Additive Manufacturing

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

Module-1:

INTRODUCTION

The past few decades has witnessed the emergence of new manufacturing
technologies that build parts on a layer-by-layer basis. Using these technologies,
manufacturing time for parts of virtually any complexity is measured in hours
instead of days, weeks, or months; in other words, it is rapid. The first commercial
process was presented at the AUTOFACT show in Detroit (US) in November
1987, by a company called 3D Systems, Inc. At that time, the process was very
inaccurate and the choice of materials was limited. Therefore, the parts obtained
where considered prototypes.

Rapid prototyping (RP) is a technology wherein the physical modeling of a

design is done using a specialized machining technology. The systems used in
rapid prototyping quickly produce models and prototype parts from three-
dimensional (3D) computer aided design (CAD) model data, magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) scan data and such data created from 3D digitizing systems. Using
an additive approach for building shapes, the systems in RP join different materials
like liquids or powder to form some physical objects. Layer by layer, the RP
machines fabricate these powdered ceramic, wood, plastic and metal powders
using very small and thin horizontal cross sections of the generated computer
model. Rapid prototyping is an emerging technology, the definition of which is
derived from the key concept - making it rapid.
Rapid prototyping is creating a profound impact on the way companies
produce models, prototype parts, and tooling. A few companies are now using it to

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produce final manufactured parts. It is believed that rapid prototyping shall occupy
a major share in manufacturing techniques in the years to come.
PROTOTYPE: A prototype is the first or original example of something that has
been or will be copied or developed. It is a model or preliminary version. An
approximation of a product or system or its components in some form for a definite
purpose in its implementation.
TYPES OF PROTOTYPES:
The general definition of the prototype contains three aspects of interests:
i) The implementation of the prototype; from the entire product (or system)
itself to its subassemblies and components
ii) The form of the prototype; from a virtual prototype to a physical prototype.
iii) The degree of the approximation of the prototype; from very rough
representation to exact replication of the product.
ROLES OF PROTOTYPES:
Prototypes play several roles in the product development process. They include
the following
(i) Experimentation and learning
(ii) Testing and Proofing
(iii) Communication and interaction
(iv) Synthesis and integration
(v) Scheduling and markers.
ORIGIN OF RAPID PROTOTYPING
RP stems from the ever-growing CAD industry, more specifically, the solid
modeling side of CAD. Solid modeling is the branch of CAD that produces true
three-dimensional objects in electronic format. A solid model has volume and is

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fully enclosed. It can be assigned materials properties such as mass and density,
and the geometry data can be output in various formats to accommodate RP, stress
analysis software packages, and computer numerical controlled machining (CNC).
Before solid modeling was introduced in the late 1980s, three-dimensional
models were created with wireframes and surfaces. A wireframe is an
approximate representation of a three-dimensional object, such as one would
sketch with a pencil or on the chalkboard. Wireframes are sometimes deemed as
two-and-half dimensional, for the fact that they only appear to be three-
dimensional. Later on, the wireframes could actually have surfaces for visual
enhancement and analysis. For example, a cube would be represented by six
squares joined at the edges in three-dimensional coordinate space. But not until
the development of true solid modeling could innovative processes such as Rapid
Prototyping are developed.
Charles Hull, who helped found 3D Systems in 1986, developed the first RP
process. This process, called stereo lithography, builds objects by curing thin
consecutive slices of certain ultraviolet light-sensitive liquid resins with a low-
power laser. This concept of layer additive construction has been capitalized on by
various institutions in many different ways, which all have collectively been
termed RP.
With the introduction of RP, CAD solid models could suddenly come to life.
Designers and engineers now have the power to go through several iterations of a
design in order to get the best possible performance for their needs.

The Design Process

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In order to understand where RP fits into the manufacturing stream, it is best to

begin with a description of a typical design process. Although the techniques for
approaching a design-to-manufacture cycle may vary from business to business, a
general path is taken by most of them for a mass-production item.

1 The Concept.
Any new product, or improvement of an old product, must start out as a concept,
or idea. The source for such a concept may be based on a need, desire, or may
simply be a random thought that entered someone's mind. However it came to be,
in order to become a reality, the concept must be carried through the design-to-
manufacture process.

2 Preliminary Design.
A preliminary design can range from a simple sketch on a napkin, to a two-
dimensional drawing or even to a CAD solid model of the part needing to be built.
The design can go through much iteration during this phase, as the designer
determines the feasibility of the product through discussing with colleagues and
co-workers and presenting to management, for instance. Other preliminary checks
can now be performed with computers such as stress analysis, interference and fit,
as well as visualization. RP can be useful in this phase by allowing the designer to
have a physical representation to help demonstrate the product's use and functions.
This use of RP is referred to in this text as concept verification.

3 Preliminary Prototype Fabrication.

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Once a design has been given the go-ahead, a prototype must be fabricated to
check out the design. Before RP, this phase of the design-to-manufacture process
was carried out either by hand working or machining, both of which can be time
consuming and expensive. Durable plastic or similar models can be fabricated
quickly for fit-check analysis to determine if the design is the correct size, shape,
etc. for the necessary application by demonstrating with a physical model. This
step may repeat several times until the proper design is acquired. With the
inexpensive RP alternative, it is now less of a burden to reiterate as opposed to
before.
4 Short-run Production.

Sometimes, a short-run production sequence may be necessary to further proof a

part before entering into final production. Anywhere from ten to a few hundred
parts may be manufactured and distributed for testing, verification, consumer
satisfaction, etc. RP can be used in this phase for producing several small
prototypes or, through a process often termed rapid tooling, be used to make
several hundred parts inexpensively. It is crucial that any mistakes or flaws in the
design are found during or before this stage, otherwise it could become very costly.
For small runs of parts, this can even be the last phase of a program, without going
to an expensive traditional tool at all.
5 Final Production.

In this final step of the process, parts are typically either machined, injection
molded, or cast in large numbers. The patterns for injections, or tooling, are usually
machined from aluminum or steel so that they can be used several thousand, even

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hundreds of thousands, times. With the development of direct metal and ceramic
processes, RP may yet reach this phase in the near future.

PHASES OF RAPID PROTOTYPING

The various phases of Rapid Prototyping are depicted in the following figure.

a) Input

b) Method

c) Material

d) Application

Historical Development of Rapid Prototyping and Related Technologies:

YEAR OF INCEPTION TECHNOLOGY

1770 Mechanization

1946 First computer

1952 First Numeric control (NC) Machine

1960 First commercial laser

1961 First commercial Robot

1963 First interactive Graphics system (early version of

computer-aided design)

1988 First commercial Rapid Prototyping system

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KEY ASPECTS OF RAPID PROTOTYPING

INPUT:

Input refers to the electronic information required to describe the physical object
with 3D data. There are two possible starting points- a computer model or a
physical model. The computer model created by a CAD system can be either a
surface model or a solid model.

On the other hand, 3D data from the physical model is not at all straight
forward. It requires data acquisition through a method known as reverse
engineering. In this method, a wide range of equipment can be used, such as

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coordinate measuring machine (CMM) or a laser digitizer, to capture data points of

the physical model and reconstruct it in a CAD system.

METHOD

The method employed by each vendor for RP systems can be generally classified
into the following categories namely; Photo curing; cutting and gluing or joining;
melting and solidifying or fusing; and finally joining or binding. Photo curing can
be further divided into categories of single laser beam, double laser beam and
masked lamp.

MATERIAL

The initial state of material can come in one of the following forms; solid, liquid or
powder state. In solid state, it can come in various forms such as pellets, wire or
laminates. The current range materials include paper, nylon, wax, resins, metals
and ceramics.

The Rapid Prototyping Cycle

As previously mentioned, RP can be useful in several steps of the design process.

This segment describes the cycle from CAD design to the prototype part, which is
actually embedded in the design process

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Figure 1. The RP cycle begins with the CAD design, and may be repeated
inexpensively several times until a model of the desired characteristics is produced.
STEPS IN RPT:
 Creation of the CAD model of the (part) design,
 Conversion of the CAD model into Standard Tessellation Language (STL)
format,
 Slicing of the STL file into thin sections,
 Building part layer by layer,
 Post processing/finishing/joining.

 The first step is the CAD file creation. The final file or files must be in solid
model format to allow for a successful prototype build. From the CAD file, an
export format called the .STL file must be created.
 The .STL file, so named by 3D Systems for Stereolithography, is currently the
standard file format for all the RP systems. STL files are triangulated
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representations of solid models. The individual triangles are represented by

simple coordinates in a text file format. STL files are usually stored in binary
format to conserve disk space.
 After the .STL file is created, it must be prepared differently for various types
of RP systems. Some systems can accept the .STL file directly, whereas others
require preprocessing. Preprocesses include verifying the .STL file, slicing, and
setting up parameters for machine control. Preprocessing is usually done at a
computer separate from the RP system to save time and to avoid tying up
valuable machine time.
 After the .STL has been preprocessed and saved into a new slice file format, the
new file can then be transferred to the RP system. File transfer can be done
several ways, from manually transferring by disk or tape to network transfer.
Since more complicated files are usually very large, a local area network or
Internet connect is now almost essential for easy file transfer.
 Once the final file formats are transferred to the RP device, the build process
occurs. Most RP machines build parts within a few hours, but can run
unattended for several days for large parts.
 Upon completion of the build process, post processing of the part must occur.
This includes removal of the part from the machine, as well as any necessary
support removal and sanding or finishing.
 If the finished part meets the necessary requirements, the cycle is complete.
Otherwise, iterations can be implemented in the CAD file and the cycle is
repeated.

DIFFERENT NAMES FOR RPT:

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 Solid freeform fabrication (SFF).

 Desktop manufacturing

 Automated fabrication

 Tool-less manufacturing

 Free-form fabrication

RP is a very powerful utility for prototype modeling in today's high-speed

design-to-market workplace. Quick and inexpensive prototypes are the reason the
technology was invented, as it is still a very important function to accommodate.
RP is an excellent prototype-run alternative, but since its creation, as all good
technologies do, it has branched out into even more useful applications, including
casting, tooling, reverse engineering, and direct hardware fabrication.
With the stronger plastics and even metallic materials used in some of the
RP processes, parts can be produced that will withstand respectful amounts of
stress and higher temperature ranges. These parts can be applied in applications
such a transonic wind-tunnel testing, snap-fit components, such as clasps or
buckles; electronics devices; medical devices; and so on. The capability to print a
part in hours and plug it directly into an application is a powerful advantage to any
manufacturing, design, or similar business.

RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESSES

There are now many national and international companies manufacturing and
selling RP processes.

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1. The JP-System 5 (JP5), by Schroff Development, builds models from CAD data
using label paper and a knife plotter. JP5 is a simple and inexpensive modeler for
creating rough three-dimensional models.
2. Ballistic Particle Manufacturing (BPM), now a historic component of the RP
legacy, printed wax models by firing micro droplets of molten wax from a moving
jet onto a stationary platform. BPM is currently not available due to a collapse of
the manufacturer in late 1997, but is still held under a valid patent.
3. The Model Maker (MM), Model Maker II (MM2) and Rapid Tool Maker
(RTM) by Sanders Prototype, Inc. produce highly accurate wax patterns using ink-
jet printing technology with molten wax.
4. Multi-Jet Modeling (MJM), by 3D Systems, Corp., uses ink-jet printing
technology with many jets enclosed into a single print head to produce concept
models.
5. Direct Shell Production (DSP), used by Soligen, Inc., uses binder printing
technology developed by MIT. The binder is printed onto layers of ceramic powder
to produce investment shells directly from CAD.
6. The Z402 system by Z-Corp also uses MIT three-dimensional printing
technology to build very fast concept models from a starch-like material. Also, the
Pro-Metal system by Extrude Hone technology builds metal parts this way.
7. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), by Stratasys, Inc., produces models from
wax or ABS plastic using motion control and extrusion technology similar to a hot
glue gun. Also, the Genisys system uses FDM-like technology to build nylon
concept models.

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8. Laminated Object Manufacturing, by Helisys, Inc., builds physical models by

stacking sheets of paper or plastic material and cutting away excess material with a
laser.
9. Stereo lithography, by 3D Systems, Corp., is the oldest RP system, and builds
models by curing epoxy resins with a low power laser.
10. Selective Laser Sintering, by DTM, Corp., can build with a variety of
materials, and works by selective melting together powder with a laser into a desire
shape.
11. Laser Engineered Net Shaping, by Optomec Design Co., builds parts directly
from metal powders, by fusing the powder together with a laser beam.

APPLICATIONS OF RPT:
 It is mainly used in modeling, Product Design and Development,
 Reverse Engineering applications
 Short Production Runs and Rapid Tooling
 In medical applications, RPT is used to make exact models resembling the
actual parts of a person, through computer scanned data, which can be used to
perform trial surgeries
 RP techniques are used to make custom-fit masks that reduce scarring on burn
victims
 Selective laser sintering (SLS) has been used to produce superior socket knees
 Very tiny, miniature parts can be made by electrochemical fabrication
 In jewelry designs, crafts and arts

Typical applications of rapid prototyping are shown in the figure below.

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FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS:

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 As the Rapid Prototyping Technology gets further advanced, it can lead to

substantial reduction in build-up time for manufacturing.
 Further improvement in laser optics and motor control can improve the
accuracy
 The development of new materials and polymers so that they are less prone
to curing and temperature induced warpages.
 Much anticipated development is the introduction of non-polymeric
materials including metals, ceramics, composites and powder metallurgy
 Developments in ceramic composites can further increase the range of rapid
prototyping.
 Currently, the size is also a restriction; capability for larger parts shall be
expected in the near future.
 Advancement in computing systems and viability to support net designs
from a distant country to be fed directly on the RP machines for
manufacturing is a new possibility.

STEREO LITHOGRAPHY SYSTEM:

The first RP process, Stereo lithography is a liquid-based RP system that cures

epoxy resin with a low-powered laser to create three-dimensional models.
The SLA is a liquid-based RP process, which builds parts directly from
CAD by selectively curing, or hardening, a photosensitive resin with a relatively
low-powered laser. Polymerization is the process of curing a plastic or polymer by
introducing a catalyst. In other words, polymerization links small molecules
(monomers) to create larger chain molecules (polymers), this finally develops into
a fully cross-linked solid polymer. Photo- polymerization is essentially the same
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effect, only that the catalyst introduced is light energy. The light energy kicks off a
free-radical polymerization, where the liquid photopolymer is phased from liquid
to gel to solid. The solid obtained is, however a thermo-set, so it can only be used
one time after it has been cured (non- recyclable). In the SLA process, the light
energy is introduced by a focused laser, which selectively cures the resin in a
desired shape following a CAD file.

The SLA Hardware

The build chamber of the SLA contains a removable vat that holds the build resin,
a detachable, perforated build platen on a –z axis elevator frame, and an automated
resin-level checking apparatus. The vat has a small amount of -z movement
capability, which allows the computer to maintain the exact height per layer. A
recoater blade rides along a track at the top of the vat, and serves to "smooth" the
liquid across the part surface to prevent a rounding of edges due to cohesion
effects. Some systems now have a Zephyr recoater blade, which actually siphons
up resin and delivers it evenly across the part surface.
In an enclosed area above and behind the build chamber, resides the laser
and optics required to cure the resin. The laser unit is long and rectangular, about 4
feet long, and remains stationary. The laser beam is transferred to the part surface
below by a series of optics, the final of which moves to scan the cross section of
the part being built.
Also required, however, are the post processing units; an ultraviolet oven
call the Post Curing Apparatus (PCA); and an alcohol bath large enough to hold
entire build platens with parts attached. Parts are washed in the alcohol or a similar

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solvent immediately after being removed from the machine (while still attached to
the build platen). This step removes any extra resin that clings to the surfaces of
the part. After the final supports are removed, with some build styles the parts are
required to be placed in the PCA to finish fully curing.
STEREO LITHOGRAPHY FILES
 The stereo lithography file format, known as STL (Standard Tessellation
Language), is the current industry standard data interface for rapid prototyping
and manufacturing.
 Before a 3D model is sent to a rapid prototype machine, it must be converted to
this format.
 From a user standpoint, the process typically requires only exporting or saving
the model as an STL file. Some software packages, however, allow the user to
define some specific parameters
 The STL file format defines the geometry of the model as a single mesh of
triangles. Information about color, textures, materials and other properties of the
objects are ignored in the STL file.
 When a solid model is converted into STL file , all features are consolidated
into one geometric figure. The resulting STL file does not allow individual
features created with the parametric modeling application to be edited.
 The process of approximating the actual surfaces of the object with a closed
mesh of triangles is known as Tessellation.

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 When the tessellated STL file is sent to the rapid prototype machine, the
model is sliced into multiple horizontal layers that are later reproduced
physically by the device.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION-PROCESS DETAILS

In this technology the part is produced in a vat containing a liquid which is

photo-curable resin [Link] the influence of light of specific wavelength ,
small molecules are polymerized into larger solid molecules. The SLA machine
creates the prototypes by tracing the layer cross sections on the surface of liquid
polymer pool with a laser beam.

In the initial position the elevator table in the vat is in the top most position.
The laser beam is driven in X and Y directions by programme driven mirrors to
sweep across the liquid surface so as to make it solidified to a designed depth say
1mm. In the next cycle the elevated table is lowered further. This is repeated until
the desired 3-D model is created. The process is shown in Figure.

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The SLA systems currently provide probably the most accurate functional
prototyping on the market. Although the post processing of SLA parts can
sometimes be quite labor intensive, the smooth surface finish and high-dimensional
tolerance acquired in SLA parts continue to advance even with newer systems.

Applications of Stereo lithography Parts

Other than purely functional concept models, SLA patterns can be used for
investment casting and wind-tunnel modeling, as well as tooling. Foundries trained
with using the SLA resin patterns can produce high-quality castings from them.
The SLA provides an excellent alternative to machined models for some
applications in the wind-tunnel. SLA pattern shells can be used as injection mold
tools for limited runs.
The range of applications includes:
 Models for conceptualization, packaging and presentation
 Prototypes for design, analysis, verification and functional testing

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 Parts for prototype tooling and low volume production tooling.

 Patterns for investment casting, sand casting and molding.
 Tools for fixture and tooling design and production tooling.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEREOLITHOGRAPHY

Stereo lithography offers a lot of advantage to a variety of business

situations. SLA parts have probably the best surface quality of all other RP
systems, and are also highly competitive in dimensional accuracy. Also, the latest
SLA systems have significantly increased the speed at which parts can be
produced, which is ultimately the goal of RP. Finely detailed features, like thin
vertical walls, sharp corners, and tall columns can be fabricated with ease even on
older SLA systems, and the growing list of available resins are pushing the
envelope on temperature and strength characteristics as well.
The main disadvantage of the SLA process is most likely the post processing
requirements. Although significant advances have been made to make working
materials safer and easier to work with, procedures to handle raw materials for the
SLA still require careful and aware practices. Another disadvantage, which may
decrease as resin competition increases, is the relatively high cost of photo curable
resins, weighing in at around $600 to $800 per gallon.
The main strengths of SLA are
1. Round the clock operation: The SLA can be used continuously and
unattended round the clock
2. Build volumes: The different SLA machines have build volumes ranging
from (250x250x250 mm) to large (737x635x533 mm) to suit the needs of
different users.

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3. Good accuracy: The SLA has good accuracy and can thus be used for many
application areas.
4. Surface finish: The SLA can obtain one of the best surface finishes amongst
RP technologies
5. Wide range of materials: There is a wide range of materials from general-
purpose materials to specialty materials for specific applications.
The main weaknesses of the SLA are
1. Requires support structures: Structures that have overhangs and undercuts
must have supports that are designed and fabricated together with the main
structure.
2. Requires post-processing: Post processing includes removal of supports and
other unwanted materials, which is tedious, time consuming and can damage
the model.
3. Requires post-curing: Post curing may be needed to cure the object
completely and ensure the integrity of the structure.

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

Module-2:

PURPOSE OF SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING

The SLS technology was developed, like other RP technologies, to provide a

prototyping tool to decrease the time and cost of the design to product cycle. The
strong point of the SLS process is that it can use a wide variety of materials to
accommodate multiple applications throughout the manufacturing process. SLS

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was marketed early with three main applications: conceptual models, functional
prototypes, and pattern masters. Since then they have added on an extra module,
which incorporates rapid tooling.
Since the Sinter station products are high end and require a large amount of
up-front capital, the market range they targeted were large manufacturing
industries with the capability to handle such specifications.

PROCESS
In this method, a thin layer of powder is applied using a roller. The SLS uses
a Laser beam to selectively fuse powdered materials, such as nylon, elastomers and
metals into a solid object as shown in the figure. The CO2 laser is often used to
sinter successive layers of powder instead of liquid resin. Parts are built upon a
platform which sits just below the surface in a bin of the heat-fusible powder. A
beam of laser then traces the pattern on the very first layer thereby sintering it
together. The platform is further lowered by the height of the second layer and
powder is applied again. The process is continued until the part is completed. The
excess amount of powder at each layer helps to support the part during its build up.

The schematic view of the selective laser sintering process is shown below.

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ADVANTAGES

MATERIALS USED IN SLS

The SLS technology currently employs 10 main build materials, which were
previously grouped for sale into 3 central modules.
The modules are described as follows.
1. The Casting Module: The casting module includes 5 different materials. All of
the materials in the casting module are obviously directed at the metal
casting/foundry industry, from investment shell casting to conventional sand
casting. These materials are Polycarbonate, True Form, Cast Form, and Sand
Form Zr II & Si.
2. The Functional Prototyping Module: The functional prototyping module
consists of 5 different materials that are intended for direct-use applications as
concept models, secondary tooling patterns, or functional hardware
components. The materials licensed under the functional prototyping are
3. The Rapid Tooling Module: The rapid tooling module currently consists of
three materials, which are Rapid Steel, Copper Polyamide, and Laser Form
Rapid Steel is a polymer-coated 1080 carbon steel powder that is fused in
the SLS process to create a green part. This green part must then be fired in a
furnace to remove the polymer binder, and the porous steel part is infiltrated, or
wicked, with copper to produce the final metal component. The final product has
strength and hardness properties much like aluminum; therefore it can be used to
produce short-run tooling for preproduction plastic injection molding or similar
applications. The quoted tolerance is 0.010", before the fire and infiltration steps
occur, wherewith after tolerances can range up to 0.030".

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Copper Polyamide is a polymer-coated copper than can produce directly

usable soft tooling without the post processing time and costs associated with
Rapid Steel. Unfortunately, strength and durability are sacrificed by going this
route, so the application will ultimately choose with tooling material to use.
FUSED DEPOSITION MODELLING:

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is an extrusion-based rapid prototyping (RP)

process, although it works on the same layer-by layer principle as other RP
systems. Fused Deposition Modeling relies on the standard STL data file for input,
and is capable of using multiple build materials in a build/support relationship.
FDM was developed by Stratasys, Inc. of Eden Prairie, MN, in the early 1990s as a
concept modeling device that is now used more for creating casting masters and
direct-use prototyping.
Build Materials
The FDMs can be equipped to build with investment casting wax,acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic, medical grade ABS, thermoplastic, and/or
Elastomers, although the ABS is currently used the most. The build and support
materials come in filament form, about 0.070 inches in diameter and rolled up on
spools. The spools mount on a spindle in the rear or side of the machine, and the
filament feeds through a flexible tube attached to the back of the extrusion head.

The Extrusion Head

The extrusion head is the key to FDM technology. The head is a compact,
removable unit (good for materials changeover and maintenance), and consists of

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the following crucial components. The following Figure is a schematic of the

extrusion head that shows the various components described.

Drive Blocks
The drive blocks are the raw-material feeding mechanisms, and are mounted on the
back of the head. The drive blocks are computer controlled and are capable of
precision loading and unloading of the filament. They consist of two parallel
wheels attached to a small electric motor by gears. The wheels have a plastic or
rubbers tread, and are spaced approximately 0.070 inches apart and turn opposite
to one another.
When the wheels are turning and the end of the filament is placed between them,
they continue to push or pull the material, depending on the direction of rotation.
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When loading, the filament is pushed horizontally into the head through a hole a
little larger than the filament diameter, which is the entry to the heating chamber.

The Heating Chamber

The heating chamber is a 90-degree curved elbow wrapped in a heating element,
which serves two primary functions. One is to change the direction of the filament
flow so that the material is extruded vertically downward. Secondly, and most
important, is to serve as a melting area for the material. The heating element is
electronically controlled, and has feedback thermocouples to allow for a stable
temperature throughout. The heating elements are held at a temperature just above
the melting point of the material, so that the filament passing from the exit of the
chamber is in a semi molten state. This allows for smooth extrusion as well as tight
control on the material placement. At the end of the heating chamber, which is
about 4 inches long, is the extrusion orifice, or tip.
Tips
The two tips are externally threaded and screw up into the heating chamber exit,
and are used to reduce the extruded filament diameter to allow for better detailed
modeling. The tips are heated by the heating chamber up to above the melting
point of the material. The tips can be removed and replaced with different size
openings, the two most common being the 0.012 and 0.025 inch sizes. The
extruding surface of the tip is flat, serving as a hot shearing surface to maintain a
smooth upper finish of the extruded material. The tip is the point at which the
material is deposited onto a foam substrate to build the model.

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Build Substrate
The foam substrate is an expendible work table onto which parts are built. The
substrate is about one-inch thick and is fastened into a removable tray by one-
quarter-inch pins. The pins are inserted horizontally through holes in either side of
the tray, and pierce about two inches into the substrate to stabilize it during
building. The substrates can sometimes be used several times for smaller parts by
selectively placing them on unused sections, and by flipping them over to use the
other side of the foam. The foam used is capable of withstanding higher
temperature, as for the first few layers of the part the hot extrusion orifices are
touching the substrate.
WORKING PRINCIPLE

The schematic view of the Fused deposition modeling is shown in the figure
below.

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In this technique, filaments of heated thermoplastic are extruded from a tip that
moves in the X-Y plane. The controlled extrusion head deposits very thin beads of
material on to the build platform to form the first layer. The platform is maintained
at a lower temperature; so that the thermoplastic quickly hardens.

After the platform lowers the extrusion head deposits a second layer upon
the first. Supports are built along the way, fastened to the part, either with the
second, weaker material or with a perforated junction. A support structure is
needed for certain shapes, and this is provided by a second nozzle squeezing out a
similar thin bead, usually of different color in order to make it easier to distinguish
them. At the end of the build process, the support structure is broken away and
discarded, freeing the object.

Materials include ABS (standard and Medical grade), elastomers (96

durometer), polycarbonate, Poly-phenol-sulphone and investment casting wax.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The strength and temperature capability of the build material is possibly the most
sought-after advantage of FDM. Other major advantages include safe, laser-free
operation and easy post processing with the new water-soluble support material.
Although significant speed advancements have been made with newer FDM
systems, the mechanical process itself tends to be slower than laser-based systems;
therefore lack of build speed is a key disadvantage.
Also, small features like a thin vertical column prove difficult to build with
FDM, due to the fact that each layer must have a physical start-and-stop extrusion

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point. In other words, the physical contact with the extrusion tip can sometimes
topple, or at least shift, thin vertical columns and walls.

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

Module-3:

SOLID GROUND CURING:

Solid Ground Curing (SGC) is a resin-based rapid prototyping (RP) process

manufactured by Cubital in Israel. The process employs a photosensitive resin
similar to stereo lithography, in addition to a variety of other integrated subsystems
to fabricate prototypes.
Solid ground curing is a photo-polymer-based additive manufacturing technology
used for producing models, prototypes, patterns, and production parts, in which the
production of the layer geometry is carried out by means of a high-powered UV
lamp through a mask. As the basis of solid ground curing is the exposure of each
layer of the model by means of a lamp through a mask, the processing time for the
generation of a layer is independent of the complexity of the layer.
A mask is generated by electro-statically charging a glass plate with negative
image of cross section of the required part. In the meantime, a thin liquid polymer
is spread across the surface of the work-plane. The mask plate with a negative
image of the liquid polymer is positioned over the thin polymer layer and exposed
under the ultraviolet laser lamp for few seconds.

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All parts of the exposed photopolymer layer get solidified with one
exposure. However, the area shaded by the mask is left in a liquid form and is
wiped off with vacuum suction head and replaced by hot wax which acts as a
support to the solidified polymer layer. A face mill makes the surface of wax and
polymer flat and to desired thickness. All the above steps are repeated till final
model embedded in removable wax is obtained.

Sequence for each layer takes about 90 seconds. Hardening takes 2 to 3 s for
each layer. Time to produce a part by SGC is claimed to be about eight times faster
than other RP systems. The solid polymer created in SGC consists of solid polymer
and wax. The wax provides support for fragile and overhanging features of the part
during fabrication, but can be melted away later to leave the free-standing part.

The schematic view of the process is shown in the figure

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Advantages

1. Multiple parts can be positioned within the entire work envelope resulting high
throughput.
2. No support structure is required as the wax supports the structure in all
directions.
3. Each layer is fully cured resulting that the dimension is very stable with no
shrinkage effect after the process and requires no curing process.
4. Capable to build even the most complicated parts without much difficulty.
5. Build session can be interrupted and erroneous layer can be erased.

Dis-advantages:

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1. The process is rather complicate which required skilled people to look after and
unattended operation is not possible.
2. The resin consumption is disregard of the size of the cross section of the parts
but only depends on the number of layers resulting that is too expensive for
parts with small cross sectional area.
3. High equipment cost.

LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING

Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM), is a rapid prototyping (RP) technique

that produces three-dimensional models with paper, plastic, or composites. Helisys,
Corp. in Torrance, CA developed LOM, led by Michael Feygin. LOM is actually
more of a hybrid between subtractive and additive processes, in that the models are
built up with layers of material, which are cut individually by a laser in the shape
of the cross section of the part. Hence, as layers are being added, the excess
material not required for that cross section is being cut away. LOM is one of the
fastest RP processes for parts with larger cross-sectional areas and this makes it
ideal for producing larger parts.
SYSTEM PARAMETERS

There are various controlling parameters, some of which typically do not change
from part to part, that are used each time the LOM is set up. The laser power,
heater speed, material advance margin, support-wall thickness, and heater
compression are some system parameters the operator has the ability to change if
needed.

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The laser power is a percentage of the total laser output wattage. For
instance, the LOM 1015 is usually operated at a laser power of about 9% of the
maximum 25 watt laser, or approximately 2.25 watts. This value will be different
for various materials or machines, but essentially it is set to cut through only one
sheet of the build material.
The heater speed is the rate at which the hot roller passes across the top of
the part. The rate is given in inches per second, and is usually around 6 inches per
second for the initial pass and 3 inches per second for the returning pass of the
heater. The heater speed affects the lamination of the sheets, so it must be set slow
enough to get a good bond between layers.
The material advance margin is the distance the paper is advanced in
addition to the length of the part. This is usually started out at about 1 inch to keep
scorched paper from being included in the part, but can be changed to a lower
value (~ 0.25 inch) during the part build to avoid excess buildup on the take-up
spindle and wasted paper.
The support-wall thickness controls the outer support box walls throughout a
part. It is not ideal to change this value during a build, although it is possible. The
support-wall thickness is generally set to 0.25 inches in the -x and -y direction,
although this value can be changed by the operator. For example, if a part is 0.1
inches too long for the build envelope, the user can make the support wall in that
axis be only 0.15 inches to allow the build to take place.
The compression is used to set the pressure that the heater roller exerts on
the layer. It is measured in inches, which is basically the distance the roller is lifted
from its initial trek by the top surface of the part. Values for the compression will
vary for different machines and materials, but are typically 0.015 to 0.045 inches.

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The schematic of the LOM process is shown in figure

below.

A laser beam cuts the contour of the part cross-section. Several such sections when
glued or welded yield the prototype. The layers are built up by pulling a long, thin
sheet of pre-glued material across the base plate and fixing it in place with a heated
roller that activates the glue. Then a laser beam is scanned over the surface and
cuts out the outline of that layer of the object. The laser intensity is set at just the
level needed to cut through a single layer of material. Then the rest of the paper is
cross hatched to make it easier to break away later. The base plate moves down
and the whole process starts again.

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The sheet material is significantly made wider than the base plate, so when
the base plate moves down, it leaves a near rectangular hole behind. This scrap
material is wound onto a second roller, pulling a new section across the base plate.
At the end of the build process, the little crosshatched columns are broken away to
free the object. The material used is paper, though acrylic plastic sheet, ceramic
felts can be used. The LOM is particularly suitable for large models.

Applications of LOM:

The final LOM parts have a relatively good handling strength, except in very thin
sections. They can be used for various applications, from concept verification to
test prototypes. The LOM Paper parts can also be used as investment casting
patterns, as well as masters for silicone-rubber injection tools.

Concept Verification
The attractive appearance of the LOM models, along with the capability for good
surface quality; make the LOM models good candidates for concept-verification
applications. Designers or engineers can have complete mechanical assemblies
fabricated quickly on the LOM machine, and then use the models for design-
review meetings, management briefings, and more importantly, to see if the model
has all of the needed features and shapes as visualized with the computer design. If
a design flaw is caught and prevented during this stage of the manufacturing
process, it can provide millions of dollars in savings, as well as preventing months
of unproductive development work.
Fit-check Analysis

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As a follow up to concept verification, fit-check analysis is the next phase of RP.

Assembly models can be put together to check for part interference, fit, and
appearance. Also, models can be mounted on existing hardware to likewise check
for appropriate fit and ergonomics. The inexpensive LOM models provide the
visual link to checking out a design before advancing to the expensive
manufacturing phase.

Casting and Molding Patterns

For more durable hardware, LOM models can be a primary step to acquiring metal
components. By using the models as patterns in a sand casting or investment
casting process, metallic test hardware can be produced. If many parts are needed,
the negative of the part needed can be built on the LOM, and then used as an
injection tool to make many wax casting patterns from one LOM model. Yet
another use is to pattern a silicone-rubber tool around the LOM model, then use
this tool to inject wax or plastic parts. For limited-run production prototypes, the
LOM models can provide a faster, more cost efficient way of testing out a new
product design.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The LOM advantage comes from the ability to produce larger-scaled models using
a very inexpensive paper material. The finishing ability of the parts and the
good handling strength couple with the speed and accuracy to provide an all-
around quality modeling system. The materials are environmentally compliant and
have not shown any capability of being health threatening.

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Some possible disadvantages include the need for decubing, which is

somewhat labor intensive for an "automated" process. Also, the emission of smoke
and fumes, although vented out, can be a slight nuisance to visitors or tourists who
aren't accustomed to it. And the fact that the machine operates by burning through
paper can raise some concern to fire-safety officials.

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

Module-4:

Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS), is perhaps the first "true" direct-metal
rapid prototyping (RP) system, in that parts are full strength metals upon removing
them from the machine. Developed by Sandia National Laboratories and various
industry members on a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement
(CRADA), the LENS process uses virgin metal powders, per the user's preference,
as build materials. The LENS 750 (12" x 12" x 12") and LENS 850 (18" X 18" X
42") systems are manufactured and sold by Optomec Design Company in
Albuquerque, NM.

Build Materials
Current build materials with an extensive operational database on the system
include Stainless Steel 316 (SS316), tooling steel (HI3) and Titanium with 6%
Aluminum and 4% Vanadium (Ti-64). Other metallic and ceramic materials have
been tested and used at research facilities as well.
Build Process
Like most RP techniques, the LENS system uses a layered approach to
manufacturing components, in which an STL file is sliced into horizontal cross

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sections, which are then downloaded to the machine from the bottom slice
upwards.
Deposition Head

Metal powder is injected from 4 feeder tubes into the focal point of a high-powered
laser, a 700W Nd: YAG in the case of the LENS 750 and the material is basically
welded into place atop the previous layer. Figure below shows a schematic of the
LENS process, whereas the actual building process is demonstrated in Figure 12.2.
The system runs an inert atmosphere of argon to prevent oxidation of the powders
during the build process.

The material is deposited first as a perimeter of the current cross section, and then
a raster fill pattern is used to make the solid areas. There are 3 axes of motion, -x
and -y provided by transverse movement of the deposition head, and -z provided
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by a moving platform either up or down. This provides the ability to produce

simple to semi complex three-dimensional objects, however objects with internal
overhangs or free-hanging surfaces cannot be fabricated easily, due to rigid
supports being required. The current maximum wall angle capability is
approximately 18 degrees. However, the manufacturer is currently developing the
software controls to allow for rotational, as well as a tilt capability for the
deposition head. These enhancements will then allow for the fabrication of the
most complex geometries, as they will negate the need for support structures.

The laser beam is focused onto a substrate where metallic powder is injected under
computer guidance to build up three dimensional parts. The parts are fabricated
vertically, one layer at a time. The visible glow in the active area is from the heated
metal. Due to the rapid solidification that occurs during the process, superior
strength and ductility are achieved for most metal alloys. No further heat treating
or cooling is required. The process has been demonstrated to yield a dimensional
accuracy of ± 127 µm and a surface finish after some post processing of Ra 0.25.
Two systems are commercially available, LENS 750 and 850. LENS
technology has been applied to a broad range of metals and alloys including: 304
and 316 Stainless Steel; Iron-Nickel alloys; H13 and MM10 Tool Steels; 625, 690
and 718 Inconel; Titanium alloys; Tungsten; Haynes 230; Nickel aluminide. The
LENS processed materials can have a significantly greater strength and ductility
compared to similar composition materials produced by conventional processes.
The LENS process has been applied successfully to tooling, repair and rebuilding,
functional prototyping and short run manufacturing.

Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS)

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In additional benefit of DMLS compared to SLS is the higher detail resolution due
to the use of thinner layers, enabled by the use of smaller powder diameter (20
μm). The materials commonly used are alloy steel, stainless steel, tool steel,
aluminum, bronze, cobalt-chrome, and titanium.
Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) is a metal additive manufacturing (metal AM)
technique that belongs to the Powder Bed Fusion family and is often referred to as
the metal counterpart of selective laser sintering (SLS). It works by heating up
powdered metal, layer by layer, at select points so that the layer fuses into a single
unit.

In direct metal sintering, data preparation involves converting a 3D CAD design

into a sliced layer-by-layer format (typically STL files) that the machine can
interpret, specifying build orientation, and adding support structures where
necessary; while the materials used are typically fine metal powders like stainless

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steel, titanium, aluminum, or cobalt-chrome alloys, which are selectively melted by

a laser to build the desired 3D object layer by layer.
Key points about data preparation and materials in direct metal sintering:
Data Conversion:
The initial 3D CAD design is converted into a tessellated format (like STL) which
breaks down the model into tiny triangular facets, allowing the machine to
understand the desired geometry.
Slice Optimization:
The sliced data is further optimized by determining the best build orientation to
minimize support structures and maximize part quality.
Support Structures:
For complex geometries with overhangs, digital support structures are designed to
hold the part in place during the build process and are later removed.
Metal Powders:
The primary material used in direct metal sintering is fine metal powder with
consistent particle size, allowing for precise melting and bonding with the laser.
Material Selection:
The choice of metal powder depends on the desired properties of the final
part, such as strength, corrosion resistance, and thermal conductivity.

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

Module-5:

The typical materials for 3D printing.

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The most common materials used for 3D printing are plastics, resins, metals, and
composites. The choice of material depends on the intended use of the final
product.
Plastics
Polylactic acid (PLA)
A cheap, biodegradable material that can be printed at a low temperature. It's
sourced from crops like sugarcane and corn.
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
A petroleum-based thermoplastic that's affordable, recyclable, and durable. It's
used in Lego bricks.
High impact polystyrene (HIPS)
A widely used material that can be converted into foams, films, and sheets.
Resins castable resins, tough resins, and flexible resins.
Metals Maraging steel, Titanium, Stainless steel, Aluminum, and Various alloys.
Composites
Polymer-matrix composites that are reinforced with fibers like carbon or fiberglass.
They are low density, versatile, and high-performance
The properties of thermoplastic used in 3D printing.
Strength: Thermoplastics are strong and can be used for load-bearing and load-
supporting components.
Flexibility: Thermoplastics are flexible and can be molded.
Heat resistance: Some thermoplastics, like polycarbonate, have a high heat
deflection temperature.
Chemical resistance: Thermoplastics can be resistant to chemicals.
Recyclability: Some thermoplastics are recyclable.

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Environmental friendliness: Some thermoplastics are environmentally friendly

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