring. Various IIoT sensors, such as vibration sensors, anti-theft
through data analysis to increase efficiency and reduce operating costs. bolt sensors, video cameras, and leaning sensors, provide the supply
The primary monitoring sensors include solar irradiance sensors, flow station with data, allowing enough time for rapid action. The signals
meters, temperature sensors, status sensors, and electricity meters. received from the sensors through sink nodes are converted to data and
Compared to an SWH without control during the same hot water de­ monitored through the communication network (Reka and Dragicevic,
mand time, the SWH with the recommended control mechanisms can 2018).
reduce power consumption by 32.9 %. Notably, the strategies suggested IoT is frequently utilized in industrial automation, smart energy
in this study are appropriate for other commercially available SWHs tracking, and other activities. IoT systems are placed at different phases
besides the SWH reviewed. of the smart grid to actively monitor grid statistics for distributing
Shapsough et al. (2020) demonstrated an IoT-based design and dependable and effective power. A system with monitoring, communi­
execution of an online monitoring and assessment system for distributed cation, and analytic components was proposed by Khan et al. (2020).
solar farms. The system employs intelligent sensors and microcontrollers “ThingSpeak,” an IoT-based software, was applied to gather real-time
to describe photovoltaic (PV) panels working outdoors, utilizing the electrical information from users. Depending on this information, user
capacitive load current voltage tracing approach. PV panels communi­ and electric power companies under the smart grid paradigm can
cate data in real time using an IoT-based software architecture that regulate their consumption to lower billing costs. However, low-cost,
provides powerful tools for large-scale data management, storage, and simple-to-integrate power sensing and monitoring equipment are
manipulation. Following two months of soiling, the data collected necessary for the large-scale deployment of the suggested system.
demonstrate that soiling significantly reduces the efficiency of PV One of the primary concerns with the current energy metering sys­
modules, with an up to 40 % reduction in power production. Cleaning tem is that full-duplex transmission is unavailable. To solve this issue,
the solar panels to reduce costs and increase power output is feasible, as Barman et al. (2019) designed a smart energy meter based on IoT. The
shown by an in-depth analysis of the available data. However, this is a recommended smart energy meter uses a Wi-Fi module to measure and
crucial step in adopting solar energy in areas where soiling is a severe manage energy use. Then, the findings are uploaded to the cloud, where
issue. The optimal angle of the solar panels varies throughout the day as the client or supplier can review the information. Arduino integrated
the sun moves in position and angle. A simplified but precise sun posi­ development environment (IDE) software is used to program the Wi-Fi
tion measuring system is necessary to optimize output from a solar panel module to determine the pulse of the power meter. Nonetheless, the
and boost panel efficiency while lowering system cost. Sensor-based system can occasionally take a while to upload the data according to the
systems for measuring the sun’s position cannot accurately determine internet speed and module baud rate.
the solar position on foggy days or during changeable weather condi­ Spanò et al. (2015) introduced a novel last-metered smart grid
tions. Therefore, sun position algorithms use astronomical data or concept and its implementation. The authors emphasized the necessity
mathematical formulas to determine the sun’s position at a specific of an embedded IoT platform for the smart grid with consumer
place and time. involvement. The method comprised four unique features that give it an
The astronomical almanac (AA) algorithm by Chowdhury et al. edge over traditional protocols: a seamless fusion of smart grid and
(2019), which can be applied in an 8-bit microcontroller, has been smart home applications on a similar architecture, data collection from
effectively used to construct a real-time solar positional monitoring multiple sensors, protected and personalized data access, and unam­
system. The Arduino and the ATmega382P microcontroller were applied biguous mapping of sensors and actuators to a prevalent abstraction
to implement the system block. According to the results, this algorithm layer that can enable various simultaneous applications. They also
exceeded the performance of fixed and optical tracking systems by developed an IoT server for a customizable user interface using an IoT
13.9 % and 2.1 %, respectively. Algorithm-based closed-loop dual-axis demonstrator based on Zigbee and trailed it with smart meters. The
monitoring can enhance the efficacy of the system for a mini solar strength of the suggested architecture is in its inherent capacity to scale
tracking model. up for large-scale applications. It is facilitated by a low-cost gateway and
energy meter, focusing on implementation for non-technical users.
4.7. Smart grid Although the proposed system is architecturally specified with a thor­
ough explanation of the goals and objectives, insufficient information on
A smart grid is a communication network built explicitly into the its execution is provided.

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Fig. 6. Advancing smart healthcare systems utilizing IoT.

4.8. Robotics technology been conducted in this area.

IoT has recently entered the robotics and automation sphere after
4.9. Automotive industry
demonstrating versatility and effectiveness in multiple sectors and do­
mains. Robotics involves quickly developing technology that is accepted
The burgeoning IoT sector is a blessing for the automotive industry
in professional and public settings. IoT can bring about innovation and
since it provides a wide range of opportunities to creatively develop,
be helpful in robotics (Liu, 2019). IIoT’s cognitive technologies help
build, and expand seamless services focused on the user’s convenience.
factories implement intelligent manufacturing and improve production
IoT applications in the automobile industry allow sophisticated systems
processes. Context-aware cloud robotics for material handling in the
like electronics, actuators, and sensors to communicate online with one
cognitive IoT space was the focus of a study by Wan et al. (2018). The
another and other vehicles. Obtaining and processing data on traffic
authors compared context-aware cloud robotics (CACR) with one-time
safety is a crucial component of the mobilization of transportation.
on-demand delivery (OTODD). They used simulations to investigate
However, data safety concerns due to possible intrusions in the network
the basic operations of handling materials and the design, advantages,
are still relatively new. Moussa and Alazzawi (2020) examined the
limitations, applications, decision-making processes, and cost optimi­
organizational and implementation strategies used in dew computing by
zation. Using CACR for material handling can increase energy efficiency
evaluating the data transmission between clouds and the end-user dew
and cost savings, demonstrating the supremacy of cognitive IIoT.
devices mounted in connected automobiles. In comparison to previous
However, there are some security concerns with cognitive technologies,
IoT methods, this was seen to bring the user closer. The researchers
including the administration of big data, which is vulnerable to attacks
utilized a deep learning strategy and a tweaked stacked autoencoder,
in this context, and a protracted development phase, which can provide
which are known to increase the accuracy of predefined threat detec­
challenges in this area.
tion. Although their approach gave 90 % accuracy, deep learning can
Li and Savkin (2018) introduced a safe wireless sensor
cause difficulties, such as the need for massive training datasets and
network-based navigation algorithm for micro-flying robots in IIoT. A
accuracy issues with unbalanced data.
wireless sensor network of 3D range finders was applied to identify static
Maintenance has become a significant issue as the automotive sector
and moving obstacles and maneuver miniature flying robots around
grows. Vijaya Shetty et al. (2017) examined an automated helper pro­
these without colliding. It is a cost-effective and efficient approach for
gram for automotive maintenance intended to assist in identifying minor
the IIoT’s simultaneous supervision and navigation of micro-flying ro­
maintenance issues caused by the vehicle. This program can reduce the
bots. Even though the method worked as anticipated in static and dy­
need for a mechanic for minor engine problems and help identify engine
namic environments with numerous micro-flying robots, wireless
diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs). The study adheres to OBD-II standard
sensors can have some downsides, including network hacking vulnera­
protocols without utilizing any OBD-II-certified vehicles. This applica­
bility and slow transmission, which might make them difficult to employ
tion makes a data mine for monitoring vehicle actions and a tool for
in an industrial setting.
developing relevant driving behavior profiles possible. By delivering a
Robots are considered “things” and have been connected to other
wide range of utilities, this application contributes to a better driving
objects since the dawn of IoT. The envisaged IoT and artificial intelli­
experience and a spectacular in-car experience. Population growth and
gence solution related to Parkinson’s disease presented by Sivaparthipan
the sharp rise in demand for private mobility have highlighted the need
et al. (2020) can significantly improve gait performance. The authors
for automated parking systems that utilize computing power, fast
outlined the function of robots in Parkinson’s disease and their rele­
internet connections, and interacting IoT devices. Remote locations can
vance to big data analytics. The solution was developed on the Windows
also make use of this. Maharjan and Elchouemi (2020) concentrated on
10 platform with MATLAB R2018b. The authors also introduced a
utilizing a network where the applications could operate concurrently
laser-scanned approach with piecewise linear Gaussian dynamic time
while exchanging data and performing computations to reduce latency
warp machine learning that can check the path for risks and secure
and use all technologies effectively. Lowering the time spent looking for
areas. The robot’s primary duties included foreseeing the patient’s
parking was made possible through the platform by combining IoT and
walker movements and providing physical therapy. The final result
fog computing, resulting in saved time and fuel and reduced CO2
demonstrated a better gait detection rate than in previous research.
emissions. However, because of the encryption used, fog computing
Robotics supported by IoT is best suited for situations when real-time
might be challenging and lead to problems with data exchange.
data from hostile settings is needed for extended periods. Robots con­
Balog et al. (2020) concentrated on researching the modular hybrid
nected to the IoT can be strategically placed to obtain high-quality
type of intelligent charging stations and their usage in the infrastructure
real-time data, which would be impossible with detached robots. The
of the automotive market. They suggested modular hybrid charging
Internet of Robotic Things is the collective name for the relationship
stations to increase demand for electric vehicles (EVs) and fulfill
between IoT and the robotics industry. Many other studies (Patel et al.,
manufacturer and consumer expectations. The proposed device’s
2018; Scaradozzi et al., 2019; Verma et al., 2018; Yukitake, 2017) have
strength is in combining sophisticated technologies to produce an

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entirely new product that adheres to Industry 4.0 criteria. These criteria 4.11. Coal mining
introduce new hurdles to designers related to achieving high power
density and immunity to electromagnetic radiation. The multi-layer Mining is a significant industry, and the health and safety of miners
ceramic capacitor (MLCC) is currently one of the dominant elements are important factors in this sector. Mining is an inherently hazardous
in the schematics used by most automotive suppliers. These capacitors and labor-intensive task, making it essential for the industry to adopt
are currently in low supply, hurting the electric and electronic in­ safety strategies to protect the miners’ well-being. Advances in ICT
dustries. Consequently, the authors searched for other design ap­ enabled the widespread adoption of wireless sensor networks (WSN) in
proaches. Polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) film capacitor is an mining as their benefits became recognized. To promote safe, sustain­
alternative to MLCC, and in many ways, PEN’s qualities are similar to or able, and lucrative mining operations, academics and the mining sector
superior to those of MLCC. have gained attention to the concept of a "smart mine" (Dhar Dwivedi
et al., 2021). Specifically, the autonomous features of IIoT make it ideal
4.10. Healthcare for time-critical applications like coal mine safety systems (Thirumal
and Kumar, 2022).
IoT is increasingly applicable in the healthcare sector, which The process of surface mining involves removing the rock and soil
constantly requires better techniques for service delivery, cost reduc­ that covers the mineral deposit, known as overburden. In contrast,
tion, and quality improvement (Fig. 6). For example, the use of IoT in­ minerals are taken through tunnels or shafts, while underground mining
spires patients to adhere to self-care principles, which has led to leaves the underlying rock intact. The advantages of employing elec­
effective cost management and better patient contentment and health tricity in underground mining operations are significant since continual
management. IoT-driven solutions can be utilized for the remote evacuation of harmful exhaust gases is necessary for worker health and
monitoring of patients requiring around-the-clock care, as well as safety. Extensive ventilation systems are not necessary when vehicles
developing systems with heterogeneous entity connectivity. The and machinery are electrified. The use of electric equipment in these
healthcare sector highly depends on secure patient data with the most settings has several benefits in addition to reducing the need for venti­
robust privacy protocols. With a growing population and enormous di­ lation, which are far quieter, require less maintenance, have fewer parts,
versity of diseases, automation in the healthcare sector is becoming and emit no emissions compared to internal combustion engines
increasingly necessary. A model was advocated by Qamar et al. (2018) (Horberry et al., 2016; Onifade et al., 2023). Furthermore, IoT-based
to monitor the healthcare sector to benefit patients who require but do automated technology, such as self-driving automobiles, provides
not have ready access to extensive care services. The model described a essential data on the mining areas (Husain et al., 2014; Zvarivadza et al.,
way to seamlessly connect various systems over the internet and supply 2024).
real-time, unique data and services to healthcare professionals. The A system proposed by Porselvi et al. (2021) combined two concepts:
authors explored popular sensor models such as body, pulse, and res­ one that monitored the status of miners and the other that monitored the
piratory. However, they did not undertake a comprehensive literature entire section. In locations where miners work, the air is usually
review discussing the drawbacks of each technology. contaminated because of particulate matter emissions and certain gases
Given the private nature of healthcare data, information about pa­ such as SO2, NO2, and CO, so smoke sensors were used to detect levels of
tient health needs to be handled delicately and sensitively. Although smoke in these areas. Semiconductor sensors were utilized to measure
many methods are equipped to handle breaches during transmission, unsafe gas concentrations. Further, the proposed system can also access
they cannot protect against collusion breaches and data leaks. The pri­ the workers’ medical data and use this data for future medical records.
vacy threats that encompass IoT systems in healthcare were analyzed by Information was passed through a LoRaWAN module that allowed
Luo et al. (2018). The research investigated the privacy challenges in low-powered entities to communicate through IoT. This system was
healthcare and proposed a framework named PrivacyProtector, which found to have improved optimization, capacity, durability, and
collects data with protection. This patient data security framework was cost-effectiveness.
proposed using the principles of secret data sharing and data repair Sensors installed in surface and underground mines can detect
sharing. They also presented a secret sharing scheme named SW-SSS. damaged equipment, anticipate possible issue areas, and forecast system
The analysis revealed that the proposed framework could ensure secu­ instability and dysfunction in mine access areas like shafts. This
rity and privacy using patient access control systems on servers and knowledge contributes to sustaining and preventing any mishaps that
secret sharing. However, this model did not check the corrupted or could occur from ignorance or the extraction of resources (McNinch
compromised shares scenario using SW-SSS. et al., 2019). Using IoT-enabled sensors and a convolutional neural
In the case of medical data digitization, there remain many issues network (CNN)-LSTM model, Dey et al. (2021) proposed a prediction
and policy problems with access control structures incompatible with model for improving the safety and utility of underground mines. The
the security requirements of this data. Blockchain uses smart contracts model extracted spatial and temporal information from mining data,
and an enterprise-distributed ledger framework to observe special signs predicted many mine hazards, and improved flexibility, scalability, and
of patients. This allows medical data to be globally transmitted with monitoring areas in remote locations. It also predicted the health con­
better connectivity and security. However, the use of blockchain comes dition of the workers. The CNN-LSTM showed better performance than
with unique drawbacks, such as scalability, privacy issues, and the existing models. However, CNN requires large training datasets,
complexity. An IoT-based data management system, in the case of which can be problematic. Savitha et al. (2021) suggested a system that
managing and transferring clinical sensor data using blockchain tech­ builds an effective safety technology using IoT technology for the coal
nology, was described by Wang (2020). This research proposed inte­ mining environment. The system uses different sensors placed in
grating IoT, blockchain, and cloud technologies in healthcare services. different locations in the mine that collect real-time data. This data can
The Ethereum hybrid network certification system was used for this be used to monitor any changes in the mining environment and send
model, which resulted in less response time and cost than other models. alarms to the workers as required. However, this model was imple­
Various matrices were used to analyze the proposed model, such as data mented only in a laboratory setup with minimal hardware equipment. In
security, processing time, and so on, which revealed an increment in a real situation, the environment might generate vast amounts of data,
latency reduction and overall system throughput. However, this which could necessitate the application of different and more efficient
research should have discussed the interoperability of this model in tools.
different IoT frameworks. While automation may lead to job losses in traditional roles, it also
creates new opportunities in tech-related fields. By investing in ups­
killing and reskilling programs, workers can transition into advanced

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predictive maintenance, which leverages data collection and analysis to

anticipate failures.
PdM is a modern strategy aimed at enhancing the performance and
efficiency of manufacturing processes by extending equipment lifespan
and supporting sustainable operational management. The fundamental
idea is to foresee the upcoming failure to allow maintenance in advance.
Reducing maintenance costs while maintaining continuous and effective
operations has become a priority for the industry (Ayvaz and Alpay,
2021; Stock and Seliger, 2016). Moreover, PdM contributes to sustain­
ability by optimizing the utilization of production equipment and
Fig. 7. The transformation of maintenance techniques in the industry.
maximizing its useful life (Song and Moon, 2017).
Data flexibility and sensor data processing are critical challenges in
roles like automation specialists or data scientists, ensuring they stay PdM, as unlabeled and sparse data can hinder algorithm performance.
relevant in a changing job market. This shift helps workers adapt and Identifying anomalies in high-dimensional IoT data is difficult, espe­
enhances local economies, particularly in regions dependent on in­ cially in noisy big data environments. Despite these challenges, AI-
dustries like mining, by encouraging innovation and reducing reliance driven applications using IoT data can aid PdM. Ayvaz and Alpay
on a single sector. Ultimately, employees and businesses benefit from a (2021) developed a machine learning-based PdM system to predict po­
more skilled and versatile workforce. tential production line failures by comparing multiple algorithms using
real-world data. The suggested PdM system for manufacturing utilizes
4.12. Emergency response systems processed real-time IoT data through an infrastructure integrated with
ML models. Sensor data from production lines was normalized and
Underground miners’ health has been a significant challenge to preprocessed to address imbalanced data. Several ML algorithms were
overcome in the case of emergency response systems. In addition to cost- evaluated with dimensionality reduction via principal component
profit optimization, the safety of miners must be a priority. Using the IoT analysis (PCA), and hyperparameters were tuned using random search
standard architecture, Maguluri et al. (2018) recommended a system for with cross-validation. Random Forest outperformed other models (R² =
responding in the midst of an emergency involving risks such as fire and 0.982), while gradient-boosted decision tree (XGBoost) and AdaBoost
smoke. To utilize this proposed mechanism, a low-cost, usable Wi-Fi showed suboptimal performance (R² < 0.35). While the equipment used
module ESP-32, a detection sensor for fire and smoke (MQ-5), a detec­ is industry-standard, applying the model in diverse circumstances is
tion sensor for flammable gas, and a GPS module are required. By needed to ensure broader applicability. Moreover, the model primarily
sending locations through the cloud, the sensors look for hazardous el­ addresses common failure scenarios, and future research should aim to
ements and alert authorities such as local emergency response units, fire include rare failure categories.
departments, or law enforcement agencies. The network uses a light­ PdM schedules tend to be excessively conservative, often resulting in
weight data-based protocol named MQTT for fast and reliable commu­ unnecessary modifications to optimized components. It raises labor
nication. The authors demonstrated that an IoT-standardized structure costs, resource waste, and production interruptions during scheduled
can be used to develop an emergency response system for fire hazards. maintenance periods. By detecting early equipment failures through
However, even though MQTT uses transport layer security (TLS)/secure continuous condition monitoring and data analysis, PdM enables timely,
sockets layer (SSL), it is primarily unencrypted. targeted interventions, reducing downtime and extending equipment
IoT is also utilized for urban emergencies, which are hard to avoid. A lifespan. Abouelyazid (2023) introduced a real-time PdM framework for
response system for addressing traffic emergencies can significantly industrial IoT systems, leveraging advanced AI techniques. The
reduce the loss of life and property damage. Traditional methods have approach involves continuous data collection from IoT sensors, such as
failed in many such complicated contexts. Liu and Wang (2019) pro­ vibration, temperature, and acoustic emissions, with machine learning
posed an IoT and data mining system to improve urban emergency (ML) and deep learning algorithms. AI models are trained to detect
response and data management levels. The framework involved anomalies and estimate machinery’s remaining useful life. The system is
sub-systems, including vehicle data, evacuation data, rescue resource cloud-based for real-time action and combines data from different sen­
data, and so on. They also developed programs for managing commands, sors to give more accurate predictions. CNNs are great at figuring out
emergency support, and other tasks. In this proposed model, IoT and complicated patterns, while LSTMs are the time-trend experts, helping
data mining could control incoming information accurately and quickly, predict when things might go south. Hence, they avoid unexpected
relocate people and vehicles, and command rescue activities. However, breakdowns, save on maintenance costs, improve efficiency, and extend
the system is complicated with data acquisition, errors, and insufficient machine life.
optimization of algorithms, all of which need to be solved. IoT-driven PdM is an evolving field with promising potential to
revolutionize industrial processes. Future studies should concentrate on
4.13. Predictive maintenance developing affordable IoT solutions for small and medium-sized enter­
prises and investigating how to integrate IoT with cutting-edge tech­
The productivity of manufacturing processes worldwide has nologies like blockchain for improved security. IoT will require constant
increased significantly in recent years due to the integration of robotic research on the long-term implications of its deployment. Collaboration
and autonomous technology (Stock and Seliger, 2016). These platforms between policymakers, academic researchers, government, and industry
count on the smooth function of the machinery, and a failure in any stakeholders is crucial to reach its full potential.
subsystem or component may disrupt the production line as a whole. A summary of recent studies conducted on IIoT is given in Table 3,
Such disruptions can arise from various factors, including equipment including outcomes, applications, and weaknesses/strengths.
malfunctions, operator mistakes, or environmental conditions. Howev­ In summary, the sectors mentioned above have been revolutionized
er, predicting these issues in advance can lead to solutions proactively, by the Industrial IoT. Real-time monitoring and control are made
preventing production stoppages and leading to significant cost savings possible by IIoT due to connected sensors, automation, and data ana­
(Yu et al., 2020). Fig. 7 depicts the evolution of industrial maintenance lytics, which ultimately optimize resource utilization, reduce environ­
techniques, starting with reactive maintenance, where repairs happen mental impact, and increase safety. It helps with disaster mitigation,
post-failure. It advances to preventive maintenance (PdM), character­ smart building energy management, energy efficiency on construction
ized by scheduled interventions to avoid breakdowns, and culminates in sites, and precision agriculture. The Industrial IoT also helps shape a

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Table 3
Summary of recent studies conducted on IIoT.
Applications Architecture/ module/ Objective Outcome/accuracy Strengths/weaknesses Ref.
sensors

Environmental Cloud-based software, Innovate an IoT-based smart The system transmits A complete infrastructure leveraging (Cavalera et al.,
monitoring environmental sensors, system for fire and other information to the cloud to be open-source protocols (MQTT, REST) to 2019)
and a smart box. dangerous circumstances. processed in every way. control data transactions can be made
in the future.
ThingSpeakIoT, GPS, Invent an IoT-based The system sends 15-second Cost-effective (<80 USD), and the (Jhansi Rani
Arduino, Raspberry Pi. environmental monitoring updates to the IoT server for technique can be integrated into et al., 2020)
system. sensor documentation. contemporary drone technology.
Multi-sensory platform, Make a non-invasive Persists up to 2 km depth in Does not hinder the tagged animals’ (Shaikh and
microprocessor, memory wearable platform to monitor highly saline Red Sea water. normal behavior. Hussain, 2019)
module, solid-state micro- the oceanic environment.
battery.
Agriculture WSN, GUI, router, server, Provide a WSN application Measurement points at various Future studies could exploit the (Tervonen,
database. for the food industry that places are necessary for quality potential of data analysis and an IoT- 2018)
allows remote environmental control with warmth and other based network.
monitoring in the agro- condition monitoring.
industry.
The reservoir water level Experiment with a multi- Maximum 60 % water can be Using MICS with its study design, (Hadipour
sensor, electro-pump intelligent system for water saved. significant amounts of money and water et al., 2020)
controller, and 4-state management using IoT. can be saved.
switch are used.
Construction RFID, big data, and cloud Build a BIM platform for on- Offers prefabricated Does not consider data on productivity (Li et al., 2018)
computing. site services in pre-made stakeholders a tool to monitor and the work environment.
construction. regular decision-making,
coordination, and inspection.
Blockchain. Devise a CMF for Has a tolerable latency of The computational performance of the (Tao et al.,
collaborative BIM design approximately 0.004 s and a model is the primary emphasis of this 2022)
using blockchain. storage cost of 144KB/day. research, but other qualitative
variables, when applied to various real-
world projects, merit additional
research.
Smart building Sensor. Correlate the electrical Can distinguish various Applying inhibitory rather than reactive (Sophocleous
resistivity of concrete with its concretes depending on their maintenance may contribute to a more et al., 2018)
moisture level. varying drying rates. durable architecture.
Neural networks and Develop a smart hot water Substantial energy savings for Approximately 7 % were unable to (Sonnekalb and
Gaussian. control for minimal energy all users of between 20 % and forecast all user demands. The system Lucia, 2019)
consumption. 34 % of the power consumed could be tested with additional machine
compared with a baseline learning algorithms (i.e., LSTMs) to
schedule. lower the prediction error rate.
LEDs, PWM. Assess flash flood The power supply reduces over At night, the system consumes the same (Jeyasheeli and
susceptibility using machine time as environmental energy as the current system. Selva, 2017)
learning, multi-criteria, and brightness rises.
decision-making.
Disaster Graphics processing unit, Introduce a high- Evaluating trends and values Developing a universal high- (Lin et al.,
management clustering, Spark performance computational for the 10-minute average. performance device compatible with all 2018)
strategy to stimulate typhoon Wind time series, the observed existing models of typhoon wind fields.
wind fields. and simulated wind speeds are
consistent.
CROW2 , Raspberry Pi, Enhance end-to-end IoT- The CROW2 system performed The experiment does not address any (Arbia et al.,
Linux. enabled disaster relief better than expected in terms of outdoor conditions and, as such, does 2017)
systems. throughput. not provide a thorough overview of the
system’s behavior in various
environmental circumstances.
Solar-assisted Sensors and electricity Enhance the energy The SWH, with the proposed Appropriate for other commercially (Li et al., 2020)
system meters. efficiency of solar water control mechanisms, can reduce available SWHs.
heating systems. power consumption by 32.9 %.
Sensors and Analyse city-wide solar Significantly reduces the The system reduces costs while (Shapsough
microcontrollers. power facilities using a efficiency of PV modules, with increasing power output by conducting et al., 2020)
remote IV tracing system. 40 % power loss. an in-depth data analysis. However, it is
a crucial step in adopting solar energy
in areas with severe challenges.
Smart grid ThingSpeak. Monitor, measure, and User and electric power Low-cost, simple-to-integrate power (Khan et al.,
analyze electrical companies can regulate their sensing and monitoring equipment are 2020)
characteristics. consumption to lower billing necessary for the large-scale
costs. deployment of the suggested system.
​ Arduino. Make the full-duplex Consumer energy analysis The system can occasionally take a (Barman et al.
transmission available in the becomes considerably more while to upload the data. 2019)
current energy metering feasible and manageable.
system.
Robotics CACR, OTODD. Provide context-aware cloud Can increase energy efficiency Security concerns include the (Wan et al.,
technology robotics for material and cost savings, demonstrating administration of enormous data and 2018)
handling in the cognitive IoT. the supremacy of cognitive the protracted development phase.
IIoT.
(continued on next page)

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Table 3 (continued )
Applications Architecture/ module/ Objective Outcome/accuracy Strengths/weaknesses Ref.
sensors

​ Network-based navigation Provide safe wireless sensors A cost-effective and efficient Network hacking and slow transmission (Li and Savkin,
algorithm. for micro-flying robots in approach for the IIoT’s might make employment in an 2018)
IIoT. simultaneous micro flying industrial setting difficult.
robots’ supervision and
navigation.
Automotive Deep learning strategy. Evaluate data transmission Increase the accuracy of Deep learning may provide difficulties, (Moussa and
industry tweaked stacked between clouds and end-user predefined threat detection to such as the need for massive training Alazzawi,
autoencoder. devices mounted in 90 %. datasets and accuracy issues with 2020)
connected automobiles. unbalanced data.
​ MLCC. Asses the modular hybrid Ability to combine Focuses only on the development of the (Balog et al.,
type of intelligent charging sophisticated technologies to automotive industry within the 2020)
stations and their usage in the produce an entirely new European Union.
automotive market. product.
Healthcare Body sensors, pulse Monitor the healthcare sector Eliminates distance barriers by Did not compile a comprehensive (Qamar et al.,
sensors, and respiratory to benefit patients who giving access to remote rural literature review discussing the 2018)
sensors. require but do not have ready communities. drawbacks of each technology.
access to extensive care
services.
​ Ethereum hybrid network Propose a system integrating Increment in reduction of Does not discuss the interoperability of (Wang, 2020)
certification system. IoT, blockchain, and cloud latency and overall throughput this model in different IoT frameworks.
technologies in health care of the system.
services.
Coal mining LoRaWAN. Monitor the status of miners Can measure unsafe gas The protection of the received data that (Porselvi et al.,
and the entire sector. concentrations and acquire will be uploaded to a web page is not 2021)
medical data with better addressed.
capacity and cost-effectiveness.
​ CNN-LSTM. Improve the safety and utility Showed better performance CNN requires large training datasets, (Dey et al.,
of underground mines. than other existing models. which can be problematic. 2021)
​ Arduino Build an effective safety Can be used to monitor any Was implemented only in a laboratory (Savitha et al.,
technology using IoT for coal changes in the mining setup where minimum hardware 2021)
mining. environment and send alarms to equipment was used.
the workers.
Emergency Wi-Fi module ESP− 32, Respond to emergencies Has better security and data Primary unencrypted security layer. (Maguluri et al.,
response MQ− 5, and GPS module. involving risks such as fire distribution compared to other 2018)
system and smoke. models.
​ Data mining. Improve levels of urban Can control incoming The algorithm is complicated and (Liu and Wang,
emergency response and data information with accuracy and insufficiently optimized. 2019)
management. speed.
Predictive ML algorithms, PCA Predict disruptions in the Effective in forecasting It should have been tested in more (Ayvaz and
Maintenance production line before they production stops using real- diverse failure scenarios for Alpay, 2021)
occur. world data. generalization.
​ IoT Sensors, AI, ML, deep Exploring the role of real- Can identify important KPIs, CNNs are great at figuring out (Abouelyazid,
learning time anomaly detection in such as speed, as key drivers for complicated patterns, while LSTMs are 2023)
ensuring the efficacy of AI- detecting machine errors. the time-trend experts. Therefore, they
powered PdM systems. are saving on cost and extending
machine efficiency/life.

more efficient, interconnected, and resilient world by improving in­ rapidly shifting environmental conditions due to their low adaptability.
dustrial automation and robotics, healthcare delivery, mining safety, For example, unpredictable weather or soil changes can reduce the ef­
and emergency response times. ficacy of pre-programmed watering schedules. For agricultural surveil­
lance in the context of precision agriculture, Popescu et al. (2020)
5. Comparative analysis of IIoT implementation across various proposed a hierarchical structure based on coordination between un­
fields manned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and integrated WSNs. The cooperative
UAV-WSN-based IoT approach improved efficient and ecological pro­
This section compares the performance of IIoT in terms of the ad­ duction. However, a number of challenges prevent such a collaborative
vantages and limitations across many different fields, from agriculture system from being implemented, including limited sensor coverage,
to disaster management to environmental monitoring to healthcare. It is limited communication coverage by the integrated UAV-based WSN
expected that by illuminating the specific benefits and difficulties system, high energy consumption, and inefficient processing.
experienced by each industry, readers will gain a deeper understanding The IIoT has proven to be an important infrastructure component in
of the far-reaching effects of IIoT. The research highlights the revolu­ disaster management and environmental monitoring. For instance,
tionary potential of IIoT and the necessity of addressing sector-specific Bushnaq et al. (2021) designed a UAV-IoT architecture to detect wild­
limitations to realize its potential fully. fires. The efficiency and dependability of UAV-IoT networks in detecting
A wireless sensor network-based method for the irrigation of crops wildfires were assessed, and a strategy was developed for optimizing the
was suggested by Muangprathub et al. (2019). A control framework was IoT-based UAV system to raise the potential of correct fire identification.
developed in the study that used node monitoring devices in an agri­ Increasing the number of UAVs improved fire detection capability, while
cultural field and enabled the management of data through smartphones increasing the number of IoT devices consistently increased the rate of
and a web-based application. The results demonstrated the significance detection. However, there may be restrictions, such as a high chance of
of the implementation in agriculture by keeping the soil moist enough false alarms or failure to detect something. However, due to IoT moni­
for vegetable growth while decreasing expenses and increasing output. toring technologies, digital sensors can now keep tabs on the composi­
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) may find it challenging to adapt to tion and architecture of various environmental elements in real time,

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Table 4
Advantages and limitations of implementing IIoT in surveyed fields.
Application/field Advantages Limitations Reference

Agriculture − Maintain the soil’s moisture content adequately. Low adaptability (Muangprathub et al.,
− Lower the costs and raise agricultural output. 2019)
− Cooperative UAV-WSN-based IoT approach improves − High energy consumption (Popescu et al., 2020)
efficient and ecological production. − Mediocre processing efficiency
Disaster − Cost-efficient − Missing detection and false alarm probabilities (Bushnaq et al., 2021)
management − Substitute satellite photography for detecting
wildfires.
− Highly applicable to earthquake emergency − Highly complex nature of the earthquake and numerous (Cheng et al., 2020)
management through infrared illumination variation challenges with earthquake rescue could make it difficult to
in temperature. utilize the functions effectively
Environmental − Improve the quality and level of environmental − Challenging to ensure uninterrupted interaction and (Song et al., 2016)
monitoring monitoring. compatibility
− Can successfully deal with the inefficiency and low
reasoning associated with conventional
environmental monitoring.
− Sufficient transmission range in agricultural areas − - Lack of energy efficiency (Dong et al., 2022)
− Each node’s loss rate of packets could be managed. − Security and Privacy
Smart building Allow each device to be identified by its address − High upfront expenses (Kumar et al., 2021)
− Cybersecurity risks
− Need for an uninterrupted internet connection and accessibility
Smart grid − Continuous Electrical Supply − Can provide an overwhelming volume of data from several (Friansa et al., 2017)
− Energy Management sources
− IoT communication − Might be challenging to analyze and draw valuable conclusions
− Identification of Microgrid Faults
Healthcare − Transmission of real-time sensor data from the envi­ − Illegal access (Malik et al., 2020)
ronment to the cloud via a fog layer served as an − Data manipulation
administrator. − Cyberattacks
− Reducing latency − Lack of security (Mani et al., 2020)
− Lowering data delivery costs − Decreasing data confidentiality
− Speeding up medical services in both temporal and
spatial terms
Automotive − Improve security − Compatibility problems and challenges (Khalid et al., 2021)
industry − Superior computing efficiency
− Less expensive communication costs
− Early identification of irregularities − Integration complexity (Gopalakrishnan and
− Production line precision − Security risks Kumaran, 2022)
− Machinery effectiveness
Robotics RSSI method is simple yet effective for IoT-based robotics RSSI positioning can estimate relatively low accuracy and security (Bae, 2019)
technology − Capability of selecting and positioning things − Security issue (Ahmed et al., 2021)
− Using ultrasonic sensors to constrain the robotic arm’s − Maintenance Complexity
operational range
Solar-assisted − Effective energy management − Scaling the system may cause problems with data handling, (Parveen et al., 2018)
system − Enhance solar panel performance communication, and performance.
− Lower operating expenses
− Higher system dependability
− Reliable and cost-effective − Integration complexity (Ali, 2023)
− Scalable − Security risks
− Detailed, thorough, secure monitoring
Construction Revenue growth, cost reduction, and efficiency Enormous data generation (Vijayakumar, 2021)
industries improvements
Wide-area control, industrial effectiveness, high − Preliminary investment and expenses (Plant, 2020)
accuracy, continuous functionality, dependable − Sophisticated implementation
operation, and affordable − Network dependability and connectivity
Emergency Information about traffic congestion, route update − Concerns with Reliability (Shah et al., 2020)
responses notifications, and compilation of emergency messages − Dependence on a Network
− Data Anomaly
− Highly effective evacuation process − Flaws in security (Zualkernan et al.,
− Minimal casualties − Integration Difficulty 2019)
− Cautioning about the casualty − Sharing of Data and Privacy
− Evacuation guidance and ease of navigation
Coal mining − Enhances the network’s lifetime − Issues with compatibility (Thirumal and Kumar,
− Utilizes over 80 % of the system’s average energy − reliability issues 2022)
− substantial initial expenses

lightening the load on ecological surveillance personnel while of environmental monitoring. However, environmental monitoring may
improving monitoring results. Wireless data transmission was used to use a wide range of sensors, devices, and information sources from
design a system for monitoring pH and temperature in water (Song et al., various manufacturers. Ensuring continuous interaction and compati­
2016). Transmission stability in the envisioned sensor system was found bility between these components may be difficult and require stan­
to be relatively stable through experimental analysis. The inefficiencies dardization efforts.
and lack of reasoning inherent in traditional environmental monitoring A renewable and safely constructed smart building architecture of
methods were thought to be eliminated with the introduction of IoT IIoT was demonstrated by Kumar et al. (2021). One of the most crucial
technology, leading to a significant improvement in the quality and level web transfer protocols, constrained application protocol (CoAP), does

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Table 5
Identified research challenges and their potential solutions for Industrial IoT.
Challenges Potential solutions

Reliability and IIoT systems must maintain operation despite interruptions or Architectures for the IIoT that can recover from errors independently should be a
resilience failures, as industrial processes require high reliability and primary study area. Predictive maintenance, real-time monitoring, and redundancy are
resilience. all ways to improve the stability of IIoT networks.
Ethical and legal Data ownership, consent, and accountable AI use are all Ethical guidelines and legal frameworks designed for IIoT should be developed as part
considerations complicated by the IIoT. of ongoing research to address these issues. Ethical and legal risks can be reduced by
using responsible AI algorithms and open data practices.
Security and privacy Security vulnerabilities in IIoT infrastructure could compromise Robust security mechanisms, such as encryption, authentication, and intrusion
sensitive information or slow down production. detection systems, should be the focus of academic research. In addition, confidential
data can be protected by using privacy-preserving methods.
Cost-benefit analysis IIoT implementation is most difficult when quantifying and The long-term value and efficiency gains associated with IIoT adoption can be
assessing IIoT solution benefits and costs. demonstrated through research into cost-benefit analysis models and business
strategies.
Data management and Large amounts of data are produced by IIoT, which makes it Data compression techniques, advanced data storage solutions, and scalable analytics
analytics challenging to manage and analyze data efficiently. platforms can aid the management and obtaining of valuable insights from IIoT data.
Human-machine Improving human-machine interaction in work environments is By studying collaborative robotics, augmented reality applications, and intuitive user
interaction challenging for successful IIoT implementation. interfaces, improved human-machine interaction is possible.
Environmental impact Effects of IIoT on the environment can increase electronic waste The environmental impact of IIoT systems can be minimized through investigations
and power consumption. into green technologies, recyclable parts, and efficient designs.
Energy efficiency Industrial environments are highly challenging to optimize and IIoT devices can last longer with energy-efficient hardware and low-power
integrate because of the vast interconnected systems. communication protocols. Research should also focus on energy harvesting to power
IIoT sensors with ambient energy.
Interoperability Many devices and systems in IIoT ecosystems are not always Interoperability can be improved by standardization and open protocols. Research
compatible or can not easily communicate with one another. should develop middleware and gateways to connect devices and platforms.
Real-time data Issues arise when trying to process data in real time using IIoT Edge and fog computing can reduce latency by processing data closer to the source.
processing because of the vast amount of data being produced by IoT Research should also examine efficient algorithms and data processing methods for
devices. real-time decision-making.

not transmit data over encrypted channels but does allow each device to continuously track and analyze data from multiple metrics related to
be uniquely identified by its address. Automatic key management, se­ solar panels in real-time. Effective energy management, improved solar
curity, authorization, and data precision were all features of the Data­ panel performance, reduced operating costs, and increased system
gram Transport Layer Security (DTLS). The authors looked at enhancing dependability were all benefits of the system. Further, the device could
the security of the DTLS framework by combining it with the Secure help people make more informed decisions about their energy con­
Hash Algorithm (SHA-256) via CA-provided optimizations. While it had sumption, lowering their carbon footprint. However, expanding the
some benefits, it also had some drawbacks, like high initial costs, solar power system or adding sensors to the monitoring network may
cybersecurity risks, the need for a constant internet connection, and make managing and developing the IoT infrastructure more challenging.
limited accessibility. The healthcare monitoring sector also benefited Data management, network, and performance issues could arise as the
greatly from the use of IIoT. Malik et al. (2020) proposed an IIoT strategy system scales. The advantages and limitations of implementing IIoT in
to efficiently process information related to structural health monitoring the surveyed fields are summarized in Table 4.
by building an architecture that linked data from noninvasive assess­
ment sensors with real-time processing techniques. A system architec­ 6. Research challenges and potential solutions for Industrial IoT
ture was presented for transferring environmental sensor data in
real-time to the cloud via a fog layer. While this information is crucial The Industrial IIoT has the potential to significantly transform
to society, it must be protected from unauthorized access, manipulation, various industries by improving productivity, efficiency, and overall
and cyberattacks that could compromise critical infrastructure. operational processes. Nevertheless, numerous research challenges must
Several studies have highlighted the benefits and drawbacks of be addressed to achieve maximum potential for the Industrial IoT. The
implementing IIoT in various industries, such as automotive, robotics, research challenges and their possible solutions are tabulated in Table 5.
and solar-assisted systems. Khalid et al. (2021) proposed a unified
multi-factor cross-domain authentication approach for IoT imple­ 7. Conclusion
mentations in the automotive industry, especially car-sharing systems,
by extending the Kerberos workflow with the Advanced Encryption Industrial IoT implementations across numerous sectors were thor­
Standard (AES) - elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) algorithm. Evalua­ oughly investigated in this review. Combining cutting-edge technology
tions of the proposed approach’s capabilities and performance revealed with contemporary manufacturing practices has ushered in a new era of
that it provided increased security, greater computing efficiency, and longevity and financial success. All analyzed sectors revealed that IIoT
reasonable communication costs. These outcomes were possible because has had a major effect on displacing long-established norms. The ad­
the AES-ECC algorithm uses a fast, lightweight cryptographic operation vantages of IIoT applications, which allow for advanced levels of real-
that is well suited to the context of the IoT. However, there are also time data collection, analysis, and remote management, are evident.
potential drawbacks, such as incompatibility issues and difficulties in For instance, in environmental monitoring, IIoT enables real-time
providing uniform user experiences across different makes and models tracking of ecological changes, facilitating quicker, more informed re­
of vehicles. Bae (2019) proposed demonstrating the efficacy of the sponses that are critical for sectors like agriculture, where precision and
trilateral methodology by incorporating it with relative signal strength speed are essential. In precision farming, IIoT allows for more efficient
indication (RSSI), applicable to robotics and the IoT. An RSSI algorithm resource management and increased crop yields by enabling detailed,
customization estimation using a real-world device that employs Blue­ data-driven insights into soil conditions and climate. The construction
tooth technology for transmission and reception, and a beacon-based industry has seen enhanced project management, safety, and opera­
gateway, was also a major focus of the research. tional efficiency through IIoT, contributing to reduced risks and cost
In the context of solar-assisted systems, Parveen et al. (2018) pro­ savings. Smart buildings benefit from more sustainable energy usage
posed an IoT-based monitoring framework that would use solar power to and improved occupant experiences, while solar-assisted systems have

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reduced their power consumption by 40 %, and smart grids have re­ agriculture options at farm and crop system levels. Agric. Syst. 171, 155–170.
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Declaration of Competing Interest Chowdhury, M.E.H., Khandakar, A., Hossain, B., Abouhasera, R., 2019. A low-cost
closed-loop solar tracking system based on the sun position algorithm. J. Sens. 2019.
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Costache, R., Pham, Q.B., Sharifi, E., Linh, N.T.T., Abba, S.I., Vojtek, M., Vojteková, J.,
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Sabiha Jannat Rafa is a graduate of Bioinformatics and Aiman Lameesa is currently working as a Lecturer in the
Biotechnology at the Asian University for Women in Chatto­ Department of Computer Science at American International
gram, Bangladesh. Her research interests include deep University-Bangladesh. She earned a Master of Science in Data
learning, the Internet of Things, and Energy & Environment. Science and Artificial Intelligence from the Asian Institute of
Technology, Thailand. She completed her Bachelor of Science
in Robotics and Mechatronics Engineering from the University
of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Her research interests focus on Medical
Imaging, IoT, and Deep Learning.

Maliha Kabir is doing PhD in the Cell & Developmental Shams Forruque Ahmed has been working as an Associate
Biology program at the Medical College of Wisconsin, USA. She Professor in the School of Mathematical Sciences at Sunway
graduated in Bioinformatics and Biotechnology at the Asian University, Malaysia, since January 2025. He was awarded the
University for Women in Chattogram, Bangladesh. Energy & Doctor of Philosophy by Central Queensland University,
Environment, next-generation sequencing, and translational Australia, in 2016. He was also awarded the International
bioinformatics are her areas of research interest. Postgraduate Research Award (IPRA) to pursue his PhD. Dr
Ahmed received the “Thesis Academic Excellence Award –
2016” from the University for his excellent PhD research work.
He also received the “Academic Merit Award-2022” for his
excellent contribution to the AUW. Before joining Sunway
University, Malaysia, he worked at Deakin University,
Australia, as a Postdoc Research Fellow, at the Asian University
for Women, Bangladesh, as an Associate Professor, and at
North South University, Bangladesh, as an Assistant and Associate Professor. He has 152
publications, including book, book chapters, and journal articles. His research interests
include Energy & Environment, Computational Fluid Dynamics, AI, and the Internet of
Tasfia Farah is doing PhD in Biomedical Sciences at the Uni­ Things.
versity of Kansas, USA. She graduated in Bioinformatics and
Biotechnology at the Asian University for Women in Chatto­
gram, Bangladesh. Energy & Environment, next-generation
sequencing, and translational bioinformatics are her areas of Amir H. Gandomi is a Professor of Data Science at the Faculty
research interest. of Engineering & Information Technology, University of
Technology Sydney. He is also affiliated with Obuda Univer­
sity, Budapest, as a Distinguished Professor. Prior to joining
UTS, Prof. Gandomi was an Assistant Professor at the Stevens
Institute of Technology and a distinguished research fellow at
BEACON Center, Michigan State [Link]. Gandomi has
published over three hundred journal papers and 12 books,
which have collectively been cited 66,000+ times (H-
index=110+). He has been named one of the most influential
scientific minds and received the Highly Cited Researcher
award from Web of Science for six [Link] a recent study at
Md. Sakib Bin Alam is currently working as an Assistant Stanford University, released by Elsevier, Prof Amir H Gan­
Professor in the Department of Information Technology at the domi is ranked 24th most impactful researcher in the AI and Image Processing subfield in
University of Information Technology and Sciences, Dhaka, 2023! He has received multiple prestigious awards for his research excellence and impact,
Bangladesh. He earned a Master of Science in Data Science and such as the 2024 IEEE TCSC Award for Excellence in Scalable Computing (MCR), the 2023
Artificial Intelligence from the Asian Institute of Technology, Achenbach Medal, and the 2022 Walter L. Huber Prize, the highest-level mid-career
Thailand. He completed his Bachelor of Science in Computer research award in all areas of civil [Link] has served as associate editor, editor,
Science and Engineering from the International Islamic Uni­ and guest editor in several prestigious journals, such as AE of IEEE Networks and IEEE
versity Chittagong, Bangladesh. In the past years, his research IoTJ. Prof Gandomi is active in delivering keynotes and invited talks. His research interests
interests focused on Artificial Intelligence, IoT, and Deep are global optimisation and (big) data analytics using machine learning and evolutionary
Learning. computations in particular.

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