Ontario Structure

Inspection Manual
(OSIM)

MINISTRY OF TRANSPORTATION
PROVINCIAL HIGHWAYS MANAGEMENT DIVISION
HIGHWAY STANDARDS BRANCH
BRIDGE OFFICE
May 2018
To all users of the: ONTARIO STRUCTURE INSPECTION MANUAL (OSIM)

Enquiries regarding amendments, suggestions or comments should be directed to:

Ministry of Transportation Ontario

Bridge Office, 2nd Floor
301 St. Paul Street
St. Catharines, Ontario
Canada, L2R 7R4
(905) 704-2406

ISBN 978-1-4868-1508-1
© The Queen's Printer for Ontario
Reproduced with permission

Although the contents of this manual have been checked no warranty, expressed or
implied, is made by the Ministry of Transportation as to the accuracy of the contents of
this manual, nor shall the fact of distribution constitute any such warranty, and no
responsibility is assumed by the Ministry of Transportation in any connection therewith.
It is the responsibility of the user to verify its currency and appropriateness for the use
intended, to obtain the revisions, and to disregard obsolete or inapplicable information.
 Ministry of
Transportation

ONTARIO
STRUCTURAL INSPECTION MANUAL

(OSIM)
This page is intentionally left blank
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL DEFINITIONS

PART 1 - TECHNICAL INFORMATION

PART 2 - DETAILED VISUAL INSPECTIONS

PART 3 - ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS

PART 4 - MATERIAL CONDITION SURVEYS

PART 5 - UNDERWATER INSPECTIONS

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 PREFACE
2008

The Ontario Structure Inspection Manual has been used for bridge inspections in Ontario
since 1985. The manual underwent significant modifications in the year 2000. The
manual will continue to evolve and comments and suggestions will be recorded and, if
necessary, revisions will be made.
rev

A new “severity and extent” philosophy has been adopted in order to simplify the process
of using inspection information to estimate bridge rehabilitation needs and costs. The
inspection process is quite similar to the old process except for changes in the way that
inspection data is recorded. Material defects of various bridge components, as defined in
Part 1, Section 1.2 are still valid. The new approach requires that more quantitative data
be collected and recorded on the Condition State of bridge elements. Part 1 of the
manual also describes the various components of a bridge. These components are
grouped into convenient “Elements” for inspection purposes as described in Part 2.
Although, primary, secondary and auxiliary components are described in Part 1, for
inspection purposes, no distinction is made between these types of components.

The previous Material Condition Rating Tables in Part 2 of the manual have been replaced
with Condition State Tables. Four Condition States have been defined for bridge
elements, namely, Excellent, Good, Fair and Poor. The condition of bridge elements is
defined to be in any one or more of these Condition States. At any given time, areas within
a bridge element may be in different Condition States, or the whole of the element may be
in the same Condition State. For each bridge element, the inspector assesses and
records the amount (area, length or unit as appropriate) of the element in each of the four
Condition States. This assessment is based predominately on visual observations,
however, some non-destructive testing, such as hammer tapping of concrete for
delamination, will be required to determine or verify areas in poor condition. Where an
area in poor condition is noted, the area is to be delineated and measured.

The previous Performance Condition Rating Tables in Part 2 have been deleted. The new
inspection method requires suspected Performance Deficiencies to be identified for each
bridge element. Performance deficiencies are chosen from a standard list and are used to
flag areas that require the inspector to take some follow-up action subsequent to the
inspection. The inspector should also identify maintenance needs. A standard list of
maintenance needs has been created.

Modifications to the manual include:

Part 1 - Technical Information (Part 1, Section 1.1 has been completely re-written)
- Ministry of Transportation procedural guidelines have been deleted in an
effort to make the manual more generic
- Minor wording changes have been made to the description of some of
the material defects in Part 1, Section 1.2

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 Part 2 - Detailed Visual Inspections (This Part has been completely re-written)
- Material Condition Rating (MCR) Tables have been deleted and
Condition State Tables have been added
- Performance Condition Rating (PCR) Tables have been deleted and a
Suspected Performance Deficiency Tables have been added
- Element lists have been added for each bridge type
- Quantity calculation tables have been added
- Maintenance Needs Tables have been added
- Old inspection forms have been deleted and new forms have been added
- Photograph descriptions have changed to reflect Condition State
language

Part 3 - Additional Investigations (This Part has been completely re-written)

- Reference to load posting has been deleted and covered in Suspected
Performance Deficiency Section
- Wording changes have been made for condition surveys and other
investigations

Part 4 - Material Condition Surveys - No change

Part 5 - Underwater Inspections - No change

November 2003 Revisions

2003

The main purpose of these revisions was:

• to clarify the level of detail required during the inspection,
• to redefine Asphalt defects in term of top-down and bottom-up defects,
• to clarify the Condition State Table for inspection of asphalt covered concrete
decks,
• to clarify recommended work and add a 6 to 10 year timeframe for
recommended work,
• to address other minor clarifications.
Rev

April 2008 Revisions

2008

The main purpose of these minor revisions was:

• to clarify the definition of biennial inspection and of culverts,
• to revise wood defects and defects related to soil steel structures,
• to change the units of measure for some bridge elements and to add some
elements as optional.
• to change the way recommended work is recorded for elements and for the
overall structure.
• to address other minor clarifications.
Rev

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 May 2018 Revisions
2018

The main purpose of these revisions was:

• to clarify inspection of light pole anchorages,
• to address other minor clarifications, and errors
• to reformat the entire document for clarity and Accessibility requirements
• to add Field Review Inspections for non-MTO structures
• to amalgamate with the Retaining Wall Inspection Guidelines, July 2005
Rev

iv
INTRODUCTION

The need for mobility requires that Ontario's highway system be kept in good repair.
Structures are a vital part of this system. The efficiency of the system is impaired and the
public inconvenienced if a structure fails or its load-carrying capacity is reduced for any
reason. To avoid such failings, an effective structure management system is required.

An essential component of structure management system involves the systematic

inspection of the structures on the highway network.

This manual sets standards for detailed visual inspection and condition rating of structures
and their components. It provides a uniform inspection approach for all structures in
Ontario.

Part 1 gives general details of inspection procedures, bridge components, material

defects and performance defects

Part 2 sets out requirements for detailed visual inspection and condition rating of
structures and their components.

Part 3 provides guidelines for the need to carry out further investigations and special
studies.

Part 4 describes various types of procedures and equipment for the non-destructive
testing of materials and provides guidelines and requirements for carrying out
these tests.

Part 5 provides guidelines and requirements for underwater investigations.

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 GENERAL DEFINITIONS

Abutment - A substructure unit which supports the end of the structure and retains
the approach fill.
Auxiliary - Any component which does not share in the load carrying
Components capacity of the structure.
2008

Biennial An inspection performed in every second calendar year to assess the

Structure condition of the structure, in accordance with the methodology described
Inspection in OSIM.
Bridge - A structure which provides a roadway or walkway for the passage of
vehicles, pedestrians or cyclists across an obstruction, gap or facility and
Rev

is greater than or equal to 3 m in span.

Chord - The upper and lower main longitudinal component in trusses or
arches extending the full length of the structure.
Coating - The generic term for paint, lacquer, enamel, sealers, galvanizing,
metallizing, etc.
Concrete Deck - A detailed inspection of a concrete deck in accordance with The
Condition Structure Rehabilitation Manual.
Survey
2008

Culvert - A Structure that forms an opening through soil and;

(Structural) a) Has a span of 3 metres or more (e.g. S in the diagrams below), or
Rev

i – Soil Steel (Any ii – Soil Steel Arch iii – Concrete Barrel Arch
Shape)

iv – Concrete Box v – Timber vi – Concrete Open

Footing
b) Has the sum of the individual spans of 3 metres or more, for adjacent
multiple cell culverts (e.g. a+b+c in the diagrams below),or

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 i – Concrete Box
ii – Timber

iii – Concrete Open Footing

c) Has the sum of the individual spans of 3 metres or more, for multiple
cell culverts (each with spans at least 2 m) separated by soil (a width
not more than the span of smallest individual cell) (e.g. a+b+c in the
diagrams below, where a, b, and c are all ≥ 2.0m and d and e are
both ≤ the minimum of a, b, and c), or

i – Multi-Cell Soil Steel ii – Multi-Cell Concrete Box

iii – Multi-Cell Concrete Open iv – Multi-Cell Timber

Footing
d) Has been designated by the Owner as qualifying as a culvert.

Defect - An identifiable, unwanted condition that was not part of the original intent
of design.
Detailed Visual - An element by element visual assessment of material defects,
Inspection performance deficiencies and maintenance needs of a structure.
Deterioration - A defect that has occurred over a period of time.
Diagonals - Component which spans between the top and bottom chord of a truss or
arch in a diagonal direction.
Distress - A defect produced by loading.
Elements - The individual parts of a structure defined for inspection purposes.

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 Several bridge components may be grouped together to form one bridge
element for inspection purposes
Engineer - A member or licensee of the Professional Engineers of Ontario.
Environment - An element’s exposure to salt spray:
Benign - Not exposed (e.g. River Pier)
Moderate - Exposed but element protected
(e.g. Asphalt covered and waterproofed deck)
Severe - Exposed and element not protected
(e.g. Exposed concrete deck, Barrier Wall)
2008

Evaluation - The determination of the load carrying capacity of structures in

accordance with the requirements of the Canadian Highway Bridge
Design Code.
Rev

Floor Beam - Transverse beams that span between trusses, arches or girders and
transmit loads from the deck and stringers to the trusses, arches or
girders.
Highway - A common and public thoroughfare including street, avenue, parkway,
driveway, square, place, bridge, designed and intended for, or used by,
the general public for passage of vehicles, pedestrians or animals.
Lateral - Bracing which lies in the plane of the top or bottom chords or flanges
Bracing and provides lateral stability and resistance to wind loads.
Maintenance - Any action which is aimed at preventing the development of defects or
preventing deterioration of a structure or its components.
Masonry - Structure made up of natural stones separated by mortar joints, usually
in uniform courses. Masonry in existing structures is usually in retaining
walls, abutments, piers or arches.
Masonry - Stone worked to a square shape or cut square with uniform coursing
Ashlar height and vertical joints staggered. The stone has a minimum course
height of 200 mm set in joints with an average thickness of 10 mm or
less.
Masonry - Stone in natural bed thicknesses or roughly squared stones with course
Squared Stone height less than 200 mm and joints greater than 10 mm but not over 20
mm.
Masonry - Stone masonry constructed with rough field stones or only roughly
Rubble squared stones set in mortar joints with average thickness greater than
20 mm. Also any squared stone masonry in which the joints are greater
than 20 mm, but less than 30 mm in thickness.
Minister - The Minister of the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario or his nominee.
Ministry - The Ministry of Transportation of Ontario
2018

Overhead - A structure that carries MTO highway spanning over railway tracks and
Rev

under the Ministry ownership.

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 Rev 2008

Owner - A person having jurisdiction and control over the structure.

Person - An individual, board, commission, partnership or corporation, including a
municipal corporation, and employees, agents, successors and assigns
of any of them.
Plans - All drawings, descriptions and specifications, being parts of the contract,
and all drawings and descriptions produced by the constructor for the
erection of a bridge or structure, and all revisions thereto.
Portal Bracing - Overhead bracing at the ends of a through truss or arch and provides
lateral stability and shear transfer between trusses.
Primary - The main load carrying components of the structure.
Components
Rehabilitation - Any modification, alteration, retrofitting or improvement to a structure
sub-system or to the structure which is aimed at correcting existing
defects or deficiencies.
Repair - Any modification, alteration, retrofitting or improvement to a component
of the structure which is aimed at correcting existing defects or
deficiencies.
2018

Retained Soil A proprietary system listed in the Designated Sources for Materials
System (RSS) (DSM) used to retain horizontal loads for applications such as true and
false abutment structures, retaining walls and steep slopes; or, to retain
vertical loads for application such as embankments over soft ground.
Retaining Wall - An independent structure not connecting to a bridge that holds back fill.
A stand-alone retaining wall is retaining wall built not immediately
Rev

adjacent to a bridge.
Secondary - Any component which helps to distribute loads to primary components,
Components or carries wind loads, or stabilizes primary components.
Sign Support - A metal, concrete or timber structure, including supporting brackets,
service walks and mechanical devices where present, which support a
luminaire, sign or traffic signal and which span or extend over a highway.
Span - The horizontal distance between adjacent supports of the superstructure
of a bridge, or the longest horizontal dimension of the cross-section of a
culvert or tunnel taken perpendicular to the walls.
Stringers - Stringers span between floor beams and provide the support for the
deck above.
2018

Structure - Bridge, culvert, tunnel, ferry dock, retaining wall (include RSS wall) or
sign support.
Rev

Subway - A structure that carries railway traffic over a MTO highway.

Suspected - A Suspected Performance Deficiency should be recorded during an
Performance inspection, if an element’s ability to perform its intended function is in
Deficiency question, and one or more performance defects exist.

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 Sway Bracing - Vertical bracing spanning between through trusses or arches, or outside
of half-through trusses or arches and providing lateral stability and shear
transfer between the trusses or arches.
Tunnel - A structure with a minimum length of 90 m that is constructed below
2018

water level or through soil with at least 600mm of fill covered, used to
convey pedestrian, highway or railway traffic, and is usually incorporated
with some design considerations such as special lighting, ventilation, fire
Rev

protection systems or emergency egress measures.

Verticals - Components which span between the top and bottom chords of a truss
or arch in the vertical direction.

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 Ministry of
Transportation

ONTARIO
STRUCTURAL INSPECTION MANUAL

PART 1 – TECHNICAL INFORMATION

This page is intentionally left blank

1-1
PART 1 : TECHNICAL INFORMATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE

1.1 STRUCTURAL INSPECTIONS .......................................................... 1-1

1.1.1 SCOPE .................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1.2 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES OF STRUCTURAL INSPECTIONS ............... 1-1
1.1.2.1 Goal ................................................................................................ 1-1
1.1.2.2 Objectives ....................................................................................... 1-1
1.1.3 INSPECTIONS OF STRUCTURES ......................................................... 1-1
1.1.3.1 Regular OSIM Inspection ( Detailed Visual Inspection ) ................. 1-2
1.1.3.2 Enhanced OSIM Inspection ............................................................ 1-3
1.1.3.3 Field Review Inspection for non-MTO Structure ............................. 1-4
1.1.3.4 Emergency Inspections .................................................................. 1-5
1.1.3.5 Additional Investigations ................................................................. 1-5
1.2 MATERIAL DEFECTS ........................................................................ 1-6
1.2.1 SCOPE .................................................................................................... 1-6
1.2.2 CONCRETE ............................................................................................. 1-6
1.2.2.1 Scaling ............................................................................................ 1-6
1.2.2.2 Disintegration.................................................................................. 1-7
1.2.2.3 Erosion ........................................................................................... 1-7
1.2.2.4 Corrosion of Reinforcement ............................................................ 1-8
1.2.2.5 Delamination................................................................................... 1-8
1.2.2.6 Spalling ........................................................................................... 1-9
1.2.2.7 Cracking ....................................................................................... 1-10
1.2.2.8 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (AAR) ................................................. 1-11
1.2.2.9 Surface Defects ............................................................................ 1-12
1.2.3 STEEL ................................................................................................... 1-22
1.2.3.1 Corrosion ...................................................................................... 1-22
1.2.3.2 Permanent Deformation ............................................................... 1-23
1.2.3.3 Cracking ....................................................................................... 1-24
1.2.3.4 Connection Deficiencies ............................................................... 1-26
1.2.4 WOOD ................................................................................................... 1-31
1.2.4.1 Checks, Splits and Shakes ........................................................... 1-31
1.2.4.2 Weathering ................................................................................... 1-31
1.2.4.3 Rot or Decay................................................................................. 1-32
1.2.4.4 Insect Damage ............................................................................. 1-33
1.2.4.5 Abrasion and Wear ....................................................................... 1-34
1.2.4.6 Cracking, Splintering, Crushing and Shattering ............................ 1-34

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 1.2.4.7 Fire and Chemical Damage .......................................................... 1-35
1.2.4.8 Connection Deficiencies ............................................................... 1-35
1.2.5 MASONRY ............................................................................................. 1-42
1.2.5.1 Cracking ....................................................................................... 1-42
1.2.5.2 Splitting, Spalling and Disintegration ............................................ 1-42
1.2.5.3 Loss of Mortar and Stones ........................................................... 1-43
1.2.6 ALUMINUM ............................................................................................ 1-45
1.2.6.1 Corrosion ...................................................................................... 1-45
1.2.6.2 Cracking ....................................................................................... 1-46
1.2.6.3 Connection Deficiencies ............................................................... 1-46
1.2.7 ASPHALT PAVEMENT .......................................................................... 1-49
1.2.7.1 Cracking ....................................................................................... 1-50
1.2.7.2 Bond Defects ................................................................................ 1-51
1.2.7.2.1 Loss of Bond .................................................................... 1-51
1.2.7.2.2 Rippling ............................................................................ 1-52
1.2.7.3 Local Underlying Defects .............................................................. 1-52
1.2.7.3.1 Potholes ........................................................................... 1-52
1.2.7.3.2 Local Protrusions (Delaminations) .................................... 1-52
1.2.7.4 Surface Defects ............................................................................ 1-53
1.2.7.4.1 Ravelling / Segregation .................................................... 1-53
1.2.7.4.2 Flushing ............................................................................ 1-53
1.2.7.4.3 Slippery Asphalt Surface .................................................. 1-54
1.2.7.5 Surface Distortions ....................................................................... 1-54
1.2.7.5.1 Wheel Track Rutting ......................................................... 1-54
1.2.8 COATINGS ............................................................................................ 1-61
1.2.8.1 Coating Related Defects ............................................................... 1-62
1.2.8.2 Adhesion Related Defects ............................................................ 1-62
1.2.8.3 Application Related Defects.......................................................... 1-63
1.2.9 REFERENCES ...................................................................................... 1-72
1.3 STREAMS AND WATERWAYS ....................................................... 1-73
1.3.1 STREAMS AND WATERWAYS............................................................. 1-73
1.3.1.1 Material Defects of Streams and Waterways ................................ 1-73
1.3.1.2 Performance Defects in Streams and Waterways ........................ 1-74
1.4 EMBANKMENTS AND SLOPE PROTECTIONS ............................. 1-78
1.4.1 EMBANKMENTS ................................................................................... 1-78
1.4.1.1 Material Defects of Embankments ................................................ 1-78
1.4.1.2 Performance Defects of Embankments ........................................ 1-78
1.4.2 SLOPE PROTECTIONS ........................................................................ 1-79
1.4.2.1 Material Defects of Slope Protections........................................... 1-79
1.4.2.2 Performance Defects of Slope Protections ................................... 1-79
1.5 SUBSTRUCTURES .......................................................................... 1-81
1.5.1 SUBSTRUCTURES ............................................................................... 1-81
1-ii
 1.5.1.1 Foundations .................................................................................. 1-81
1.5.1.2 Abutments .................................................................................... 1-82
1.5.1.3 Piers ............................................................................................. 1-82
1.5.1.4 Retaining Walls............................................................................. 1-83
1.5.2 PRIMARY COMPONENTS .................................................................... 1-83
1.5.2.1 Material Defects of Primary Components ..................................... 1-83
1.5.2.2 Performance Defects of Primary Components ............................. 1-83
1.5.3 SECONDARY COMPONENTS.............................................................. 1-85
1.5.3.1 Material Defects of Secondary Components ................................ 1-85
1.5.3.2 Performance Defects of Secondary Components......................... 1-85
1.5.4 AUXILIARY COMPONENTS ................................................................. 1-86
1.5.4.1 Material Defects of Auxiliary Components .................................... 1-86
1.5.4.2 Performance Defects of Auxiliary Components ............................ 1-86
1.5.5 REFERENCES ...................................................................................... 1-87
1.6 BEARINGS ....................................................................................... 1-98
1.6.1 BEARINGS ............................................................................................ 1-98
1.6.1.1 Material Defect of Bearings ........................................................ 1-100
1.6.1.2 Performance Defects of Bearings ............................................... 1-100
1.7 JOINTS ........................................................................................... 1-103
1.7.1 JOINTS ................................................................................................ 1-103
1.7.1.1 Material Defects of Joints ........................................................... 1-105
1.7.1.2 Performance Defects of Joints.................................................... 1-105
1.8 SUPERSTRUCTURES ................................................................... 1-110
1.8.1 SUPERSTRUCTURES ........................................................................ 1-110
1.8.1.1 Beams and Girders..................................................................... 1-110
1.8.1.2 Thick Slabs ................................................................................. 1-111
1.8.1.3 Trusses....................................................................................... 1-111
1.8.1.4 Arches ........................................................................................ 1-112
1.8.1.5 Culverts, Tunnels and Soil-steel Structures................................ 1-114
1.8.1.6 Diaphragms ................................................................................ 1-114
1.8.1.7 Sway Bracings ............................................................................ 1-115
1.8.1.8 Lateral Bracings.......................................................................... 1-115
1.8.2 PRIMARY COMPONENTS .................................................................. 1-115
1.8.2.1 Material Defects of Primary Components ................................... 1-116
1.8.2.2 Performance Defects of Primary Components ........................... 1-116
1.8.3 SECONDARY COMPONENTS............................................................ 1-116
1.8.3.1 Material Defects of Secondary Components .............................. 1-116
1.8.3.2 Performance Defects of Secondary Components....................... 1-116
1.8.4 REFERENCES .................................................................................... 1-116
1.9 DECK COMPONENTS ................................................................... 1-127

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 1.9.1 DECK COMPONENTS ........................................................................ 1-127
1.9.1.1 Decks ......................................................................................... 1-127
1.9.1.2 Wearing Surfaces ....................................................................... 1-128
1.9.1.3 Curbs and Sidewalks .................................................................. 1-128
1.9.1.4 Approaches, Approach Slabs and Ramps .................................. 1-128
1.9.1.5 Drainage and Deck Drains.......................................................... 1-129
1.9.2 PRIMARY COMPONENTS .................................................................. 1-130
1.9.2.1 Material Defects of Primary Components ................................... 1-130
1.9.2.2 Performance Defects of Primary Components ........................... 1-130
1.9.3 SECONDARY COMPONENTS............................................................ 1-130
1.9.3.1 Material Defects of Secondary Components .............................. 1-130
1.9.3.2 Performance Defects of Secondary Components....................... 1-130
1.9.4 AUXILIARY COMPONENTS ............................................................... 1-131
1.9.4.1 Material Defects of Auxiliary Components .................................. 1-131
1.9.4.2 Performance Defects of Auxiliary Components .......................... 1-131
1.9.5 REFERENCES .................................................................................... 1-131
1.10 RAILING SYSTEMS ....................................................................... 1-137
1.10.1 RAILING SYSTEMS ............................................................................ 1-137
1.10.1.1 Material Defects of Railing Systems ........................................... 1-139
1.10.1.2 Performance Defects of Railing Systems ................................... 1-139
1.11 STRUCTURAL STEEL COATINGS ............................................... 1-146
1.11.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL COATINGS ..................................................... 1-146
1.11.1.1 Material Defects of Coatings....................................................... 1-148
1.11.1.2 Performance Defects of Coatings ............................................... 1-148
1.11.2 REFERENCES .................................................................................... 1-149
1.12 SIGNS ............................................................................................ 1-150
1.12.1 SIGNS.................................................................................................. 1-150
1.12.1.1 Defects of Signs ......................................................................... 1-152
1.12.2 REFERENCES .................................................................................... 1-152
1.13 ATTACHMENTS............................................................................. 1-156
1.13.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................ 1-156
1.13.1.1 Utilities ........................................................................................ 1-156
1.13.1.2 Electrical ..................................................................................... 1-156
1.13.1.3 Bridge Mounted Sign Supports ................................................... 1-156
1.13.1.4 Noise Barriers ............................................................................. 1-157
1.13.1.5 Other Attachments...................................................................... 1-157
1.13.2 DEFECTS OF ATTACHMENTS .......................................................... 1-157
1.14 LIVE LOADS .................................................................................. 1-158
1.14.1 LIVE LOADS AND POSTING PROCEDURES .................................... 1-158

1-iv
 1.14.1.1 Design Live Loads ...................................................................... 1-158
1.14.1.2 Evaluation Loads ........................................................................ 1-158
1.14.2 REFERENCES .................................................................................... 1-158

1-v
 1.1 STRUCTURAL INSPECTIONS
2003

1.1.1 SCOPE
This section sets out the goals and objectives of structural inspections. It identifies the
rev

types of inspections and the types of structures to which this manual applies.

1.1.2 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES OF STRUCTURAL

INSPECTIONS
1.1.2.1 Goal
The goal of structural inspections is to ensure, within an economic framework, an
acceptable standard for structures in terms of public safety, comfort and convenience.

1.1.2.2 Objectives
The main objectives of Structural Inspections are:

• to maintain structures in a safe condition;

rev2008

• to protect and prolong the useful life of structures;

• to identify maintenance, repair and rehabilitation needs of structures; and,
• to provide a basis for a structure management system for the planning and funding
of the maintenance and rehabilitation of structures.

1.1.3 INSPECTIONS OF STRUCTURES

To achieve the goal and objectives of structural inspections, detailed visual inspections of
bridges should be performed regularly.

A detailed visual inspection is an element-by-element “close-up” visual assessment of

2003
2018

material defects, performance deficiencies and maintenance needs of a structure. “Close-

up is defined as “a distance close enough to determine the condition of the element”. In
many cases, the inspection should be conducted within arm’s length of the
element, possibly involving tapping with a hammer or making measurements by
2008

hand. In some cases (provided that periodic Enhanced OSIM inspections are done
as described in Part 1, Section 1.1.3.2), it may be possible to inspect a portion of the
rev

bridge close-up and then estimate the condition of the remaining inaccessible parts
by visually comparing them to the partial close-up inspection. On average, it is
expected that in order to adequately assess the condition of all elements, the
inspector should plan to spend 2 to 3 hours at a typical bridge site. For larger or
smaller bridges, this time will vary.

PART 1 1-1
 Appropriate special equipment (Bridgemaster, bucket truck, ladders, etc) should be
used to facilitate this assessment. Appropriate safety and traffic control regulations and
rev2018

guidelines are to be followed during the inspections.

In addition to detailed inspections, routine inspections by maintenance crews are

essential, and should be performed regularly to identify sudden changes in bridge
condition. This manual describes the procedures for carrying out detailed visual
inspections only.
rev2018

1.1.3.1 Regular OSIM Inspection ( Detailed Visual Inspection )

The following structures shall be inspected every two years (Biennially):
•
2008

All bridges, culverts and tunnels with spans of 3 metres or greater

Rev

• All retaining walls

• All movable bridges

For culverts with 3 to 6 metre spans or stand-alone retaining walls, the inspection interval
Rev 2003 rev2018

can be increased to four years if the culvert or retaining wall is in good condition and the
engineer believes that the culvert or retaining wall condition will not change significantly
before the next inspection.

The timeframe of two years (and four years) refers to calendar years and the inspection
rev2008

need not be done before the second (or fourth) anniversary of the previous inspection.
2003

It is recognized that the level of effort involved in performing a detailed visual inspection
will vary depending on structure type and age. For example, if a bridge is less than 5
years old, it is unlikely that there will be much change in bridge condition from one
inspection to the next. Consequently, the inspection time may be relatively short.
However, the inspector must be satisfied that everything possible has been done to
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determine the condition of the various bridge elements.

It is also recognized that one of the purposes of regular inspections is to identify changes
in bridge condition. If taken in this context, the importance of having a qualified inspector
assess the condition of structure every two years, cannot be over emphasized.

The frequency of inspections given above, applies to all structures in good repair. The
2008

maximum inspection interval and the level of inspection may however vary for certain
structures. Some structures may have to be inspected more frequently as directed by the
Engineer. Such action can be justified based upon the type of structure, construction
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details, existing problems or restrictions, and material and performance condition history.
Structures or components require more frequent inspection where one or more of the
following conditions exist:

• structures with a high proportion of elements in the Poor Condition State;

• structures with load limits on them;
• new types of structures or details with no previous performance history;

PART 1 1-2
 • structures with load or clearance restrictions;
• single load path structures;
• structures with fatigue prone details;
• structures with fracture critical components;
• pins and hangers in arch structures;
• pins in suspended spans and pinned arches.
2003

Often, more detailed investigations and non-destructive testing techniques are

required to identify defects for the above cases. The inspector should recommend
2008

that these specialized additional investigations be performed regularly, where

warranted, as described in Part 3 of this Manual.

Inspection procedures detailed in this manual do not apply to the mechanical or electrical
parts of movable bridges. The inspection of overhead sign support structures (not
roadside signs) is covered in the Ontario Sign Support Inspection Guidelines. Bridge
2008

mounted sign supports and hardware should also be inspected in accordance with the
Ontario Sign Support Inspection Guidelines. For ease of access, the inspector should
plan to inspect these components when on site for the biennial bridge inspection.
Rev
2018

Wingwalls are usually built monolithically on both sides of the bridge abutment with typical
length of less than 6 metres. Sometimes reinforced concrete retaining walls or RSS are
used instead. When these retaining walls are built immediately adjacent to a bridge
abutment, it would typically be inspected with the bridge. However, if one of the following
criteria are satisfied, retaining walls built immediately adjacent to a bridge may consider to
be inspected independently and have a separate site number:
• length of retaining walls are much larger than the typical
• retaining walls are built in different time than the bridge
• retaining walls are unique or built with different materials than the bridge eg gabion
walls

Stand-alone retaining walls are retaining walls not built immediately adjacent to a bridge.
For stand-alone retaining walls that satisfy at least one of the following criteria should be
inspected independently and have a separate site number:
a) Average exposed wall height is greater than 2 metres.
b) Wall is located within a distance from the travelled portion of the highway equal to
twice the average exposed wall height.
c) Failure of wall would cause significant adverse effects, e.g.:
i. wall is located near utilities or the limit of MTO right-of-way
ii. wall is retaining superimposed surcharge loads
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1.1.3.2 Enhanced OSIM Inspection

For a typical OSIM inspection, on structures that are in generally good condition, it may be
2008

possible to inspect a portion of the bridge close-up and then estimate the condition of the
remaining inaccessible parts by visually comparing them to the partial close-up inspection.
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Periodically, the structure should be inspected more thoroughly by actually getting within

PART 1 1-3
 arm’s reach of all areas of the structure. This often requires special equipment and tools
2008

to be able to access all areas of the structure. As a general guideline, this Enhanced
OSIM inspection should typically be done for structures that are over 30 years old with
critical components in poor condition (see note below). The frequency of the Enhanced
2018

OSIM inspection can be between one to six years depending on the structure conditions.
The additional effort required for an Enhanced OSIM inspection includes the following:
• Tapping the concrete surface with a hammer to determine limits of delamination
and spalling.
• Tapping the wood surface with a hammer to determine limits of rot, as well as
selective wood coring to correlate tapping with the presence of inner rot or other
damage.
• Cleaning and wire brushing of steel surface, including connections to ascertain
section loss.
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• Entering inside box girders.

Note: It is also at the Engineer’s discretion to request an Enhanced OSIM inspection for
any bridge regardless of age, if it is appropriate, for example if there is a potentially
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safety issue that could arise if an Enhanced OSIM inspection is not done.

1.1.3.3 Field Review Inspection for non-MTO Structure

2018

Structures built and owned by another jurisdictions or private owners, but located within
the Ministry right-of-way, are classified as non-MTO Structures. These non-MTO
Structures can be built either over, under or beside MTO highways or Structures.

a) Structures can be built by owners, such as municipalities, Highway 407ETR,

transit authorities or private corporations. These owners have responsibilities
under PTHIA Ontario Regulation 104/97 to inspect their Structures every two
years and keep them in a state of good condition.
• When the ownership is known, the Ministry will notify the owner of their
obligation to inspect the Structures and obtain an inspection report from the
owner for the Ministry records. The Ministry will not carry out a regular OSIM
inspection but carry out a Field Review Inspection which is a less rigorous
inspection to ensure that the Structure is in safe operating condition.
• When the ownership is not known, the Ministry will carry out a full regular
OSIM inspection until ownership and responsibility are established.

b) If a non-MTO Structure is owned by a railway company, the railway company has

responsibilities under the Railway Safety Act and associated Regulations to
perform annual inspections to ensure the safety of their tracks and Structures that
carry the tracks.
• For subway structures, at least every two years, the Ministry will notify the
owner of their obligation to inspect the Structure and obtain an inspection
report from the owner for the Ministry records. The Ministry will not carry out a
regular OSIM inspection but carry out a Field Review Inspection which is a
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less rigorous inspection to ensure that the Structure is in safe operating

condition.
PART 1 1-4
 • For overhead structures, the Ministry will complete a regular OSIM inspection
at least every two years.

1.1.3.4 Emergency Inspections

An emergency situation exists when a structural component contributing to overall stability
of the structure has failed, or is in imminent danger of failure or public safety is in any way
at risk. In such cases, a detailed visual inspection should be carried out immediately.
Typical problems that may cause an emergency situation to develop are:
• Accident or vehicle collision with a structure;
• Spring run-off or major flooding;
• An earthquake;
• Cracks in steel components; and
• Loose concrete in an overhead structure.

1.1.3.5 Additional Investigations

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If during a detailed visual inspection, the inspector feels that more detailed information is
needed, additional investigations can be requested. Some of these investigations are:
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• Material Condition Survey for:

- Detailed Deck Condition Survey;
- Non-destructive Delamination Survey of Asphalt Covered Decks;
- Concrete Substructure Condition Survey;
- Detailed Coating Condition Survey;
- Detailed Timber Structure Investigation;
- Post-Tensioned Strand Investigation;
• Underwater investigation;
• Fatigue investigation;
• Seismic investigation;
• Structure evaluation;
• Monitoring of deformations, settlement and movements;
2018

• Monitoring of crack widths

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Information on these investigations is contained in Part 3 of this manual.

PART 1 1-5
1.2 MATERIAL DEFECTS

1.2.1 SCOPE
This section describes the defects that are normally found in concrete, steel, wood,
masonry, aluminum, asphalt pavements and coatings. Each defect is briefly described
and the causes producing it are identified. Severity levels, wherever possible, are
established.

1.2.2 CONCRETE
Concrete is used in structures as plain concrete, such as in tremie and mass concrete; or,
it is combined with conventional steel reinforcement as reinforced concrete, or with
prestressing steel reinforcement as prestressed concrete.
Defects in concrete can often be related to the lack of durability of the concrete, resulting
from the composition of the concrete, poor placement practices, poor Quality Control or
the aggressive environment in which it is placed. The following defects commonly
occurring in concrete are described:
• Scaling
• Disintegration
• Erosion
• Corrosion of Reinforcement
• Delamination
• Spalling
• Cracking
• Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
• Surface Defects

1.2.2.1 Scaling
Scaling is the local flaking, or loss of the surface portion of concrete or mortar as a result
of the freeze-thaw deterioration of concrete. Scaling is common in non air-entrained
concrete, but can also occur in air-entrained concrete in the fully saturated condition.
Scaling is prone to occur in poorly finished or overworked concrete where too many fines
and not enough entrained air is found near the surface. Scaling of concrete is shown in
Figure 1.2.2.1.

PART 1 1-6
Severity:-
Light Loss of surface mortar to a depth of up to 5 mm without exposure of
coarse aggregate;
Medium Loss of surface mortar to a depth of 6 to 10 mm with exposure of some
coarse aggregates;
Severe Loss of surface mortar to a depth of 11 mm to 20 mm with aggregate
particles standing out from the concrete and a few completely lost
Very Severe Loss of surface mortar and aggregate particles to a depth > 20 mm

1.2.2.2 Disintegration
Disintegration is the physical deterioration or breaking down of the concrete into small
fragments or particles. The deterioration usually starts in the form of scaling and, if
allowed to progress beyond the level of very severe scaling is considered as
disintegration. Disintegration may be caused by de-icing chemicals, sulphates, chlorides
or by frost action. Disintegration of the concrete is illustrated in Figure 1.2.2.2.

Severity:-
Light Loss of section up to 25 mm in depth with some loss of coarse
aggregate;
Medium Loss of section between 25 mm and 50 mm deep with considerable loss
of coarse aggregate and exposure of reinforcement;
Severe Loss of section between 50 mm and 100 mm deep with substantial loss
of coarse aggregate and exposure of reinforcement over a large area;
Very Severe Loss of section in excess of 100 mm deep and extending over a large
area.

1.2.2.3 Erosion
Erosion is the deterioration of concrete brought about by water-borne sand and gravel
particles scrubbing against concrete surfaces. Similar, damage may be caused by flowing
ice. Erosion is sometimes combined with the chemical action of air and water-borne
pollutants which accelerate the breakdown of the concrete.
Erosion is generally an indication that the concrete is not durable enough for the
environment in which it has been placed. Severe erosion of a concrete footing is shown in
Figure 1.2.2.3.

PART 1 1-7
Severity:-
Light Loss of section up to 25 mm in depth with some loss of coarse
aggregate;
Medium Loss of section between 25 mm and 50 mm deep with considerable loss
of coarse aggregate and exposure of reinforcement;
Severe Loss of section between 50 mm and 100 mm deep with substantial loss
of coarse aggregate and exposure of reinforcement over a large area;
Very Severe Loss of section is in excess of 100 mm deep and extending over a large
area.

1.2.2.4 Corrosion of Reinforcement

Corrosion is the deterioration of reinforcement by electrolysis. The alkali content in
concrete protects the reinforcement from corrosion. However, when chloride ions above a
certain concentration are dissolved in water and penetrate through the concrete to the
reinforcement this protection breaks down and corrosion starts. In the initial stages,
corrosion may appear as a rust-stain on the concrete surface. In the advanced stages,
the surface concrete above the reinforcement cracks, delaminates and spalls off exposing
heavily rusted reinforcement. This process is illustrated in Figure 1.2.2.4(a).

Severity:-

Light Light rust stain on the concrete surface;

Medium Exposed reinforcement with uniform light rust.
Loss of reinforcing steel section less than 10;
Severe Exposed reinforcement with heavy rusting and localized pitting.
Loss of reinforcing steel section between 10% and 20%;;
Very Severe Exposed reinforcement with very heavy rusting and pitting.
Loss of reinforcing steel section over 20%.

1.2.2.5 Delamination
Delamination is defined as a discontinuity of the surface concrete which is substantially
separated but not completely detached from concrete below or above it. Visibly, it may
appear as a solid surface but can be identified as a hollow sound by tapping or chain
dragging. Delamination begins with the corrosion of reinforcement and subsequent
cracking of the concrete. However, in the case of closely spaced bars, the cracking
extends in the plane of the reinforcement parallel to the exterior surface of the concrete.
Delamination in a concrete beam is shown in Figure 1.2.2.5.
Delamination or debonding may also occur in concrete that has been patched or overlaid
due to the continued deterioration of the older concrete. This may happen even in the
absence of any rusting of reinforcing steel.

PART 1 1-8
Severity:-
Light Delaminated area measuring less than 150 mm in any direction;
Medium Delaminated area measuring 150 mm to 300 mm in any direction;
Severe Delaminated area measuring 300 mm to 600 mm in any direction;
Very Severe Delaminated area measuring more than 600 mm in any direction.

1.2.2.6 Spalling
A spall is a fragment, which has been detached from a larger concrete mass.
Spalling is a continuation of the delamination process whereby the actions of external
loads, pressure exerted by the corrosion of reinforcement or by the formation of ice in the
delaminated area results in the breaking off of the delaminated concrete. The spalled
area left behind is characterized by sharp edges. Very severe spalling in a concrete beam
and local severe spalling in a concrete deck are illustrated in Figures 1.2.2.6(a) and
1.2.2.6(b) respectively.
Vehicular, ice flow or other impact forces on exposed concrete edges, deck joints or
construction joints, may also result in the spalling or breaking off of pieces of concrete
locally.
Spalling may also be caused by overloading of the concrete in compression. This results
in the breaking off of the concrete cover to the depth of the outer layer of reinforcement.
Spalling may also occur in areas of localized high compressive load concentrations, such
as at structure supports, or at anchorage zones in post-tensioned concrete.
Spalling of patched areas may occur due to continued deterioration of the old concrete
and subsequent breaking off of the new patch.

Severity:-
Light Spalled area measuring less than 150 mm in any direction or less than
25 mm in depth;
Medium Spalled area measuring between 150 mm to 300 mm in any direction or
between 25 mm and 50 mm in depth;
Severe Spalled area measuring between 300 mm to 600 mm in any direction or
between 50 mm and 100 mm in depth;
Very Severe Spalled area measuring more than 600 mm in any direction or greater
than 100 mm in depth.

PART 1 1-9
 1.2.2.7 Cracking
A crack is a linear fracture in concrete which extends partly or completely through the
member. Cracks in concrete occur as a result of tensile stresses introduced in the
concrete. Tensile stresses are initially carried by the concrete and reinforcement until the
level of the tensile stresses exceeds the tensile capacity (modulus of rupture) of the
concrete. After this point the concrete cracks and the tensile force is transferred
completely to the steel reinforcement. The crack widths and distribution is controlled by
the reinforcement in reinforced and prestressed concrete, whereas in plain concrete there
is no such control.

The build-up of tensile stresses and, therefore, cracks in concrete may be due to
externally applied loads, external restraint forces, internal restraint forces, differential
movements and settlements, or corrosion of reinforcement. Externally applied loads
generate a system(s) of internal compressive and tensile stresses, in the members and
components of the structure, as required to maintain static equilibrium. Cracks resulting
from externally applied loads initially appear as hairline cracks and are harmless.
However, as the reinforcement is further stressed the initial cracks open up and
progressively spread into numerous wider cracks. Figure 1.2.2.7(a) shows typical flexure,
shear, axial and torsional cracks due to applied external load.

External restraint forces are generated if the free movement of the concrete in response to
the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage is prevented from occurring due to
restraint at the member supports. The restraint may consist of friction at the bearings,
bonding to already hardened concrete, or by attachment to other components of the
structure. Cracks resulting from the actions of external restraint forces develop in a similar
manner as those due to externally applied loads. Figure 1.2.2.7(b) shows restraint
induced cracking due to an increase in temperature of the top surface of a beam.

Internal restraint forces are caused by the differential expansion or contraction of the
exterior surface of concrete relative to the interior mass of the concrete, as in plastic
shrinkage. The resulting surface cracks are normally shallow and appear as pattern
cracks, checking and D-cracks. Figure 1.2.2.7(c) shows medium pattern cracking in an
abutment wall.
2003

These internal forces may also be caused by carbonation of concrete. The calcium from
the concrete reacts with carbonic acid (which occurs when the carbon dioxide in the air
combines with moisture) resulting in a volume decrease. This volume decrease occurs
only in the outer layer of the concrete, but usually hairline pattern cracks and a surface
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discolouration result.

Differential movements or settlements result in the redistribution of external reactions and

internal forces in the structure. This may in turn result in the introduction of additional
tensile stresses and, therefore, cracking in the concrete components of the structure.
Movement cracks may be of any orientation and width, ranging from fine cracks above the

PART 1 1-10
 reinforcement due to formwork settlement, to wide cracks due to foundation or support
settlement. Figure 1.2.2.7(d) shows movement induced cracks.

Corrosion of reinforcement produces cracks as described in section 1.2.2.4. Corrosion

related cracks are shown in Figure 1.2.2.7(e).

Severity:-
Hairline cracks less than 0.1 mm wide;
Narrow cracks 0.1 mm to 0.3 mm wide;
Medium cracks 0.3 mm to 1.0 mm wide;
Wide cracks greater than 1.0 mm wide.
2008

1.2.2.8 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (AAR)

In Ontario, there exists several sources of aggregates that react adversely with the alkalis
in cement to produce a highly expansive gel. Currently, these sources of reactive
aggregates are generally avoided, but they do exist in many existing structures and still
may occur in newer structures. The two general types of reactions in Ontario are alkali-
carbonate and alkali-silica reaction. The expansion of the gel and aggregates occurs due
to hydroxyl ions in the concrete pore solution, which under moist conditions, leads to
cracking and deterioration of the concrete. Normally, higher alkali content of the cement
and higher cement content of the concrete will lead to a higher rate of expansion and
cracking. The cracking occurs through the entire mass of the concrete (Reference 1).
Alkali-aggregate reactions are generally slow by nature, especially at the start, and the
results may not be apparent for many years. Once the alkali-aggregate reaction starts,
there are no remedial measures to stop or reverse the process of deterioration. However,
sealing the surface to reduce the moisture infiltration does slow down the reaction. The
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appearance of concrete affected by alkali-aggregate reactions is shown in Figure 1.2.2.8.

Severity:-
Light Hairline pattern cracks, widely spaced, with no visible expansion of the
concrete mass;
Medium Narrow pattern cracks, closely spaced, with visible expansion of the
concrete mass;
Severe Medium to wide pattern cracks, closely spaced, with visible expansion
and deterioration of concrete;
Very Severe Wide pattern cracks, closely spaced, with extensive expansion and
deterioration of concrete.

PART 1 1-11
 1.2.2.9 Surface Defects
2008

The following surface defects in concrete are described herein:

• Stratification;
• Segregation;
• Cold Joints;
• Deposits - efflorescence, exudation, incrustation, stalactite;
• Honeycombing;
• Pop-outs;
• Abrasion and Wear;
• Slippery Surface.

Surface defects are not necessarily serious in themselves; however, they are indicative of
a potential weakness in the concrete, and their presence should be noted but not
classified as to severity, except for honeycombing and
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pop-outs.

STRATIFICATION is the separation of the concrete components into horizontal layers in

over-wetted or over-vibrated concrete. Water, laitance, mortar and coarse aggregates
occupy successively lower positions. A layered structure in concrete will also result from
the placing of successive batches that differ in appearance.

SEGREGATION is the differential concentration of the components of mixed concrete

resulting in non-uniform proportions in the mass. Segregation is caused by concrete
falling from a height, with the coarse aggregates settling to the bottom and the fines on
top. Another form of segregation occurs where reinforcing bars prevent the uniform flow
of concrete between them.

COLD JOINTS are produced if there is a delay between the placement of successive
pours of concrete, and if an incomplete bond develops at the joint due to the partial setting
of the concrete in the first pour.

DEPOSITS are often left behind where water percolates through the concrete and
dissolves or leaches chemicals from it and deposits them on the surface. Deposits may
appear as the following:

Efflorescence a deposit of salts, usually white and powdery;

Exudation a liquid or gel-like discharge through pores or cracks in the surface;
Incrustation a hard crust or coating formed on the concrete surface;
Stalactite a downward pointing formation hanging from the concrete surface,
usually shaped like an icicle.

HONEYCOMBING is produced due to the improper or incomplete vibration of the

concrete which results in voids being left in the concrete where the mortar failed to

PART 1 1-12
2003

completely fill the spaces between the coarse aggregate particles. Figure 1.2.2.9 shows
medium honeycombing in the underside of a deck slab.
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Severity:-
2003

Light Honeycombing to a depth less than 25mm;

Medium Honeycombing to a depth between 25mm and 50mm;
Severe Honeycombing to a depth between 50mm and 100mm;
2008

Very Severe Honeycombing to a depth greater than 100mm.

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POP- OUTS are shallow, typically conical depressions, resulting from the breaking away
of small portions of the concrete surface, due to the expansion of some aggregates or due
to frost action. The shattered aggregate particle may be found at the bottom of the
depression, with a part of the aggregate still adhering to the pop-out cone.

Severity:-
2003

Light Pop-outs leaving holes up to 25 mm in depth;

Medium Pop-outs leaving holes between 25 mm and 50 mm in depth;
Severe Pop-outs leaving holes between 50 mm and 100 mm in depth;
Very Severe Pop-outs leaving holes greater than 100 mm in depth.
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ABRASION is the deterioration of concrete brought about by vehicles or snow-plough

blades scraping against concrete surfaces, such as, decks, curbs, barrier walls or piers.

WEAR is usually the result of dynamic and/or frictional forces generated by vehicular
traffic, coupled with the abrasive influx of sand, dirt and debris. It can also result from the
friction of ice or water-borne particles against
partly or completely submerged members. The surface of the concrete appears polished.

SLIPPERY CONCRETE SURFACES may result from the polishing of the concrete deck
surface by the action of repetitive vehicular traffic.

Severity:-
There are no severity descriptions given for slippery concrete surfaces as this is a serious
and potentially hazardous situation. Where evidence of slippery concrete deck surface is
noted the District and Regional Traffic Offices shall be notified.

PART 1 1-13
 Figure 1.2.2.1 Severe Scaling in a Concrete Deck and Curb

Figure 1.2.2.2 Very Severe Disintegration of Concrete in Exterior Face

PART 1 1-14
 Figure 1.2.2.3 Very Severe Erosion of a Concrete Footing

salt laden water

Cracks produced
due to increase in
volume of rusted
reinforcing steel

Water seeps into

concrete through
capillary action

rust formation reinforcing steel

Figure 1.2.2.4(a) Process Leading to Corrosion of Reinforcement

PART 1 1-15
 Figure 1.2.2.4(b) Light Stains on Concrete Surface Indicating Corrosion of
Reinforcement

Figure 1.2.2.5 Very Severe Spalling and Delamination in Concrete Beams

PART 1 1-16
 Figure 1.2.2.6(a) Very Severe Spalling in a Concrete Pier Cap Due to Corrosion of
Reinforcement

Figure 1.2.2.6(b) Severe Local Spalling

PART 1 1-17
 Flexure Cracks

Shear Cracks

Torsion Cracks

Axial Cracks

Figure 1.2.2.7(a) Applied Loading Cracks

Figure 1.2.2.7(b) External Restraint Induced Cracks

(due to temperature increase in top surface of beam)

PART 1 1-18
 Figure 1.2.2.7(c) Medium Pattern Cracks in an Abutment

Figure 1.2.2.7(d) Very Wide Movement Crack in an Abutment

PART 1 1-19
 Figure 1.2.2.7(e) Medium Cracks due to Corrosion of Reinforcement

Figure 1.2.2.8 Severe Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

PART 1 1-20
 Figure 1.2.2.9 Severe Honeycombing in the Underside of a Deck Slab

PART 1 1-21
 1.2.3 STEEL
The use of steel has progressed from cast iron, wrought iron, rivet steel and plain carbon
steel to low alloy atmospheric corrosion resistant steel (weathering steel) and notch tough
low temperature steel.
The following defects commonly occurring in steel are described:
• Corrosion;
• Permanent Deformation;
• Cracking;
•
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Connection deficiencies.
Rev

1.2.3.1 Corrosion
Corrosion is the deterioration of steel by chemical or electro-chemical reaction resulting
from exposure to air, moisture, de-icing salts, industrial fumes and other chemicals and
contaminants in the environment in which it is placed. The terms rust and corrosion are
used inter-changeably in this sense. Corrosion, or rusting, will only occur if the steel is not
protected or if the protective coating wears or breaks off.
Rust on carbon steel is initially fine grained, but as rusting progresses it becomes flaky
and delaminates exposing a pitted surface. The process thus continues with progressive
loss of section.
Weathering steel, on the other hand, will form a relatively smooth rust layer, called a
patina, which protects the underlying metal from further corrosion. However, in less than
ideal circumstances, the patina may not form or may be penetrated and delaminated,
resulting in progressive corrosion (References 2,3).
For weathering steel to form a tightly adherent patina, the following conditions must be
met:
• the steel must be exposed to intermittent wetting and drying cycles;
• corrosive contaminants, especially salt bearing water, must be absent;
• the steel surfaces must be kept clean and free of entrapped dirt, debris and
moisture.
In addition to the above, mill scale is often left on weathering steel to "weather off", except
where it is removed for appearance; however, if the mill scale is scratched, then the
underlying metal may corrode.
Corrugated Steel Pipe culverts (CSP’s) and Multi-Plate culverts experience rusting after
2008

the protective galvanizing coating has worn off. This rusting is often most prevalent near
the waterline where the abrasive action of the water prematurely wears away the coating
Rev

and the steel is subject to high humidity.

Corrosion in steel is illustrated in Figure 1.2.3.1.

PART 1 1-22
 Severity:-
Light Loose rust formation and pitting in the paint surface. No noticeable
section loss;
Medium Loose rust formation with scales or flakes forming. Definite areas of rust
are noticeable. Up to 10% section loss;
Severe Stratified rust with pitting of the metal surface. Between 10% to 20%
section loss;
Very Severe Extensive rusting with local perforation or rusting through. In excess of
20% section loss.

1.2.3.2 Permanent Deformation

Permanent deformation of steel members can take the form of bending, buckling, twisting
or elongation, or any combination of these. Permanent deformations may be caused by
overloading, vehicular collision, or inadequate or damaged intermediate lateral supports or
bracing. See Figure 1.2.3.2.

Permanent bending deformations occur in the direction of the applied loads and are
usually associated with flexural members; however, vehicular impact may produce
permanent deformations in bending in any other member.

Permanent buckling deformations normally occur in a direction perpendicular to the

applied load and are usually associated with compression members. Buckling may also
produce local permanent deformations of webs and flanges of beams, plate girders or box
girders.

Permanent twisting deformations appear as a rotation of the member about its longitudinal
axis and are usually the result of eccentric transverse loads on the member.

Permanent axial deformations occur along the length of the member and are normally
associated with applied tension loads.

In Corrugated Steel Pipe culverts (CSP’s) and Multi-Plate culverts some degree of
2008

deformation can be tolerated due to the continuity of the steel plate along the culvert
length. Deformations in culverts can include the following:
• Cusping: The abrupt change in curvature of the culvert wall, typically at a
longitudinal seam, leading to a lifting of adjacent plates and usually
caused by improper installation of bolts (lack of torque) or poor
backfill compaction. Cusping usually leads to other defects since the
culvert is not in its design shape and significant bending stresses can
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occur.

PART 1 1-23
 • Crimping: The local buckling of culvert wall (usually near areas of higher
2008

curvature) primarily due to bending forces.

• Bolt Tilting: The bearing failure of the culvert wall at the location of the bolt
holes. Initially, the bolts tilt as the inner and outer plates of the
culvert move against each other. As it progresses, it often leads to
cracking at the bolt holes.
• Global deformations: These distortions usually occur on the roof or sometimes
on the floor of the culvert. It is caused by the weight of soil or live
load when the roof deforms or due to soil or hydrostatic pressures
from below when the floor deforms. Often, it is caused by improper
installation and the deformation can be tolerated if the movement
has stabilized – this should be ascertained by monitoring. It is more
serious when there is reverse curvature of the culvert. The culvert
wall relies on its curved shape to maintain the internal forces as
primarily axial thrust (and not bending) and the wall relies on
curvature into the soil to provide lateral support for the culvert wall in
compression.
Severity:-
Steel As permanent deformations may be critical to the integrity of the member
Members and/or structure, all permanent deformations in steel members shall
be categorized as a Severe defect. The location of the deformation
within the member, and the location of the member in the structure,
should be recorded;
Photographs and measurements of the amount and extent of
deformation shall be taken and recorded for analysis by an engineer;
Steel Medium - Bolt Tilting,
Culverts Crimping or cusping < 10 mm height
Any deformation < 10% of diameter;
Severe - Crimping > 10 mm height
Any deformation >10% of diameter
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Any deformation causing reverse curvature

1.2.3.3 Cracking
CRACK is a linear fracture in the steel. Cracks are mainly produced due to fatigue and
can, under certain conditions, lead to a brittle fracture.

BRITTLE FRACTURE is a crack completely through the component that usually occurs
without prior warning or plastic deformation. Brittle fracture may result at fatigue prone
details after initial fatigue cracking. Other cases of brittle fracture have occurred due to a
2018

phenomenon known as constraint induced fracture (CIF). This type of fracture typically
occurs when two or more welds pass close to (within 6 mm) each other or intersect.
Rev

Fracture often occurs with no prior warning. It is critical during inspections to identify

PART 1 1-24
 details that may be susceptible to CIF to assess the detail and determine retrofit
2018

requirements.

FATIGUE PRONE DETAILS are those details that are susceptible to the growth of fatigue
cracks. Fatigue cracks are caused by either load-induced fatigue or by distortion-induced
fatigue. Load-induced fatigue is especially problematic for stress categories E and E1
(illustrated in references 9 and 10). Distortion-induced fatigue cracking accounts for about
80% of the fatigue cracks found on bridges. Structures constructed prior to the 1990’s
Rev

typically have connection details that are vulnerable to distortion-induced fatigue.

FRACTURE CRITICAL COMPONENTS are components which are subject to tensile

stresses in a single load path structure and whose failure could lead to collapse of the
structure. Any attachment having a length in the direction of tension stress greater than
100 mm and that is welded to the tension area of a fracture critical component shall also
be considered as fracture critical.

The primary factors leading to fatigue cracking are the number of applied stress cycles,
which is a function of the volume of traffic; the magnitude of the stress range, which
depends on the applied live load; and the fatigue strength of the connection detail,
Rev2018

category A to E1, as given in the Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, reference 10.
Cracks caused by fatigue usually occur at points of tensile stress concentrations, at
welded attachments, or at termination points of welds. Cracks may also be caused or
aggravated by overloading, vehicular collision or loss of section resistance due to
corrosion. In addition, stress concentrations due to the poor quality of fabricated details
and the fracture toughness of materials used are contributing factors. Material fracture
toughness will determine the size of crack that can be tolerated before fracture occurs.

Welded details are more prone to cracking than bolted or riveted details. Grinding off the
weld reinforcement to be smooth or flush with the joined metal surfaces improves fatigue
resistance. Once cracking occurs in a welded connection, it can extend into other
components due to a continuous path provided at the welded connection, and possibly
lead to a brittle fracture.

Bolted or riveted connections may also develop fatigue cracking, but a crack in one
component will generally not pass through into the others. Bolted and riveted connections
are also susceptible to cracking or tearing resulting from prying action, and by a build-up
of corrosion forces between the parts of the connection.

Cracking which has resulted in a brittle fracture in a diaphragm beam is shown in Figure
1.2.3.3(a).
Rev 2018

Common locations susceptible to fatigue cracking are illustrated in Figure 1.2.3.3(b). As

cracks may be concealed by rust, dirt or debris, the suspect surfaces should be cleaned
prior to inspection.

PART 1 1-25
 In corrugated steel pipe culverts (CSP’s) and multi-plate culverts some degree of cracking
2008

at bolt hole locations may be tolerated due to the continuity of the steel plate along the
Rev

culvert length. For this reason, cracks at bolt holes may not require repair as urgently as
cracks in steel bridge members. These cracks can occur due to improper installation or
due to higher bending or compressive forces in the culvert walls.

Severity:-
2008

Steel Cracks that are parallel with the direction of stress are usually not as
Members serious; however, those perpendicular to the direction of stress are very
serious. In either case, cracks in steel should generally be considered
serious, as a parallel crack may, for a number of reasons, turn into a
perpendicular crack. Therefore all cracks shall be categorized as a
severe defect. Immediate action is required when cracks are
noticed (i.e. notify bridge owner). Any crack should be carefully noted
and recorded as to its specific location in the member, and member in
the structure. The length, width (if possible) and direction of crack should
also be recorded
Steel Severe - All cracks beside bolts
Culverts
Rev

1.2.3.4 Connection Deficiencies

Loose connections can occur in bolted, riveted or clamped connections. The loose
condition may be caused by corrosion of the connector, gusset plates or fasteners,
cracking or failure of the individual fasteners, excessive vibration, over stressing, or simply
a lack of proper tightening during construction.
Loose connections may not always be detectable by visual or hands-on inspection, as the
looseness may only appear during serviceability loading. Cracking or excessive corrosion
of the connector or gusset plates or the fasteners, as well as permanent deformation of
the connection or members framing into it, may be indications of loose connections. Also,
fasteners with missing washers or improper thread engagement are more susceptible to
becoming loose over time, and should be inspected more closely. Tapping the connection
with a hammer is one method of determining if the connection is loose.
The other deficiencies typically associated with connections are corroded or cracked
connectors or gusset plates.

Severity:-

The severity of the connection deficiency shall be based on the condition of the worst
component within the connection. This means that the connection will be rated based on
the looseness or corrosion of the worst component. In the case of truss members, the
connection shall be taken as the entire joint or node location, including both gusset plates
in and out of plane, with all members that frame in. All connecting member plates shall be
inspected with the overall connection rating based on the worst of these components. For
Bailey bridges, the Bailey panel connection pin shall be rated as a connection. The other

PART 1 1-26
connections, such as transom clamps and raker pins are too numerous to rate individually.
They still should be inspected, but problems should be noted as either a maintenance
need or a performance deficiency (as described in Part 2, Section 2.5 and 2.6) for the floor
beam or truss bracing elements respectively.

The location of the loose or missing fasteners, as well as areas of corrosion on gusset
plates, should be described.

The severity can be determined as outlined below for the various components within the
connection:
1. The severity of loose connections depends largely on the number of loose or
missing fasteners relative to the total number in the connection. The severity
description involves the determination of this ratio.
2. The severity of gusset plates depends on the amount of severe or very severe
corrosion or cracks relative to the total plan area. The severity description involves
this ratio.

Table 1.2.2: Severity of Connection Deficiency for Connections in Steel

Connection Loose Fasteners Gusset Plate with Severe or Very
Deficiency Severe Corrosion or Cracks
Light < 5% Loose < 5% of Plan Area
Medium 5 to 10% Loose 5 to 10% of Plan Area
Severe > 10% Loose > 10% of Plan Area

Figure 1.2.3.1 Medium Corrosion of Steel Beams

PART 1 1-27
 Figure 1.2.3.2 Very Severe Permanent Deformations by Impact

Figure 1.2.3.3(a) Very Wide Cracks in a Diaphragm

PART 1 1-28
 Web Crack

Web
Splice
Web

Crack Hole

Crack at Hole in Web

Crack in Web at Web Splice

Web Splice

Web

Flange
Splice
Crack
Crack
Cope

Crack in Cope of Web at a Connection Crack in Flange at Flange Splice

Stiffener
Cover
Plate
Crack

Web

Web

Flange Crack

Crack in Web at Stiffener Crack at End Weld of Flange

Cover Plate

Figure 1.2.3.3(b) Common Crack Locations in Steel

PART 1 1-29
 Stiffener
Crack
Web

Crack Floorbeam

Tension Flange

Girder Web Crack Between Cut-Short

Stiffener and Tension Flange
Crack in Web of Floor Beam at
Cut-Short Tension Flange
Flange
Crack

Crack

Web
Connection Cross-
Plate Bracing

Girder Web Crack Behind Chamfer

of Connection Plate

Stiffener Crack in Cross-Bracing

Connection Plate

Web Crack
Gusset Crack at Web to
Flange
Plate Stiffener Weld

Flange

Crack at Flange Stiffener

to Web Weld Plate
Vertical Web Crack Behind Chamfer
of Horizontal Gusset Plate
Cracks at Double Curvature in Web
Plate From Flange Movements

Figure 1.2.3.3(b) Common Crack Locations in Steel (cont'd)

PART 1 1-30
 1.2.4 WOOD
Wood was one of the earliest materials used for structures, and is still in common use
today. This is largely due to its availability in a variety of structural sizes and ease of
handling.
The following defects commonly occurring in wood are described:
- Checks, Splits and Shakes;
- Weathering;
- Rot or Decay;
- Insect Damage;
- Abrasion and Wear;
- Cracking, Splintering, Crushing and Shattering;
- Fire and Chemical Damage;
- Connection Deficiencies.
2008
Rev

1.2.4.1 Checks, Splits and Shakes

Checks are longitudinal tissue separations on the side grain of wood members, occurring
2008

across or through the annual growth rings.

Splits are similar to checks, with more severe tissue separations, extending either through
the wood member or from the side into the end grain, typically at the ends of the wood
member.
Shakes are tissue separations which follow the circular annual growth rings, and are
usually visible on the end grain.
Checks, splits and shakes are illustrated in Figure 1.2.4.1(b).
Rev

Severity:-
Light Checks, splits or shakes that extend for less than 5% into the member;
Medium Checks, splits or shakes that extend for between 5% and 10% into the
member;
Severe Checks, splits or shakes that extend for between 10% and 20% into the
member;
Very Severe Checks, splits or shakes that extend for more than 20% into the member.
2008

1.2.4.2 Weathering
Rev

Weathering is the gradual deterioration of wood due to exposure to the actions of sun,
rain, wind, frost and atmospheric pollutants. Weathering of untreated wood is
accompanied by softening of the surface layer and a grey discolouration and "barn-board"
appearance. Treated wood weathers more slowly to a gray-brown colour and may exhibit
a rough "wash-board" appearance. Light weathering is shown in Figure 1.2.4.1(a).

PART 1 1-31
 Severity:-
Light Slight surface weathering with less than 5% section loss;
Medium Surface weathering with 5% to 10% section loss;
Severe Loss of section between 10% and 20%;
Very Severe Loss of section greater than 20%.
2008

1.2.4.3 Rot or Decay

Rev

Rot or decay is the biological decomposition of wood caused by micro-organisms called

fungi. Rot develops in progressive stages, usually through cracks, knots, holes and at the
ends of members. The growth of fungi requires the presence of adequate moisture, a
supply of oxygen and a favourable (warm) temperature. The absence of any of these
factors will greatly inhibit or prevent fungal growth. The most common method of reducing
rot or decay in wood is by pressure treatment with preservatives.
The following areas are typically prone to decay:
• Wood in contact with soil;
• Wood at the water line;
• Surfaces in contact where water can be trapped, such as, connections and bearing
• areas;
• At checks, splits, shakes and cracks, through which moisture can penetrate the
wood.
•
2008

At the centre core of wood, especially for piles;

Rev

Three types of rot may be identified in wood; namely, white rot, brown rot and soft rot.
White rotted wood has a bleached appearance, and in advanced stages the wood
appears as a grey fibrous mass. It develops at or above ground contact and may attack
both the surface and interior portions of wood.
Brown rotted wood has a reddish-brown appearance, and in advanced stages the wood
has a checked or crumbly surface. It develops at or above ground contact and may attack
both the surface and interior portions of wood.
Soft rotted wood has a soft, spongy surface, and in advanced stages the wood has a
charred appearance. It usually develops below ground level or under water, and usually
attacks only the surface of the wood.
The surface appearance of rotted wood is shown in Figure 1.2.4.2.

PART 1 1-32
 Severity:-
2008

Light Slight change in colour. The wood sounds solid and cannot be
penetrated by a sharp object *. Damage is superficial with less than 5%
section loss;
Medium Surface is discoloured with black and brown streaks. The wood sounds
solid when tapped and offers moderate resistance to penetration by a
sharp object *. Noticeable damage with 5% to 10% section loss;
Severe Surface is fibrous, checked or crumbly and fungal fruiting bodies are
growing on it. The wood sounds hollow when tapped and offers little
resistance to penetration by a sharp object *. Considerable damage with
10% to 20% section loss;
Very Severe The wood can be crumbled and disintegrated with ease *. Extensive
damage with section loss in excess of 20%.
* For older timber, especially when in contact with water, coring or drilling may be required
Rev

to confirm the presence of rot identified by sounding (see Part 4, Section 4.2).
2008

1.2.4.4 Insect Damage

Rev

Defects in wood caused by insects are a consequence of the tunnelling and boring by
larvae or mature insects through the wood resulting in loss of section. Termites, carpenter
ants and wood-boring beetles are the most common insects that attack wood in Ontario.
Their appearance is shown in Figure 1.2.4.3(a), and the resulting appearance of insect
damaged wood is shown in Figure 1.2.4.3(b).
The severity of the insect damage can be judged by the number of holes and tunnels on
the surface of the wood and by the number of insects around the area.

Severity:-
2008

Light Occasional entrance or exit holes are present. The wood is solid and
cannot be easily penetrated by a sharp object. Less than 5% section
loss;
Medium Several entrance or exit holes are visible, and larvae or mature insects
may be observed. The wood sounds generally solid when tapped, and
offers moderate resistance to penetration by a sharp object. 5% to 10%
section loss;
Severe Extensive tunnelling and holes are present in the wood. Larvae and
insects are readily visible. The wood sounds hollow when tapped, and
offers little resistance to penetration by a sharp object. 10% to 20%
section loss;
Very Severe Extensive tunnelling, holes, larvae and insects present. Wood can be
crumbled and is disintegrated with ease. Greater than 20% section loss.
Rev

PART 1 1-33
Rev 2008

1.2.4.5 Abrasion and Wear

Abrasion is the deterioration of wood brought about by vehicles or snowplough blades
scraping against wood surfaces, such as, decks, curbs, railings or piers.
Wear is usually the result of dynamic and/or frictional forces generated by vehicular traffic,
coupled with the abrasive influence of sand, dirt or debris. It can also result from the
friction of ice or water-borne particles against partly or completely submerged members.
The surface of the wood appears worn and cracked with some loss of section. Wear of a
wood deck and abrasion by ice are illustrated in Figures 2.4.4(a) and 2.4.4(b) respectively.

Severity:-
Light Slight surface wear with less than 5% section loss;
Medium Surface wear more noticeable with 5% to 10% section loss;
Severe Loss of section between 10% to 20%.;
Very Severe Loss of section in excess of 20%.
Rev 2008

1.2.4.6 Cracking, Splintering, Crushing and Shattering

Cracking, splintering, crushing and shattering are forms of physical damage which result
from vehicular collision or from overloading of a member. Particularly susceptible are
members already weakened by rot or insect attack.
A crack is an incomplete separation of the wood into two or more parts with or without
space in between. Cracking across the grain is caused by flexural damage through
overloading. Cracking along the grain may be due to shear failure or a continuation of a
split.
Splintering is a series of localized tensile failures in the wood where fragmented parts of
the wood may protrude from the surface.
Crushing is a form of permanent deformation where a portion of the wood has lost its
resiliency to rebound. Crushing at the bearings occurs due to excessive compression.
Crushing may also occur prior to a flexural failure.
Shattering is a combined form of crushing and splintering resulting from impact.
Crushing and splintering of wood due to vehicular impact is shown in Figure 1.2.4.5.

Severity:-
Light Damage is mainly superficial with less than 5% section loss;
Medium Considerable damage with 5% to 10% section loss;
Severe Significant damage with 10% to 20% section loss
Very Severe Extensive damage with section loss in excess of 20%.

PART 1 1-34
 Rev 2008

1.2.4.7 Fire and Chemical Damage

Fire damage is evidenced by charring and is usually confined to the wood surface.
Connectors may sustain more damage from fire than the members connected. Such
damage to connections is manifested by large deformations of the connector plates and
fasteners, and by loose or misaligned joints.
Chemical damage may result from the use of non-preservative chemicals on the wood
surface over a long period of time, or where the wood comes in contact with corrosive
chemicals resulting from accidental spills. Such damage affects the wood surface and
metal connectors. The effect of chemicals on the wood is a softening of the surface
accompanied by loss of strength. The effect on metal connector plates and fasteners is
less critical except in certain circumstances; for example, on fasteners with low corrosion
resistance.
Figures 1.2.4.6(a) and 1.2.4.6(b) shows fire and chemical damaged wood.

Severity:-
Light Slight charring or softening of the wood surface with less than 5% section
loss. Connectors unaffected;
Medium Deeper charring or softening with 5% to 10% section loss.
Connectors slightly loosened;
Severe Section loss between 10% and 20% with several connectors loosened or
deformed
Very Severe Extensive damage with section loss greater than 20% at critical locations.
Many loose and severely deformed connectors
Rev 2008

1.2.4.8 Connection Deficiencies

Wood members are normally connected with common nails, spikes, bolts, shear plates,
split rings, metal framing connectors or glulam rivets. Most connections are loosened due
to repetitive or dynamic loads, wear or decay of members connected, and corrosion of the
connectors.
Loose connections may not always be detectable by visual or hands-on inspection, as the
looseness may only appear during serviceability loading. Cracking or excessive corrosion
of the plates or fasteners, as well as permanent deformation of the connection or
members framing into it, may be indications of loose connections.
A loose connection joining wood members is shown in Figure 1.2.4.7.

Severity:-
The severity of the connection deficiency shall be based on the condition of the worst
component within the connection. This means that the connection will be rated based on
the looseness, decay or corrosion of the worst component. In the case of truss members,
the connection shall be taken as the entire joint or node location, including both gusset
plates in and out of plane, with all members that frame in to the connection.

PART 1 1-35
The location of the loose or missing fasteners, as well as areas of corrosion any gusset
plates, should be described. Any unintended gaps that are observed should be measured
and recorded.
The severity can be determined as outlined below for the various components within the
connection:

1. The severity of loose connections depends largely on the number of loose or

missing fasteners relative to the total number in the connection. The severity
description involves the determination of this ratio.

2. The severity of gusset plates depends on the amount of severe or very severe
corrosion or cracks relative to the total plan area. The severity description involves
this ratio.

Table 1.2.4: Severity of Connection Deficiency for Connections in Wood

Connection Loose Fasteners Gusset Plate with Severe or

Deficiency Very Severe Corrosion or
Cracks
Light < 5% Loose < 5% of Plan Area
Medium 5 to 10% Loose 5 to 10% of Plan Area
Severe > 10% Loose > 10% of Plan Area

PART 1 1-36
 Figure 1.2.4.1(a) Light Weathering in Wood Members

CENTRE
CHECK

END
CHECK
SHAKE SPLIT
CHECK

Figure 1.2.4.1(b) Checks, Shakes and Splits in Wood

PART 1 1-37
 Figure 1.2.4.2 Very Severe Brown Rot
2018

Termite Carpenter Ant Wood Boring Beetle

(Larva and Adult)
Rev

Figure 1.2.4.3(a) Wood Boring Insects

PART 1 1-38
 Figure 1.2.4.3(b) Very Severe Insect Damage in Wood

Figure 1.2.4.4(a) Very Severe Wear in a Wood Deck

PART 1 1-39
 Figure 1.2.4.4(b) Very Severe Abrasion on a Wood Pile Due to Ice

Figure 1.2.4.5 Very Severe Crushing and Splintering of Wood Due to Vehicular
Impact

PART 1 1-40
 Figure 1.2.4.6(a) Medium Fire Damage on Wood

Figure 1.2.4.6(b) Light Chemical Damage on Figure 1.2.4.7 Loose Connection

Underside of a Wood Deck in Wood (25mm gap measured)

PART 1 1-41
 1.2.5 MASONRY
Masonry is made of stones or bricks bonded together by mortar. Although not a common
construction material today, masonry was used in Ontario, usually in retaining walls,
abutments, piers or arches, primarily in the 19th century while brick masonry was only
rarely used in highway structures. Types of masonry construction are ashlar masonry,
squared stone masonry and rubble masonry.
The following defects commonly occurring in masonry are described:
• Cracking;
• Splitting, Spalling and Disintegration;
• Loss of Mortar and Stone.

1.2.5.1 Cracking
A crack is an incomplete separation into one or more parts with or without space in
between. Cracks develop in masonry as a result of non-uniform settlement of the
structure, thermal restraint, frost action and overloads.
Cracks develop either at the interface between the stone and mortar, following a zig-zag
pattern, when the bond between them is weak; or, go through the joint and stone, in a
straight line, when the mortar is stronger than the stone, as shown in Figure 1.2.5.1.

Severity:-
Hairline cracks less than 0.1 mm wide
Narrow cracks between 0.1 and 0.3 mm wide
Rev 2003

Medium cracks between 0.3 and 1.0 mm wide

Wide cracks greater than 1.0 mm wide

1.2.5.2 Splitting, Spalling and Disintegration

SPLITTING is the opening of seams or cracks in the stone leading to the breaking of the
stone into large fragments.

SPALLING is the breaking or chipping away of pieces of the stone from a larger stone.

DISINTEGRATION is the gradual breakdown of the stone into small fragments, pieces or
particles. The splitting, spalling and disintegration of masonry is caused by the actions of
frost, weathering and abrasion; or, by the actions of acids, sulphates or chlorides, which
cause deterioration in certain types of stones, such as limestone. The splitting, spalling
and disintegration of masonry are shown in Figure 1.2.5.2.

PART 1 1-42
Severity:-
Light Hairline cracking and minor loss of stone surface with loss of section up
to 50 mm
Medium Narrow cracking or chipping away of stone with loss of section between
50 and 100 mm
Severe Spalling and disintegration of stone with loss of section between 100 and
150 mm
Very Severe Extensive spalling and disintegration of stone with loss of section in
excess of 150 mm

1.2.5.3 Loss of Mortar and Stones

Loss of mortar is the result of the destructive actions of frost, erosion, plant growth or
softening by water containing dissolved sulphates or chlorides. Once the mortar has
disintegrated it may lead to loss of stones. It should be noted that some structures have
been built without the use of mortar.
Figure 1.2.5.3 shows evidence of loss of mortar in a masonry arch.

Severity:-
Light Mortar lost from the joints in a few places, to a depth of 20 mm
Medium Mortar lost from the joints over an extended area, to a depth between 20
and 50 mm
Severe Extensive loss of mortar resulting in the loss of a few stones
Very Severe Extensive loss of stones endangering the stability of the structure

Figure 1.2.5.1 A Wide Crack Through the Stone in a Masonry Pier

PART 1 1-43
 Figure 1.2.5.2 Very Severe Splitting, Spalling and Deterioration in Masonry.

Figure 1.2.5.3 Very Severe Loss of Mortar and Stone in a Masonry Arch

PART 1 1-44
 1.2.6 ALUMINUM
Aluminum is often used in railings, splash guards, drainage systems, signs and sign
supports. The following defects commonly occurring in aluminum are described:
• Corrosion;
• Cracking;
•
2008

Connection deficiencies.
Rev

1.2.6.1 Corrosion
Corrosion in aluminum is usually a uniform, gradual oxidation of the surface in the
presence of air and moisture. Aluminum has a strong resistance to corrosion deterioration
after the initial formation of aluminum oxide, a dense and very adherent film, which
protects the underlying metal and inhibits further corrosion.
However, in less than ideal circumstances this protective layer may fail to form, or be
penetrated and broken down to expose the underlying metal. The process of corrosion
will then continue with progressive loss of section.
Factors which affect this are the presence or exposure of the aluminum to de-icing salts,
industrial fumes, water containing dissolved chemicals, bird droppings and surface
scratches. Tight corners, especially around joints and connections, which entrap moisture
and debris are, particularly, susceptible to progressive corrosion. In addition, contact with
other metals and concrete results in galvanic and chemical corrosions.
GALVANIC CORROSION occurs at bi-metal joints. Where aluminum comes in contact
with other metals a galvanic cell is formed in the presence of an electrolyte, such as a salt
solution, resulting in the localized corrosion of the aluminum. Galvanic corrosion may
affect the formation of the protective aluminum oxide film or cause the film to flake off. It
is, therefore, necessary that an inert spacer, either nylon or neoprene, be placed between
the two metals to prevent galvanic corrosion. Galvanic corrosion does not occur when
aluminum is in contact with galvanized or stainless steel.
CHEMICAL CORROSION refers to the corrosion which takes place when aluminum
comes in contact with concrete. When this happens a chemical reaction takes place
between the aluminum and lime in the concrete which leads to progressive corrosion of
the aluminum and loss of section. An inert spacer or bitumastic coating should be used
between the concrete and aluminum to prevent chemical corrosion.
Figure 1.2.6.1 shows typical corrosion in aluminum.

PART 1 1-45
Severity:-
Light Discolouration, grey to grey-black mottled appearance. Roughened
surface with light blistering. No noticeable loss of section
Medium Definite areas of corrosion are noticeable. Moderate blistering and
surface pitting. Up to 10% loss of section
Severe Extensive blistering and overall pitting. 10% to 20% loss of section
Very Severe Very extensive blistering and overall pitting. Over 20% loss of section

1.2.6.2 Cracking
A crack is a linear fracture in the aluminum which may extend partially or completely
through the material. Cracks normally develop as a result of fatigue followed by brittle
fracture and excessive corrosion. Cracks may also be produced by freezing of entrapped
water. Cracks initiate from either the inside or the outside surface of a member and
become visible as hairline cracks on the surface. As cracks may be concealed by
corrosion by-products, dirt or debris, the suspect surfaces should be cleaned prior to
inspection. A crack in an aluminum component is illustrated in Figure 1.2.6.2.

Severity:-
Because of the difficulty in measuring crack widths in aluminum no severity description
has been established for cracks. Rather, a general report as to the occurrence and extent
of cracks should be made which identifies the location, length and width of cracks
wherever possible.

1.2.6.3 Connection Deficiencies

Loose connections can occur in bolted, riveted or clamped connections. The loose
condition may be caused by corrosion of the gusset plates or fasteners, cracking or failure
of the individual fasteners, excessive vibration, over stressing, or simply a lack of proper
tightening during construction.

Loose connections may not always be detectable by visual or hands-on inspection, as the
looseness may only appear during serviceability loading. Cracking or excessive corrosion
of the connector, gusset plates fasteners, as well as permanent deformation of the
connection or members framing into it, may be indications of loose connections. Also,
fasteners with missing washers or improper thread engagement are more susceptible to
becoming loose over time, and should be inspected more closely. Tapping the connection
with a hammer is one method of determining if the connection is loose.

The other deficiencies typically associated with connections are corroded or cracked
gusset plates.

PART 1 1-46
Severity:-
The severity of the connection deficiency shall be based on the condition of the worst
component within the connection. This means that the connection will be rated based on
the looseness or corrosion of the worst component. In the case of truss members, the
connection shall be taken as the entire joint or node location, including both gusset plates
in and out of plane, with all members that frame in. Each connecting member and the
gusset plates shall be inspected with the overall connection rating based on the worst of
these components.

The location of the loose or missing fasteners, as well as areas of corrosion on gusset
plates, should be described.

The severity can be determined as outlined below for the various components within the
connection:

1. The severity of loose connections depends largely on the number of loose or

missing fasteners relative to the total number in the connection. The severity
description involves the determination of this ratio.

2. The severity of gusset plates depends on the amount of severe or very severe
corrosion or cracks relative to the total plan area. The severity description involves
this ratio.

Table 1.2.6: Severity of Connection Deficiency for Connections in Aluminum

Connection Loose Fasteners Gusset Plate with Severe or

Deficiency Very Severe Corrosion or
Cracks
Light < 5% Loose < 5% of Plan Area
Medium 5 to 10% Loose 5 to 10% of Plan Area
Severe > 10% Loose > 10% of Plan Area

PART 1 1-47
 Figure 1.2.6.1 Light Corrosion

Figure 1.2.6.2 Wide Crack

PART 1 1-48
 1.2.7 ASPHALT PAVEMENT
Asphalt pavement is often used as a wearing surface on concrete, steel and wood decks.
The asphalt surface provides improved safety and riding qualities when compared with a
concrete surface, reduces noise, and the asphalt also offers some protection to the
concrete from traffic wear, and the weather. A waterproofing membrane is also often
placed on the deck surface between the deck top surface and the asphalt pavement to
provide protection to the deck surface against the infiltration of moisture and de-icing
chemicals, and the subsequent deterioration or decay.

Wearing Course – Is a dense, highly stable, durable, skid-resistant surface course hot mix
2003

asphalt which carries traffic. It must resist the elements and keep water out of the
underlying base material.

Binder Course – The binder course is the lower layer(s) of an asphalt pavement. It is
normally distinguished from the surface course when there is a distinct difference in the
quality of the mixtures used. It adds much to the overall strength of the pavement
structure. It supports the surface course and distributes load to the base.

Flexible Pavement – A bituminous surface on a granular base (such as on the

approaches of bridges without approach slabs).

Rigid Pavement – Including composite pavements consist of a concrete slab with

bituminous overlays (such as on a bridge deck or approach slab).
Defects in asphalt pavements can be related to the lack of durability of the asphalt resulting
from the composition of the asphalt, poor placement practices, lack of sub-grade support,
reflection cracking, or the aggressive environment in which it is placed (Reference 4).

Asphalt Defects
Asphalt defects on concrete decks or slabs are sometimes an indication of deterioration of
the concrete surface. For the purposes of bridge inspection, asphalt defects can be
grouped into the following two general categories:

(1) Top-Down Defects

Defects that originate in the asphalt itself, which do not have an appreciable effect
on the concrete deck surface below. These include:
i. Bond Defects (loss of bond and rippling)
ii. Surface Defects (ravelling, slippery surface and flushing)
iii. Surface Distortions (wheel track rutting)
iv. Isolated cracks (Light and medium isolated cracks)
(2) Bottom-up Defects
Defects that probably originate in the concrete deck and are reflected in the asphalt
surface. These include:
i. Pattern cracking (map, alligator, radial, edge cracking)
ii. Wide isolated cracks (transverse, longitudinal)
Rev

iii. Local Underlying Defects (local potholes and protrusions)

PART 1 1-49
 1.2.7.1 Cracking
A crack is a linear fracture extending partially or completely through the pavement.
Cracking in pavements may be caused by any one or a combination of the following
factors; the action of vehicular wheel loading; poor quality material; poor compaction;
placement or quality control; frost action; poor drainage; shrinkage due to low
temperatures; temperature susceptibility of the asphalt cement binder; and as reflection
cracks, which are the extension of cracks in the surface below the pavement.

Cracks are distinguished by their appearance and direction. The following types of cracks
Rev 2008

are commonly observed in pavements; longitudinal, transverse, alligator, radial, map, and
progressive edge cracking.

LONGITUDINAL cracks are roughly parallel to the direction of travel and may be situated
at or near the centre of the wheel tracks, centreline of the roadway, middle of the lane, or
along the pavement edges.

TRANSVERSE cracks are approximately at right angles to the pavement centreline and
may extend partially or completely across the pavement.

ALLIGATOR cracks form a network of multi-sided polygons or blocks resembling the skin
of an alligator. The block sizes typically range from 50 mm to 500 mm. They may occur
anywhere in the pavement surface, and may be accompanied by depressions in the
surface.
2008

RADIAL cracks in a radial pattern, usually about a depression.

Rev

MAP cracks run randomly along the pavement, sometimes in a serpentine manner. They
appear to consist of longitudinal and transverse cracks combined to form a 'map' pattern.

PROGRESSIVE EDGE cracks begin parallel to and usually within 300 mm of the edges of
the pavement; such as, along curb edges and expansion joint end dams. The cracks are
either fairly straight and continuous or consist of crescent-shaped cracks in a wave
formation. These cracks may progress significantly into the travelled portion of the
pavement. Edge breaking of the pavement often results from these cracks.

The various types of pavement cracks are illustrated in Figures 1.2.7.1(a) to 1.2.7.1(e).

PART 1 1-50
 Severity:-
2003

Light - 1 mm to 5 mm wide single or multiple cracks;

- alligator pattern established with corners of polygon blocks fracturing;
- progressive edge cracking less than 600 mm from pavement edge,
either single or two parallel cracks.
Medium - 6 mm to 10 mm wide single or multiple cracks;
- alligator pattern established with spalling of polygon blocks;
- progressive edge cracking extending between 600 mm to 900 mm from
pavement edges, multiple cracks with connecting cracks.
Severe - 10 mm to 20 mm wide single or multiple cracks;
- polygon blocks in alligator cracking are beginning to lift leaving
- potholes;
progressive edge cracking extending over 900 mm from pavement
edge with alligatoring of pavement along edges.
Very Severe - Greater than 20 mm wide single or multiple cracks;
- a number of polygon blocks lifted off in alligator cracking;
- progressive edge cracking extending over 1200 mm from pavement
edge with alligatoring of pavement along edges.

1.2.7.2 Bond Defects

1.2.7.2.1 Loss of Bond
Widespread loss of bond and delamination may occur between the asphalt pavement and
deck surface, between the waterproofing and the deck surface, between the waterproofing
and asphalt pavement or between individual lifts of pavement.

Loss of bond and delamination is not directly visible on the pavement surface; however,
they may often be detected by hammer sounding or chain drag. The accurate assessment
of the extent or severity of these defects can usually only be determined by detailed deck
survey methods; such as, thermography, radar and removal of the pavement.

Severity:-
Light Loss of bond over area measuring less than 150 mm, in any direction
Medium Loss of bond over area measuring between 150 mm and 300 mm, in any
direction
Severe Loss of bond over area measuring between 300 mm and 600 mm, in any
direction
Rev

Very Severe Loss of bond over area measuring more than 600 mm, in any direction

PART 1 1-51
2003

1.2.7.2.2 Rippling
Rippling is the formation of transverse undulations in the pavement surface consisting of
closely spaced valleys and crests. Rippling is the result of poor bond of the pavement to
the surface below with the subsequent action of wheel friction and braking forces moving
the pavement 'mat' forwards, backwards and sideways.

Rippling of an asphalt pavement is illustrated in Figure 1.2.7.6.

Severity:-
Light A few noticeable bumps
Medium Several bumps producing a rough ride
Severe Numerous bumps producing a very rough ride with possible loss of
vehicle control
Very Severe Numerous bumps producing a very rough ride with difficulty in
maintaining vehicle control and imminent danger of loss of vehicle control

1.2.7.3 Local Underlying Defects

1.2.7.3.1 Potholes
Potholes are bowl-shaped holes in the pavement caused by the penetration of water
through the pavement and the subsequent heaving of the pavement due to freezing of the
entrapped water and breaking up of the pavement due to traffic action. They may result
from delaminations or other defects in the underlying concrete surface. Pavements already
deteriorated with such defects as alligator cracking and raveling are prone to the
occurrence of potholes.

A typical example of a pothole is illustrated in Figure 1.2.7.4.

Severity:-
Light Holes measuring less than 10 mm in depth
Medium Holes measuring between 10 mm to 20 mm in depth
Severe Holes measuring between 20 mm to 40mm in depth
Very Severe Holes measuring over 40 mm in depth

1.2.7.3.2 Local Protrusions (Delaminations)

Local delaminations become visible as protrusions or bumps. These are localized upward
displacements of the pavement surface (often circular in shape) typically caused by frost
action either between or under the layers of asphalt. They are generally the initial
Rev

indications of the formation of potholes.

PART 1 1-52
2003

Severity:-
Light Protrusions measuring less than 10 mm in height
Medium Protrusions measuring between 10 mm to 20 mm in height
Severe Protrusions measuring between 20 mm to 40mm in height
Very Severe Protrusions measuring over 40 mm in height

1.2.7.4 Surface Defects

1.2.7.4.1 Ravelling / Segregation
Ravelling is the progressive deterioration and loss of the pavement material from the
surface downward. Ravelling begins on the surface but progresses down into the asphalt.
The surface appears to be breaking up into small pieces and exposing and eventually
loosening the aggregates. Ravelling can occur anywhere over the surface, but is most
common along curb or sidewalk faces where salt-laden roadway drainage collects, and
along wheel tracks due to traffic action on pavements embrittled and weakened through
aging. Severe ravelling may occur together with signs of cracking or potholes.

Ravelling of an asphalt pavement is illustrated in Figure 1.2.7.2.

Severity:-
Light Noticeable loss of pavement material
Medium Shallow disintegration of the pavement surface with an open textured
appearance
Severe Shallow disintegration of the pavement surface with small potholes. Very
open textured appearance with loose material over the surface
Very Severe Deep disintegration of the pavement surface with numerous potholes.
Very open textured appearance with loose material over the surface

1.2.7.4.2 Flushing
Flushing is the migration of asphalt upwards to the pavement surface in pavements with
too much asphalt in the mix. It commonly occurs in the wheel tracks, especially during hot
weather, by the action of vehicle traffic pressing and squeezing the excess asphalt to the
Rev

surface. Flushing of the surface of an asphalt pavement is illustrated in Figure 1.2.7.7.

PART 1 1-53
 Severity:-
2003

Light Visible colouring of the pavement surface occurring in localized areas

Medium Distinctive colouring of the pavement surface with excess asphalt free on
the pavement surface
Severe Free asphalt gives the pavement surface a 'wet' look; vehicle traffic
leaves visible tire marks and impressions on the pavement surface
Very Severe Excessive free asphalt on the pavement surface with a 'wet' look.
Footprints leave visible impressions in the pavement surface

1.2.7.4.3 Slippery Asphalt Surface

Slippery asphalt surfaces may result from flushing or from the polishing of the coarse
surface aggregates by the action of repetitive vehicular traffic.

Severity:-
There are no severity descriptions given for slippery surfaces as this is a serious and
potentially hazardous situation. Where evidence of slippery surfaces is noted, a suspected
performance deficiency should be recorded and the District and Regional Traffic Office
shall be notified.

1.2.7.5 Surface Distortions

1.2.7.5.1 Wheel Track Rutting
Wheel track rutting is the formation of longitudinal depressions in the pavement at the
locations of the wheel tracks of vehicles resulting from the compaction and shoving of the
pavement laterally under repeated vehicle traffic.

Wheel track rutting and its measurement is illustrated in Figure 1.2.7.5.

Severity:-
Light Rutting less than 10 mm deep
Medium Rutting from 10 mm to 20 mm deep
Severe Rutting from 20 mm to 40 mm deep
Very Severe Rutting greater than 40 mm deep
Rev

PART 1 1-54
 Figure 1.2.7.1(a) Medium Longitudinal Crack

PART 1 1-55
 Figure 1.2.7.1(b) Medium Transverse Crack

Figure 1.2.7.1(c) Severe Alligator Cracks

PART 1 1-56
 Figure 1.2.7.1(d) Light Map Cracks

Figure 1.2.7.1(e) Medium Progressive Edge Cracks

PART 1 1-57
 Figure 1.2.7.2 Severe Ravelling

Figure 1.2.7.4 Severe Pothole

PART 1 1-58
 Figure 1.2.7.5 Medium Wheel Track Rutting

Figure 1.2.7.6 Severe Rippling

PART 1 1-59
 Figure 1.2.7.7 Severe Flushing

Figure 1.2.7.8 Slippery Surface

PART 1 1-60
1.2.8 COATINGS
Coating defects are not necessarily serious in themselves; however, they are indicative of
a potential weakness in the coating and eventual loss of protection for the surface coated.
No criteria are given for the severity of material defects in coatings, therefore, they do not
need to be classified as to severity. However, their presence and the area affected should
be noted and recorded.
There are several types of material defects that commonly occur in coatings (References 5
to 8), which can be grouped into the following three categories:
(a) Coating Related Defects
These are defects which are related to the basic chemistry or composition of the
coating and reaction of the coating materials with each other and the environment.
Common defects of this type are:
• Checking or Crazing
• Cracking
• Alligatoring
• Chemical Attack
• Chalking

(b) Adhesion Related Defects

These are defects which are usually a result of incorrect coating selection,
contaminated substrate or improper surface preparation. Common defects of this type
are:
• Undercutting
• Blisters
• Intercoat Delamination
• Peeling
• Underfilm Corrosion

(c) Application Related Defects

These are defects which are usually a result of the improper application of the coating.
Common defects of this type are:
• Bridging
• Edge Defects
• Shadows
• Overspray
• Pinholing
• Runs
• Sags
• Pinpoint Rusting

PART 1 1-61
1.2.8.1 Coating Related Defects
CHECKING or CRAZING usually appears as a fine system of minute cracks in a
checkerboard pattern. This is a surface defect and does not necessarily penetrate the full
depth of the coating. They are usually inherent in the coating as some pigments combined
with some vehicles will tend to cause checking or crazing to occur. They may also be
caused by the weathering process, including wetting and drying, heating and cooling,
exposure to sunlight and contraction of the coating as it dries or cures, Figure 1.2.8.1(a).

CRACKING may result from the effects of weathering or continued polymerisation of the
coating materials over time. An oxidizing or catalyzed coating applied over a very smooth
surface may crack due to shrinkage and poor adhesion to the substrate. Cracking is an
extension of the checking process and usually occurs in a linear pattern and penetrates
completely through the coating. The cracked coating tends to spall off exposing bare
substrate, Figure 1.2.8.1(b).

ALLIGATORING occurs if a hard, brittle or oxidizing top coat is applied over an extensible
base coat, such as an alkyd over an asphalt base. As the surface hardens and shrinks,
very large irregular checks, usually several centimetres across, are formed on the surface
in a characteristic alligator pattern but do not go all the way through the coating. If not
over-coated with compatible material; then, the mechanism will continue until it completely
penetrates to the substrate, Figure 1.2.8.1(c).

CHEMICAL ATTACK results as some coating materials may react adversely with some
air-borne chemicals and pollutants, or as a result of accidental spillage. Oil base coatings
such as alkyds are subject to damage by alkaline chemicals, Figure 1.2.8.1(d).

CHALKING is a surface phenomenon of some coatings that results from exposure to the
action of solar radiation and the processes of weathering over a period of time. This
results in a chalky or powdery appearance of the coating. It occurs because many basic
resins will react with sunlight and many pigments will accelerate the process of weathering
away of the resin binder between the pigment particles leaving the pigment particles free
on the surface. Chalking is usually a surface defect and the coating is intact below the
chalky surface; however, chalking can progress and the thickness of sound coating
reduced to the point where the substrate is exposed.

1.2.8.2 Adhesion Related Defects

UNDERCUTTING is the spreading of corrosion underneath the coating from a break in the
coating. It is usually caused by poor surface preparation and the application of the coating
over surfaces which contain mill scale or rust; or which have oil, grease or dirt, and
otherwise improperly cleaned surfaces. Undercutting can also be caused by application of
the coating to surfaces that are very smooth or non-porous resulting in poor adhesion of
the coating. Undercutting is also promoted by high moisture vapour permeability of the
coating and penetration by oxygen and salts, Figure 1.2.8.2.(a).

PART 1 1-62
BLISTERS are dome shaped projections in paints arising from the detachment of one coat
from another or from the substrate. It is generally caused either by solvents which are
trapped within or under the paint film, or by water which is drawn through the paint film by
the osmotic forces exerted by hygroscopic salts at the paint/substrate interface, Figure
1.2.8.2(b).

INTERCOAT DELAMINATION is where one coat separates from another and is usually
related to poor coating application over contaminated surfaces or to too long a drying or
curing period between coats, Figure 1.2.8.2(c).

PEELING is also a result of poor adhesion of the coating either from the substrate or from
a previously applied coating. It is related to the tensile strength of the coating film itself
where, if the tensile strength of the film is greater than the adherence to the surface; then,
the coating will tend to peel. Peeling between coats is usually caused by contamination of
the surface of the previous coat, Figure 1.2.8.2(d).

UNDERFILM CORROSION is the building up of corrosion under the coating without the
help of a break in the coating. It is prevalent in coatings which oxidize on the surface, such
as oil base and alkyd coatings. These oxidize over time to a point where they become
porous to moisture, oxygen and chloride ions. This coating failure is promoted by poor
surface preparation, substrate profile and surface contamination.

1.2.8.3 Application Related Defects

BRIDGING across inside corners where debris has accumulated occurs if the debris is not
properly cleaned off before the coating is applied. The coating, upon curing, may shrink
sufficiently to bridge over the area resulting in voids under the coating. Subsequent
penetration by moisture and oxygen will result in coating failure.

EDGE DEFECTS are a result of the improper or insufficient application of coatings to sharp
edges and corners. The coating will tend to pull away from sharp edges and corners due
to surface tension of the coating. This results in a thinner coating in these areas and,
consequently, loss of film thickness and protection, Figure 1.2.8.3.(a).

SHADOWS often result around rivets, bolts, welds, and at other areas where there are
abrupt changes in an otherwise smooth surface, and where the coating is not applied in a
sufficient number of different directions resulting in incomplete coverage, Figure 1.2.8.3(b).

OVERSPRAY occurs when paint particles fall on the surface outside the normal spray
pattern. The result is a dry spray as these particles are usually dry by the time they reach
the surface. The resulting appearance is an area which is rough and dull and does not
have the same sheen as other areas where the coating is properly applied. The dry spray
will absorb solvent from the subsequent coats resulting in poor adhesion. Overspray areas
are also typically more porous and, consequently, early coating failure can result, Figure
1.2.8.3(c).

PART 1 1-63
PINHOLING can be caused by holding the spray gun too close to the surface so that air
bubbles are entrained into the coating creating voids throughout the depth of the coating. If
pinholing occurs in one coat; then, it will also tend to occur in subsequent coats, thus
providing a passage through the voids to the substrate. Pinholing usually occurs in fast
drying coatings, Figure 1.2.8.3.(d).

RUNS are a downward movement of a paint film in rivulets caused usually by overthinning,
slow thinners, and/or holding the spray gun too close to the
surface and depositing too much paint at one time. The perimeter of the run is
often accompanied by pinholes, Figure 1.2.8.3.(e).

SAGS are heavy thicknesses of paint which have slipped and formed curtains on the
surface. They are caused by the same things that lead to runs,
Figure 1.2.8.3.(e).

PINPOINT RUSTING usually occurs when insufficient thickness of coating is applied over
a blast cleaned substrate. The profile peaks lack proper protection and continue to rust,
Figure 1.2.8.3.(f).

PART 1 1-64
 Figure 1.2.8.1(a) Checking

Figure 1.2.8.1(b) Cracking

PART 1 1-65
 Figure 1.2.8.1(c) Alligatoring (typical mud crack pattern)

Figure 1.2.8.1(d) Chemical Attack

PART 1 1-66
 Figure 1.2.8.2(a) Undercutting

Figure 1.2.8.2(b) Blisters

PART 1 1-67
 Figure 1.2.8.2(c) Intercoat Delaminations

Figure 1.2.8.2(d) Peeling

PART 1 1-68
 Figure 1.2.8.3(a) Edge Defects

Figure 1.2.8.3(b) Shadows

PART 1 1-69
 Figure 1.2.8.3(c) Overspraying

Figure 1.2.8.3(d) Pinholing

PART 1 1-70
 Figure 1.2.8.3(e) Runs and Sags

Figure 1.2.8.3(f) Pinpoint Rusting

PART 1 1-71
 1.2.9 REFERENCES

1. Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Ontario, Chris Rogers, Grattan-Bellew, R, Doug

Rev 2008

Hooton, J. Ryell, and M.D.A. Thomas, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,

Volume 27, 2000.

2. Accelerated Corrosion in Weathering Steel Bridges, Report ME-84-03, Research

Development Branch, Ministry of Transportation and Communications.

3. Accelerated Corrosion Weathering Steel Bridges - An Update, Report ME-84-04,

Research and Development Branch, Ministry of Transportation and
Communications.

4. Pavement Maintenance Guidelines:

Distresses, Maintenance Alternatives, Performance Standards. Report SP 001,
Sept. 1980. Research and Development Branch, Ministry of Transportation and
Communications.
2018

5. SSPC Painting Manual, Volume 1, Good Painting Practice, SSPC the Society for
Protective Coatings.

6. SSPC Painting Manual, Volume 2, Systems and Specifications, SSPC the Society
for Protective Coatings.

7. SSPC-VIS 2, Standard Method for Evaluation Degree of Rusting on Painted Steel

Surfaces, Standard approved by a joint task group of members of ASTM
Rev

subcommittee D01.46 and SSPC C.2, SSPC the Society for Protective Coatings.

8. Munger, Charles C., and Vincent, Louis D., “Corrosion Prevention by Protective
Rev 2003

Coatings”, NACE International, 1440 South Creek Drive, Houston, TX, 77084-4906.

9. Inspecting Steel Bridges for Fatigue Damage, Fisher, J.W.; Research Project No.
72-3 FHWA/PA-81/005, Fritz. Lab. No. 386-15(81), March 1981.
Rev 2018

10. Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, CAN/CSA S6, Canadian Standards
Association, Toronto, Canada

11. AASHTO Guide Specifications for Fracture Critical Non-Redundant Steel Bridge
Members, 1978, and Interim 1989 revision.

12. Recommended Guidelines for Redundancy Design and Rating of Two-Girder Steel
Bridges, NCHRP Report 319, October 1989.

PART 1 1-72
1.3 STREAMS AND WATERWAYS

1.3.1 STREAMS AND WATERWAYS

For the purpose of this section, a stream is defined as a body of water over or under which
a structure is built. The defects produced in the stream by the presence of structure
components in or near the stream are detailed in this section. Streams are to be
considered as auxiliary components.
An assessment of the stream and channel stability is important for determining the need for
protective measures. A stable stream and channel is one that does not change in size,
form or location over time. They have fairly constant widths, well protected banks and
narrow sand bars.
An unstable stream and channel is one in which changes occur over time which are large
enough to become a significant factor in the maintenance of structure components in and
around the stream and channel. All alluvial channels change to some extent over time
and, therefore, have some degree of instability.
There are three principal types of streams; namely, meandering, straight and braided.
A meandering stream is characterized by alternative S-bends which migrate laterally
downstream. Bank erosion occurs on the outside radius while deposition occurs on the
inside radius at each bend in the stream. Meandering streams may be unstable.
A straight stream is one where the length of the stream, measured down the centreline of
stream, divided by the length of the valley proper is less than 1.5. A straight stream is
usually not entirely free of meandering since the main current often alternates from side to
side. Straight streams are usually relatively stable.
A braided stream is identified by numerous unstable interlacing channels separated by
gravel or sand bars and small islands. Braided streams are usually highly unstable.
The above three types of streams are illustrated in Figure 1.3.1.

1.3.1.1 Material Defects of Streams and Waterways

SCOUR is the removal of material from the stream bed or bank due to the erosive action of
moving water in the stream. Scour may be general or local. General scour is caused by
the constriction to the natural flow created by the structure, and is measured as the
average depth below the original stream bed. Local scour occurs as a result of an
obstruction to the flow, such as, a pier, an abutment, the toe of the embankment or
accumulation of debris in the stream. Local scour is measured below the level of general
scour.

PART 1 1-73
DEGRADATION is the lowering of the stream bed or the widening of the stream channel
due to continuous scour by the stream and usually occurring when the sediment transport
capacity of the stream is enhanced by increased flow. This often results from a natural
increase in the slope of the stream bed or as a result of artificial alterations. Lowering of
the stream bed may also result in slumping and erosion of the stream banks, structure
embankments and slope protection.

AGGRADATION is the raising of the stream bed or the narrowing of the stream channel
due to deposition of material by the stream and usually results where the sediment
transport capacity of the stream is decreased. This often results from a natural flattening of
the stream bed gradient or as a result of artificial alterations.

ICE can cause several problems, the most common of which is ice jamming at the time of
spring break-up. Ice piling against a structure may cause serious damage to the structure
and ice jams may cause severe local scour by constricting the opening at the structure.
Jams are frequently a result of ice flows piling up against unbroken ice at a flattening of the
stream gradient. The impact of ice flows can cause bending of exposed steel piles and the
breaking of timber piles.

PIPING is the subsurface removal of fines by the movement of water through the ground or
embankments.

CHANGES IN ALIGNMENT may occur as the result of fluctuating water levels and
changes in stream velocity.

Figure 1.3.1.1 illustrates material defects commonly occurring in streams.

1.3.1.2 Performance Defects in Streams and Waterways

Performance defects in streams and waterways are based upon the ability of the structure
opening to accommodate the stream flow; the frequency of flooding at the structure; and
material defects of streams that adversely affect other components of the structure.

BLOCKAGE of the stream channel may occur as a result of accumulations of debris due to
natural causes, beavers dams, or due to aggradation of the stream bed or banks. Large
quantities of debris are carried down by relatively fast-flowing streams having erodible
banks.

FLOODING over the structure and adjacent roadways occurs if the opening under the
structure was not designed to accommodate the volume of water passing through it.
Flooding may also occur as a result of channel blockage.

UNDERMINING is the progression of the scour under the structure foundations.

PART 1 1-74
 Meandering Straight Braided
(moderately stable) (stable) (unstable)

Section A-A Section B-B Section C-C

FIGURE 1.3.1 Principle Types of Streams

PART 1 1-75
Rev 2018

Removing large quantities of gravel from A firm channel bottom or constriction causes
channel bottom causes degradation scour, bank erosion and ponding downstream
upstream

Channel constriction produces scour New channel cuts off ox-bow and steepens
around the bridge during flood channel profile with increase in flow velocity and
degradation upstream

Scour around piers is influenced by New water channel may be formed after a flood
location of pier to flow. Note change of
flow at high water
Figure 1.3.1.1 Typical Material Defects in Streams

PART 1 1-76
Protruding abutment produces local scour at Rip-rap around piers may cause local score
upstream downstream

Debris around pier reduces opening causing Lined banks reduce scour, but if channel is
increased scour constricted it may increase general scour at
bridge

Figure 1.3.1.1 Typical Material Defects in Streams (cont)

PART 1 1-77
1.4 EMBANKMENTS AND SLOPE
PROTECTIONS

1.4.1 EMBANKMENTS
Embankments are sloped fills or cuts in the vicinity of the structure. The purpose of the
embankments is to provide for a stable change of grade between the roadway and the
surrounding ground surface, streams or other roadways under the structure. Another
purpose of the embankments is to provide support for the foundations where they are
situated within the embankments.

Embankments are normally constructed from earth, rock or a combination of these

materials. The sloping faces of embankments may be protected from the effects of erosion
or scour by slope protection systems.

Embankments are to be considered as primary components if they support the foundation,

otherwise, they are to be considered as secondary components.

1.4.1.1 Material Defects of Embankments

EROSION is the gradual wearing away or removal of material by surface drainage or wind.
Sources of surface drainage potentially leading to erosion are leakage through expansion
joints onto the embankment, runoff around the ends of wingwalls, discharge from deck
drains directly above the embankment and abutment and wingwall subdrains discharging
onto the embankment.

PIPING is the subsurface removal of fines by movement of water through the ground or
embankment.

WASHOUT is the removal of material from the ground or embankment by subsurface or

surface erosion.

SCOUR is the removal of embankment material by the action of stream flow.

1.4.1.2 Performance Defects of Embankments

Performance defects in embankments are related to their ability to maintain a stable grade
separation between the roadway and the surrounding terrain without appreciable
movement. Performance defects are also related to the ability of the embankments to
provide support to the foundations without appreciable movements where the foundations
are supported by the embankments.

Movement of embankments may consist of:

PART 1 1-78
 • settlement of embankment or roadway approaches;
• sliding of the slopes or toes of embankments;
• surface or deep seated slips.

Movement of embankments may result from:

• improper or inadequate compaction of fill;
• instability of the underlying soils;
• instability of the embankment material;
• loss of embankment material due to erosion, scour; piping, undermining,
• disintegration or other causes (e.g. burrows).

UNDERMINING is the progression of scour of the embankment or the stream bed

under the embankment.

1.4.2 SLOPE PROTECTIONS

The purpose of the slope protections is to prevent the erosion or scour of embankments
and stream banks in the vicinity of structures. A secondary purpose is to control the growth
of grass and vegetation on steep slopes where mechanical equipment cannot be used
safely.

The types of slope protections used most commonly are summarized in Table 1.4.2.

1.4.2.1 Material Defects of Slope Protections

• Loss of slope protection material.
• Disintegration or breakdown of material.
• Tearing of geotextiles.
• Corroded or broken wire mesh.

1.4.2.2 Performance Defects of Slope Protections

Performance defects in slope protections are related to their ability to protect the
embankments and stream banks from erosion or scour and are reflected in the movements
of slope protection systems.

Movements of slope protections may consist of:

• settlement of the slope protection;
• sliding of the slope protection.
Movements of slope protections may be caused by:
• movements of the embankments or the stream banks;
• material defects of the slope protection systems.

PART 1 1-79
 Table 1.4.2 Slope Protection Systems

Type Material Composition Remarks

1 Organic Grass, Brush, etc. Used where large run-off is not

expected.

2 Rip-Rap Stones, Rubble. Random, hand-laid or grouted.

Commonly used in streams.

3 Granular Crushed stone or gravel. Commonly used at grade separations

4 Cast-in-Place Reinforced concrete slab, Commonly used at grade separations

Concrete 100 mm to 150 mm thick,
divided into panels.

5 Precast Interlocking slabs or Elements placed on permeable base

Concrete elements. which permits some seepage
between elements.

6 Bituminous Asphaltic concrete Compacted.

7 Wire Baskets Wire mesh baskets filled Commonly used near streams.
with stones.

8 Bag Mortar Premixed concrete bags Hand placed and allowed to set in
stacked on each other. place.

9 Geotextiles Inorganic fabrics which Normally used under other tiles

allow penetration of water protections to prevent washing away
but not soil. of fines by subgrade seepage.

PART 1 1-80
1.5 SUBSTRUCTURES

1.5.1 SUBSTRUCTURES
The following components are to be considered as substructures:
• Foundations;
• Abutments and piers ;
• Retaining walls;
• Soil or rock under reinforced concrete box culverts or below springing lines
of soil steel structures.

1.5.1.1 Foundations
Structures are normally supported on either shallow or deep foundations, based upon the
depth to rock or soils with adequate capacity to support the loads from the structure.

(a) Shallow Foundations

Shallow foundations, footings, are used where rock or soil with adequate bearing capacity
is at or near the ground surface.

Shallow foundations are normally made of mass concrete, reinforced concrete, wood or
masonry. They are occasionally made of reinforced earth, gabions or cribs filled with
stones or earth.

Shallow foundations in soils are placed below the local frost depth at the level of competent
soil. In streams they are normally buried to protect them against scour and may also have
sheet piling as additional scour protection. Foundations on rock do not require frost
protection or scour protection.

Typical examples of shallow foundations are shown in Figure 1.5.1.1(a).

(b) Deep Foundations

Deep foundations, piles or caissons, are used where rock or soil, capable of carrying the
structure loads is overlain by softer material.

Commonly used piles are steel H piles, steel tube piles, timber piles, and reinforced or
prestressed concrete piles. Caissons are normally made of large diameter tube piles or
box sections made of concrete, steel sheet piles or H piles. They are sunk through ground
or water for the purpose of placing the foundation at the prescribed depth and,

PART 1 1-81
subsequently, become part of the foundation. Steel tubes and caissons may be filled with
concrete.

Piles or caissons may terminate with or without a footing, which may be located below
ground or water level. Where piles or caissons extend to the level of the superstructure
they should be inspected as piers or abutments as appropriate.

Typical examples of deep foundations are shown in Figure 1.5.1.1(b).

1.5.1.2 Abutments
Abutments consist of a number of components, each serving a specific purpose. These
components are the foundation, abutment wall, ballast wall, wingwalls and the bearing
seats.

In certain structures the abutment or some of its components may be missing, for example:
• abutments are not present in soil steel structures or in some concrete
• arches;
• in some continuous structures the end span is cantilevered out and has a
• curtain wall attached to it that retains the approach fill without the need
• of an abutment;
• the ballast wall and bearing seats are not needed for rigid frames, box
• culverts and some concrete arches.

Abutments are commonly made of mass concrete, reinforced concrete, or wood.

Occasionally, masonry, steel piles, precast concrete, wire baskets, and reinforced earth
have been used for their construction.

Typical examples of abutments are shown in Figure 1.5.1.2(a). Examples of structures

without abutments are shown in Figure 1.5.1.2(b).

1.5.1.3 Piers
Piers consist of a number of components, each serving a specific purpose. These
components are the foundation, pier shaft or columns, pier cap and the bearing seats.

Piers are commonly made of reinforced concrete, steel or wood. Occasionally, mass
concrete, prestressed concrete, masonry, steel cribs, or gabions are used in their
construction. They can be categorized as follows based on their design and configuration.

Shafts - concrete or masonry shafts with or without a pier cap;

Bents - concrete or steel columns with a pier cap;
Columns - single or multiple columns without a pier cap;
Trestles - braced wood or steel columns with a pier cap;
Cribs - wood or steel cribs, empty or filled with stone or earth

PART 1 1-82
 Gabions - wire baskets filled with stones.

Typical examples of piers are shown in Figure 1.5.1.3.

1.5.1.4 Retaining Walls

Retaining walls consist of walls with or without foundations.

Retaining walls are commonly made of mass concrete, reinforced concrete, wood.
Occasionally, masonry, steel piles, precast concrete, wire baskets, bag mortar and
reinforced earth have been used for their construction.

They can be categorized as follows based on their design:

Gravity Retaining Walls - mass concrete, masonry, timber cribs, concrete cribs,
steel cribs, wire baskets and bag mortar.
Cantilever Retaining Walls - reinforced concrete, steel sheet piling, post and lagging
(concrete, wood or steel or a combination of these).
Anchored Retaining Walls - Tie-back wall.
2018

Retained Soil System - A propietary system used as an alternative to the above

(RSS) retaining wall types. RSS includes both vertical, high
performance walls as well as low and medium RSS
including gabions and other near vertical (greater than 75
degrees) stabilized and faced slopes.

Typical examples of gravity, cantilevered, anchored retaining walls and RSS are
shown in Figures 1.5.1.4(a) to (d) respectively.
Rev

1.5.2 PRIMARY COMPONENTS

Foundations, abutment walls and piers are to be considered as primary components.

1.5.2.1 Material Defects of Primary Components

Material defects are as given in Part 1, Section 1.2.

1.5.2.2 Performance Defects of Primary Components

Performance defects of foundations relate to their ability to support the components above
them and to transmit the loads imposed on them to the rock or soil without appreciable
movements.
Performance defects of abutment walls relate to their ability to provide adequate support to
the superstructure and to retain the approach fills without appreciable movements.

PART 1 1-83
 Performance defects of piers relate to their ability to provide adequate support to the
superstructure without appreciable movements.
Movements of foundations, abutment walls and piers may consist of vertical, longitudinal or
transverse translations or rotations. Some of the common causes for these movements
are:
• material defects leading to loss of strength of components;
• overloading from the superstructure;
• excessive earth pressures;
• excessive ice pressure;
• consolidation or failure of the soil;
• scour or erosion of the soil below the foundations;
• Slope failure (embankment slides)
2018

• frost action.
It is important to determine if the component is stable or unstable as indicated by the rate
of increase of movement.

Foundation movements of retaining structure may be detected by the observation of the

overall structure for lines that seem incongruous with the rest of the structure. For a more
detailed inspection, the following methods are often useful:

Check the alignment: Any abrupt change or kink in the alignment of the retaining
structure may indicate a differential lateral movement of adjacent walls. Older retaining
structures are particularly vulnerable to ice pressures which can cause structural
misalignment.

Sight along railings: A sudden dip in the rail line is often the result of settlement of a pier
or abutment.

Run profile levels along the centerline and/or the gutter lines: This inspection
technique will help to establish the existence of any settlement. Normally, this kind of
inspection technique will be employed only for large retaining structures or where
information concerning the extent and character of differential settlement movement is
required.

Check retaining wall faces for plumbness with a transit: This inspection method
provides an excellent check for the simpler techniques of plumbness determination. An out-
of-plumb structure in either direction usually signifies foundation movement; it may also
indicate a superstructure displacement. For small retaining structures and for preliminary
checks, the use of a plumb bob is an adequate means for determining plumbness.

Observe expansion joints at abutments and walls: Observe the expansion joints for
signs of opening or rotating. These conditions may indicate the movement of subsurface
soils or a bearing failure under one of the footings.
Rev

Observe slabs, walls, and members: Cracks, buckling, and other serious distortions

PART 1 1-84
 should be noted. Bracing, as well as the main supporting sections, should be scrutinized
2018

for distortion.

Observe fill and excavation slopes: Slide scarps, fresh sloughs, and seepage are
indications of soil movement.

Unbalanced post construction embankment or fills: Embankments should be checked

for balance and positioning. Unbalanced embankments can cause a variety of soil
Rev

movements which can impair the structural integrity of the retaining structure.

1.5.3 SECONDARY COMPONENTS

Rev 2018

Ballast walls, wingwalls, retaining walls (including RSS walls) and bearing seats are to be
considered as secondary components. The foundations of wingwalls and retaining walls
are also to be considered as secondary components.

1.5.3.1 Material Defects of Secondary Components

Material defects are as given in Part 1, Section 1.2.

All concrete portions of the retaining wall should be inspected under this item. The
2018

inspection should include the concrete surfaces as well as any joints. Inspect the exposed
portion of the concrete foundation. For low and medium performance RSS walls, the
facing is not a solid concrete panel but can be any number of different materials. These
types of RSS walls should be inspected under the wall element.
Rev

1.5.3.2 Performance Defects of Secondary Components

Performance defects of bearing seats relate to their ability to provide adequate support to
the bearings and, as such, are based on the loss of competent bearing area of the bearing
seats.
Performance defects of ballast walls, wingwalls and retaining walls relate to their ability to
retain the fill behind them without appreciable movements. Movements of the walls may
consist of vertical, longitudinal or transverse translations or rotations. Some of the
common causes for these movements are:
• material defects leading to loss of strength of the walls;
• overloading from the superstructure;
• excessive earth pressures;
• excessive ice pressure;
• failure of the soil or foundation;
• scour or erosion of the soil below the footings;
• frost action.

PART 1 1-85
 It is important to determine if the walls are stable or unstable as indicated by the rate of
increase of the movements.
2018

If the wall or foundation are tilted or have appeared to move, a performance deficiency for
tilted/shifted structure should be noted. This can either be noticed at the foundation itself
or it may be evidenced by a rotation of the wall structure. Differential settlement may occur
in long walls if the properties of the native material varies for a long distance. In such
cases the wall will crack vertically since the bearing soil bearing values vary along the wall.

Tilting, forwards or backwards beyond 50 mm in 1 meter values indicates possible

foundation failure resulting from:
1. Excessive toe pressure
2. Excessive settlement due to compressible substratum

Wall joints that are to be inspected in this element are construction joints, contraction joints,
expansion joints and joints between pre-cast panels. Joint defects should be recorded
using 4m of linear measure equals 1 m2 of defect.

The following is a list of wall joint types and their purposes:

Construction joint It is the vertical or horizontal joints between successive placements

of concrete. These joints are keyed so as to resist shear forces
Contraction joint It is the shallow groves on the face of the wall and running full
height of the face slab. They are placed vertically at 25 ft to 40 ft to
minimize effects of shrinkage and differential settlement. The steel
passes through these joints however the joint is weakened thus
permitting a tension crack to take place
Expansion joint It is placed vertically at 60 to 100 ft with no steel passing these
joints. This joint must permit relative movements of wall on each
side of the joint. Joints have flexible type joint filler or water stops
inserts
Joints Between It is joints between panels of RSS walls to allow for minor
Panels movements and settlements

1.5.4 AUXILIARY COMPONENTS

Drainage system shall be considered as auxiliary components.

1.5.4.1 Material Defects of Auxiliary Components

Material defects are as given in Part 1, Section 1.2.
Rev

1.5.4.2 Performance Defects of Auxiliary Components

PART 1 1-86
 A primary cause of retaining wall failure is the additional load imposed by hydrostatic
2018

pressure due to saturated soils behind the wall. The design must provide adequate
drainage facilities for the site to prevent entrapment of water.

Drainage from behind the wall can be accomplished by providing weep holes (pipes which
permit passage of water from the backfill to the front) and/or longitudinal drains along the
back face of the wall.

Drain pipes should not be allowed to clog since the resulting build-up of water behind the
wall will exert hydrostatic pressures for which the wall may not have been designed.

1.5.5 REFERENCES
• Railway Bridge Maintenance, Frank Turton, C. Eng., 1972.
• FHWA – NHI-00-043, Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes -
Design and Construction Guidelines, March 1, 2001.
• Foundations, Retaining and Earth Structures, 2nd edition, Gregory P. Tschebotarioff,
McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, Ltd., 1973.
• Foundation Design, Wayne C. Teng, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,1962
• Foundation Analysis and Design, Joseph E. Bowles, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Rev

Inc.,1968.

PART 1 1-87
 Abutment Wall,
Wingwall
Retaining Wall
or Pier

Footing

Multi - columns

Single
Column

Footing

Footing

Rigid Frame or Open Footing Culvert

Concrete Arch or
Soil - steel Structure

Footing

Footing CONCRETE SPREAD FOOTINGS

Figure 1.5.1.1(a) Typical Shallow Foundations

PART 1 1-88
 ABUTMENT WALL
WINGWALL
RETAINING WALL
OR PIER

FOOTING

MASONRY FOOTING
ABUTMENT WALL
WINGWALL
RETAINING WALL FOOTING
OR PIER

WOOD CRIB FOOTING

NO NO
FOOTING FOOTING
SOIL ACTING AS
SOIL ACTING AS FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION

SOIL STEEL STRUCTURE BOX CULVERTS

Figure 1.5.1.1(a) Typical Shallow Foundations (cont)

PART 1 1-89
 FOOTING CROSS PIER CAP
ABUTMENT WALL BRACING
WINGWALL
RETAINING WALL
OR PIER

PILES OR CAISSONS WOOD OR STEEL PILES

PILES TERMINATING IN FOOTING PIER TRESTLE

ABUTMENT WALL PIER CAP

WINGWALL OR
RETAINING WALL

WOOD OR STEEL PILES PILES OR CAISSONS

PILES AND LAGGING PIER BENT

ABUTMENT
ABUTMEN OR PIER
T OR PIER

MULTIPLE CELL CAISSONS SINGLE CELL CAISSON

Figure 1.5.1.1(b) Typical Deep Foundations

PART 1 1-90
 BALLAST WINGWALL
TYPICAL ABUTMENT COMPONENTS
WALL
BEARING
SEAT
BALLAST WINGWALL
WALL BEARING
SEAT

ABUTMENT
WALL
ABUTMENT

~
WALL

FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION
REINFORCED CONCRETE REINFORCED CONCRETE
CLOSED ABUTMENT SPILL THROUGH ABUTMENT

BEARIN WINGWAL
BALLAST
G SEAT L
WALL

WOOD OR
STEEL
PILES
WOOD LAGGING FOOTING

PILE AND LAGGING ABUTMENT WOOD CRIB ABUTMENT

BEARING
BALLAST WALL SEAT
WINGWALL

~
LEG

ABUTMENT FOUNDATION
WALL FOOTING
RIGID FRAME OR OPEN
STONE MASONRY ABUTMENT
FOOTING CULVERT

Figure 1.5.1.2(a) Typical Abutment Components

PART 1 1-91
 End Diaphragm

Piers

No Abutment No Abutment

BOX CULVERTS CANTILEVERED END SPANS

Footings

No Abutment No Abutment

SOIL STEEL STRUCRURE CONC. OR SOIL STEEL STRUCTURE

Figure 1.5.1.2(b) Structures Without Abutments

PART 1 1-92
 PIER SHAFT PIER BENT

INCLINED LEG BENT SINGLE COLUMN

MULTIPLE COLUMNS WOOD OR STEEL TRESTLE

CRIBS GABIONS
Figure 1.5.1.3 Typical Piers

PART 1 1-93
 GRADE GRADE

PRECAST
MASS ELEMENTS
CONCRETE
GRADE

GRADE

FOUNDATION

MASS CONCRETE PRECAST CONC. DRY WALL *

PRECAST
GRADE
ELEMENTS
GRADE

STONE
OR BRICKS

GRADE
GRADE

PRECAST CONCRETE CRIBS MASONRY

GRADE
GRADE

WIRE MESH
STEEL
~

ELEMENTS STONE FILL

GRADE
GRADE

METAL CRIBS GABIONS *

Figure 1.5.1.4(a) Typical Gravity Retaining Walls

PART 1 1-94
 GRADE
WOOD WOOD GRADE
ELEMENTS ELEMENTS

TIE
RODS
TIE
RODS
GRADE
GRADE

ROCK FILL

WOOD CRIB WOOD DRY WALL

GRADE

BAG OF
MORTAR

GRADE

BAG MORTAR

Figure 1.5.1.4(a) Typical Gravity Retaining Walls (Continued)

PART 1 1-95
 GRADE
GRADE

REINFORCED
CONCRETE
GRADE
GRADE

FOUNDATION

REINFORCED CONCRETE SHEET PILES

GRADE GRADE

BUTTRESS

COUNTERFORT REINF.
CONCRETE
GRADE
GRADE

REINFORCED CONCRETE REINFORCED CONCRETE

COUNTERFORT WALL BUTTRESS WALL

GRADE GRADE

WOOD WOOD
STEEL PILE PILE LAGGING

GRADE LAGGING PLACED GRADE LAGGING PLACED

BETWEEN PILES BETWEEN PILES

STEEL PILES AND LAGGING STEEL PILES AND LAGGING

Figure 1.5.1.4(b) Typical Cantilever Retaining Walls

PART 1 1-96
2018

Figure 1.5.1.4(c) Typical Anchored Retaining Wall

Note:Gravity walls shown with * in Figure 1.5.1.4(a) can also be a RSS

Figure 1.5.1.4(d) Typical Retained Soil System (RSS)

Rev

PART 1 1-97
1.6 BEARINGS

1.6.1 BEARINGS
Bearings are normally located at the interface between the superstructure and
substructure. In the case of suspended spans, they are located between the suspended
span and the supporting superstructure. Bearings are not needed in some structures, for
example, culverts and rigid frames. Bearings are not used in short span structures where
the superstructure rests directly on the substructure.
Bearings are to be considered as secondary components except for the pin and hanger
bearing which is to be considered as a primary component.
There are numerous types of bearings made of various materials that have been used in
bridges over the years. Bearings usually consist of a number of parts which may include
the following, but not all bearings would have these and some may have other parts as
well.
• a levelling pad;
• a base plate sitting on the levelling pad;
• anchor bolts or pins to secure the base plate to the supports;
• the bearing itself;
• retainer bars or pins to prevent transverse movement of the bearing;
• a shoe plate attached to the underside of the superstructure.
Materials used in bearings are steel, rubber, neoprene, polymers, aluminum or a
combination of these. In the past, lead, copper, bronze or iron were also used.
Bearings are subdivided into two main categories, fixed or expansion bearings, based on
their capability for movement. Fixed bearings do not allow for translation but may allow
rotation. Expansion bearings allow for translation and may also allow rotation.
Bearings are grouped as follows and are illustrated in Figure 1.6.1(a) to 1.6.1(g).

(a) Steel Plate Bearings

Steel plate bearings may be used with or without translational and rotational capabilities
depending on the number of parts provided.
Fixity of base plate is provided by anchor bolts or pins;
Translation is provided by steel plate sliding on concrete, bronze, copper or lead or by
stainless steel plate sliding on a tetraflouraethylene (TFE) polymer;
Rotation is provided by a compressible material, usually elastomeric or polyurethane.

PART 1 1-98
(b) Elastomeric Bearings

Elastomeric bearings provide translation and rotation as a function of their stiffness. Thin
pads up to 25 mm thick act as fixed bearings. Thicker pads act as expansion bearings and
are often reinforced with steel or aluminum plates.
Fixity is provided by pins or anchor bolts;
Translation is provided by the pad;
Rotation is provided by compression of the pad.

(c) Pot and Disc Bearings

Pot and disc bearings provide rotation. They may also provide translation.
Fixity is provided by anchor bolts or pins;
Translation is provided by the sliding of a stainless steel surface on a TFE surface;
Rotation is provided by compression of a confined elastomer or polymer disc.

(d) Spherical and Cylindrical Bearings

Spherical and cylindrical bearings provide rotation. They may also provide translation.
Cylindrical bearings rotate about the axis of the cylinder, while spherical bearings can
rotate about any axis. A TFE sheet is often bonded to the lower surface.
Fixity is provided by anchor bolts or pins;
Translation is provided by sliding of a stainless steel surface on a TFE surface;
Rotation is provided by the sliding of one curved surface over another.

(e) Rocker Bearings

Rocker bearings provide both translation and rotation.

Fixity is provided by anchor bolts or pins;
Translation is provided by tilting or rotation of the rocker;
Rotation is provided by curved top or bottom surfaces.

(f) Roller Bearings

Roller bearings provide translation. They may also provide rotation.

Fixity is provided by anchor bolts or pins;
Translation is provided by rolling of the rollers on the base plate;

PART 1 1-99
Rotation for single rollers is provided by the curved surface of the roller. For multiple
rollers, rotation is provided by a pin connection or curved surface in plate above the roller
nest.

(g) Pin and Hanger Bearings

Pin and hanger bearings provide both translation and rotation.

Translation is provided by movement of the hangers about pins in suspended and
cantilevered girders;
Rotation is provided by rotation about the pins.

1.6.1.1 Material Defect of Bearings

Material defects in bearings, in addition to those given in Part 1, Section 1.2, are:
• lack of lubrication where required;
• cracked or broken parts or plates;
• loose or missing assembly pins, bolts or nuts;
• bent, loose or missing anchor bolts or pins;
• worn pins, rollers, rockers or rolling surfaces;
• electrolytic corrosion of dissimilar materials in contact,
• such as, steel and aluminum or steel and bronze;
• cracks, splits or tears in elastomeric pads;
• elastomer leaking out of pots in pot bearings;
• scored TFE surfaces;
• scratched or damaged stainless steel surfaces;
• pulled out sliding plates.

1.6.1.2 Performance Defects of Bearings

The performance of the bearing is based upon its ability to support and transfer loads from
the superstructure to the supports; and, to allow for or restrict translational or rotational
movement of the superstructure at the bearing location.
The proper functioning of the bearing is vital to the performance of the structure as
malfunction of the bearings may introduce detrimental stresses into other structure
components.
The performance of the bearing as regards movement is based upon either the restriction
of movement for expansion bearing or the movement of fixed bearing; and, insufficient
reserve for anticipated further movement of expansion bearings.
The amount of movement that a structure, and therefore the bearing, may be subject to is a
function of the superstructure material, type of construction, expansion length from point of
fixity and surrounding air temperature.

PART 1 1-100
The amount of movement that a bearing can accommodate is a function of the type of
bearing and the air temperature at the time the bearing was installed.
It may not be possible to exactly determine the expected movements that a bearing may be
subject to or the reserve capacity of the bearing as; the bearing may have been subjected
to unaccounted movements; such as, movement of the abutment wall; and, the bearing
may have been jacked up and relieved of movement during its lifetime.
The performance of bearings as regards load capacity and transfer is based upon the
uniform contact of the bearing with the superstructure and substructure over the bearing
surfaces; and, the ability of the bearing to carry the load without distress.

Figure 1.6.1(a)- Steel Plate Bearing Figure 1.6.1(b) - Elastomeric Bearing

Figure 1.6.1(c) - Pot or Disc Bearing

Figure 1.6.1 Typical Types of Bearings

PART 1 1-101
 ANCHOR STUDS
SHOE PLATE
T.F.S.

STAINLESS
STEEL

ELASTOMER LEVELLING
PAD
ANCHOR BOLTS

Figure 1.6.1(d) - Spherical Bearing

SHOE PLATE

ELASTOMERIC
PIN ENCAPSULATION
SHOE PLATE
WING PLATE
BASE ROCHER
PLATE
BASE
PLATE LEVELLING PAD

Steel Rocker Bearing Rocker Bearing

Figure 1.6.1(e) - Steel Rocker Bearing

GIRDER STEEL PIN STEEL HANGER

SHOE PLATE
ROLLER
WINDLOCK
LEVELLING BASE PLATE
PAD

SUSPENDED CANTILEVER STEEL

GIRDER GIRDER
Figure 1.6.1(f) - Expansion Roller Bearing Figure 1.6.1(g) - Pin and Hanger Bearing

Figure 1.6.1 Typical Types of Bearings (cont)

PART 1 1-102
1.7 JOINTS

1.7.1 JOINTS
Joints in decks may occur between the deck and the abutment, over the piers between
adjacent spans, or within the span at suspended spans.
Joints consist of the following parts, all of which may not be present at each joint.
• A gap to allow for movement;
• Armourings and anchorages on each side of the gap to protect the edges of
• the gap;
• Seals or sealants in the gap to prevent water from leaking through the gap;
• A trough under an open gap to catch drainage and dispose of it away from
• components under the gap.
Joints can be divided into open joints which permit the free flow of water and debris, and
sealed joints which prevent the flow of water and debris through the joint. Joints can also
be divided into expansion joints which accommodate longitudinal, transverse, vertical and
rotational movements and fixed joints which accommodate rotational movements only.
Types of joints commonly used in structures are described below and illustrated in Figures
1.7.1(a) to 1.7.1(f).

(a) Open Joints

Open joints consist of an open gap whose edges may be protected by armouring;
Sliding plate joints have a flat steel plate bridging the gap of an open joint. The steel plate
is welded to one armouring and free to slide over the top surface of the other armouring.
Finger plate joints have two steel plates cut and arranged to form a series of intermeshing
'fingers' which are secured to anchorages on each side of the joint and cantilever over the
open gap.
Drop-in-T joints have a "T" section bridging the open gap and supported on the armouring
on each side of the joint.

(b) Poured-In-Place Joints

Paved-over-joints consist of any joint that has been paved over with asphalt pavement. To
prevent random cracking of the asphalt pavement over the joint a groove is sometimes cut
or formed in the pavement and filled with a sealant.
Hot or cold poured bituminous or mastic asphalt joints consist of an inert filler placed in the
joint gap to below the level of the finished grade, and a hot or cold poured bituminous or
mastic asphalt sealant filling the remaining gap to the finished grade. It may be used with
asphalt or concrete pavements.

PART 1 1-103
Cold poured polyurethane joints consist of a formed groove in a concrete pavement which
is filled with a cold poured polyurethane compound. This material is not used with asphalt
pavements because of incompatibility between the bituminous and polyurethane materials.
Hot poured mastic asphalt systems consist of a plug seal placed in the joint gap and an
adhesive waterproof membrane hot poured over the joint for a distance of about 450 mm
on each side of the gap. Alternating layers of hot poured mastic asphalt and reinforcing
mesh are then placed over the joint up to the level of the adjacent asphalt or concrete
pavement. Additional hot poured rubberized material is also sometimes poured into
grooves cut over the joint and between the mastic asphalt and adjacent roadway surface.

(c) Compression Seal Joints

Elastomeric seal joints consist of a precompressed extruded elastomeric seal bonded to
the sides of the joint gap whose edges may be protected by armouring.
Ethylene vinyl acetate joints consist of a precompressed ethylene vinyl seal (looks like
foam) bonded to the sides of the joint gap whose edges may be protected by armourings.
These joints allow for movements by changes in the amount of the precompression of the
seal.

(d) Elastomeric Cushion Joints

Elastomeric cushion joints consist of a moulded steel reinforced elastomeric assembly that
spans over the gap. These joints allow for movements by deformation of the moulding.

(e) Multiple Seal (Modular) Joints

Multiple seal (modular) joints consist of two or more elastomeric seals placed between
three or more steel separation beams which are placed on steel support beams spanning
across the joint gap. These joints are used where large movements are required.

(f) Strip Seal Joints

Strip seal joints consist of an elastomeric seal that is held in place by one of the following
methods:
• press fitted into preformed armourings;
• vertically bolted down with steel plate hold downs;
• vertically bolted down and the seal is integral with elastomeric armourings;
• horizontally bolted in and has steel armourings;
• clamping devices with stop bars.

These joints allow for movement by the flexing of the elastomeric seal.

PART 1 1-104
1.7.1.1 Material Defects of Joints
Material defects of joints in addition to those given in Part 1, Section 1.2 are:
• corrosion and delamination of steel components;
• pulling away or popping out of the seal or sealant;
• cracks, splits, tears or holes in the seal or sealant;
• loose or missing sections of the seal or sealant;
• abrasion, wear or aging of the seal or sealant;
• compression set or loss of resiliency of the seal or sealant;
• loss of bond between the seal or sealant and the adjacent pavement;
• shrinking away of the sealant from the adjacent pavement;
• loose, broken or missing bolts, nuts, washers or other anchorage devices;
• loose, bent, cracked, broken, missing or damaged finger plates, sliding
• plates, extrusions, support components or armourings;
• cracking of welds and welded connections;
• cracking, spalling or breaking up of the concrete, asphalt, or other
• material adjacent to the joint;
• softening or shifting of mastic asphaltic materials.

1.7.1.2 Performance Defects of Joints

The performance condition rating of joints is based upon their ability to:
• accommodate the movements of the superstructure;
• prevent the leakage of roadway drainage through the joint in the case of
• sealed joints;
• maintain the continuity of the roadway surface and support wheel loads.

The performance of joints as regards movement is based upon the restriction to movement
and evidence of insufficient reserve for anticipated further movement.
The amount of movement that a structure and, therefore, joint may be subject to is a
function of the superstructure material, type of construction, expansion length from point of
fixity and surrounding air temperature.
The amount of movement that a joint can accommodate is a function of the type of joint,
and the air temperature and joint gap set at the time of installation.
It may not be readily possible to determine the exact amount of movement that a joint may
be subject to or the capacity of the joint for movement as complete information on structure
movements and joint capacity is often not directly available at the time of inspection.
However, the relative size of the joint gap can be assessed with respect to the expansion
length from point of fixity and air temperature at the time of inspection.
An incorrect joint gap is likely a symptom of improper functioning of the bearings, or of
movements of the abutments, pier or foundation. The inspector shall measure and record
the joint gap and air temperature at the time of inspection.

PART 1 1-105
The performance of joints as regards roadway continuity is based upon the adverse effects
that the misalignment of the joint components on either side of the joint may present to
traffic.
Vertical misalignment can result in a bumpy ride across the joint and a potential hazard of
loss of vehicle control. Vertically misaligned joints are also subject to damage by snow-
plows.
Horizontal misalignment can result in binding or jamming of the joint and tearing of the joint
seal or sealant.
The performance of joints as regards water tightness, in the case of sealed joints, is based
upon the extent of leakage of roadway drainage through the joint. Joint leakage can result
in serious deterioration of the joint materials and other structure components located below
the joint.
ARMOURING
(TYP.)

SLIDING
PLATE

ANCHORAGE
(TYP.)

OPEN GAP JOINT SLIDING PLATE JOINT

FINGER
PLATES
T SECTION

FINGER PLATE JOINT DROP-IN-T JOINT

Figure 1.7.1(a) Open Joints

PART 1 1-106
 Paved over Joint Hot or Cold Poured Bitmutinous or
Mastic Asphalt Joint
Rev 2008

Cold Poured Polyurethane Joint Hot Poured Mastic Asphalt System

Figure 1.7.1(b) Poured-In-Place Joints

PART 1 1-107
 Precompressed
Elastomeric Precompressed Ethylene
Extrusion Vinyl Acetate
Armouring Apr. 2008
(typ.)
Bonding Agent

Steel Retaining Anchorage

Bars (typ.) Bonding
Agent

Figure 1.7.1(c) Compression Seal Joints

Steel Reinforcing Plate

Sealant Elastomeric Cushion

Anchorage
Compressed
Sealant

Figure 1.7.1(d) Elastomeric Cushion Joints

Seals Separation
Beams

Support Beams

Figure 1.7.1(e) Multi-Seal Joints

PART 1 1-108
 Seal Preformed
Retainer Preformed
Retainer
Seal

Elastomeric
Anchor
Concrete

Strip Seal in Preformed Retainer Strip Seal in Elastomeric Concerte

Elastomeric Steel
Seal Seal
Armouring Plate

Strip Seal - Integral With

Strip Seal Vertically Bolted Down
Elastomeric Armouring

Stop
Seal Seal Bar

Bolts

Strip Seal Horizontally Bolted

Clamping
Device

Strip Seal in Clamping Devices

Figure 1.7.1(f) Strip Seal Joints

PART 1 1-109
1.8 SUPERSTRUCTURES

1.8.1 SUPERSTRUCTURES
Superstructures normally consist of all components of structures supported on the
substructures. The following components of superstructures are covered in this section:
• Beams and girders;
• Thick slabs;
• Trusses;
• Arches;
• Culverts;
• Soil Steel Structures;
• Movable bridges in fixed position;
• Suspension bridges;
• Stringers and floor beams under the decks;
• Diaphragms;
• Sway bracings;
• Lateral bracings;

Other parts of the superstructure, such as, decks, curbs, sidewalks, parapet walls, railings
and expansion joints are covered in other sections of OSIM.
Movable bridges shall be inspected and recorded by the type of the main load carrying
components. Inspection of mechanical or electrical parts of movable bridges is not
covered in OSIM.

1.8.1.1 Beams and Girders

Beams and girders are made of reinforced or prestressed concrete, steel or wood.
Beams and girders may be simply supported, semi-continuous for live and superimposed
dead loads, continuous over a number of spans or cantilevered beyond the support with a
drop-in section added to complete the span.
Concrete beams or girders are cast-in-place or precast as one unit or in segments. They
may be T-shape, rectangular or trapezoidal in shape and may have single or multiple voids
of various shapes in them.
Steel beams or girders are rolled into standard shapes or built-up into I-shape, rectangular
or trapezoidal boxes by riveting, bolting or welding. They may be unstiffened or stiffened
with vertical or longitudinal stiffeners. They may be erected as single units or in segments.
Wood beams or girders may be sawn, laminated or glued and are, normally, rectangular in
shape. They are erected as single units but may sometimes be spliced together with steel
plates, fasteners or gang-nail plates.

PART 1 1-110
Beams and girders support decks directly on them except in the case of half-through
girders in which the load from the deck is first transferred to stringers and floor beams and
then to the girders.
Beams and girders may have diaphragms and lateral bracings between them. Concrete
girders, normally, have solid concrete diaphragms whereas steel girders may have
diaphragms made of steel beams, girders, channels or angles. Steel girders may also
have lateral bracings made of steel angles or channels.
Beams and girders carry loads by flexural, shear or torsional resistance. Examples of
typical beams and girders are illustrated in Figure 1.8.1.1.

1.8.1.2 Thick Slabs

Thick slabs are made of reinforced or prestressed concrete or a combination of these.
They may be simply supported or continuous.
They may be solid or contain round, rectangular or trapezoidal voids, and are normally
cast-in-place. The deck slabs of rigid frames are to be considered as thick slabs.
The top surface of thick slabs acts as the deck and shall be inspected as detailed in
Section 1.9.
Thick slabs carry loads by flexural, shear, torsion and axial forces depending on the fixity
and configuration of the support systems. Examples of thick slabs used are illustrated in
Figure 1.8.1.2.

1.8.1.3 Trusses
Trusses are made of steel or wood. A few trusses made of cast iron are still in existence.
Trusses may be single or multiple span and may be simply supported or continuous. They
may also be cantilevered beyond the support with a 'drop-in' truss section to complete the
span.
Trusses consist of top and bottom chords, verticals and diagonals.
Types of trusses commonly encountered are the through truss, half-through (pony) truss,
deck truss and the bailey bridge truss.
Through trusses are connected together across the top chords above the roadway level by
transverse portals, sway frames and lateral bracings. The bottom chords are connected
together below the roadway level by transverse floor beams which support longitudinal
stringers and the deck. The bottom chords are also connected by lateral bracings below
the deck.
Half-through trusses are not connected across the top chords allowing for unrestricted
overhead clearance. Sway braces or rakers are connected between the top chords and
floor beams, or needle beams, to provide lateral restraint to the top chord. The bottom
chords are connected together below the roadway level by transverse floor beams which

PART 1 1-111
support longitudinal stringers and the deck. The bottom chords are also connected by
lateral bracings below the deck.
Deck trusses are located entirely below the roadway level. They may directly support the
deck, or the deck may be supported on longitudinal stringers and transverse floor beams
resting on the deck trusses. Adjacent trusses are also commonly connected by transverse
cross bracing between the top and bottom chords, and by additional lateral bracing
between the bottom chords.
Bailey bridge trusses are built of components that can be erected into a number of different
types of trusses. The most common being the half-through type. Sway bracings, lateral
bracings and floor systems for the bailey bridges are similar to the half-through trusses
described above.
Components of steel trusses consist of individual rolled sections or are built-up by bolting,
riveting or welding several sections together. Older steel trusses may contain solid round
or square bars or eye-bars, while more recent steel trusses may also contain tubular
sections. Components of wood trusses are typically made from solid rough-sawn sections
or are built-up by bolting or gluing several sections together. Steel rods are also often used
for tension components in wood trusses.
Individual truss components are connected together at joints with splice plates or gusset
plates fastened by pins, rivets, bolts, lag-screws, nails or by welding.
While their overall configuration may vary, trusses are built up of individual components
interconnected in triangular arrangements in such a manner that the components resist
applied loads axially, through compression or tension.
However, depending on the degree of fixity, either actual or assumed, at the connections,
and on the location of the applied load on the member, some of the truss components may
also be subject to flexural, shear or torsional loads. Trusses and common terminology used
to describe their components are illustrated in Figure 1.8.1.3(a).
Typical bailey bridge configurations and components are shown in Figures 1.8.1.3(b) and
1.8.1.3(c). For a complete coverage of bailey bridges see reference (1).

1.8.1.4 Arches
Arches are made of concrete, steel, wood or masonry.
Arches may be single or multiple span and may be hinged or fixed at the supports. They
may have an intermediate hinge at their crown.
Arches consist of arch ribs, top or bottom chords, verticals and diagonals.
Types of arches commonly encountered are the tied (bowstring) arch, through arch, open
spandrel arch, filled spandrel arch and barrel arch.
Tied (Bowstring) arches are used where the soil is not capable of resisting the horizontal
thrust of the arch rib. The bottom chord, or tie, may also support the deck system as they
are usually at the same level. There may also be a system of portal or sway frames and

PART 1 1-112
lateral bracing between the arch ribs over the roadway. In steel tied arches there may also
be a system of lateral bracing under the deck.
Through arches are used where the soil is capable of resisting the horizontal thrust of the
arch. In this arch, the deck and floor system is suspended from the arch rib by hangers.
The arch ribs are also connected together across the top by a system of portal and sway
frames and lateral bracing. There may also be a system of lateral bracing under the deck.
Open spandrel arches are used where the soil is capable of resisting the arch thrust. In
this type of arch the deck is located above the level of the arch crown, and the deck and
floor system is supported on columns carried down to the arch rib(s).
In steel spandrel arches there are two or more parallel ribs interconnected by a bracing
system. Concrete spandrel arches may have several ribs interconnected with diaphragms,
but are also commonly built with only one solid arch, the full width of the deck.
Filled spandrel arches are commonly used for short spans, and is usually fixed ended. The
arch is backfilled with earth, granular or other suitable fill which forms the base for the
deck. The sides of this arch are closed by retaining walls and wingwalls.
Barrel arches are similar to the filled spandrel arches except that the sides are open and
therefore there are no retaining walls.
Components of steel arches consist of individual rolled sections or are built-up by bolting,
riveting or welding several sections together. Older steel arches may contain solid round
or square bars or eye-bars, while more recent steel arches may also contain tubular
sections.
In steel arches, the components are connected together at joints with splice plates or
gusset plates fastened by pins, rivets, bolts or by welding. In comparison, concrete arches
are usually constructed monolithically with the deck system, ties, railings, hangers, and
arch rib rigidly connected so that interaction and stress distribution among the components
is extremely complex.
While their overall configuration may vary, the arrangement and connection of their
components and the degree of fixity at the supports and between the connections
determine the distribution of applied loads internally in the arch and the transfer of load to
the foundation or soil. The arch ribs resist applied loads mainly by compression and
flexure. The arch ties resist loads mainly by tension and some flexure depending on the
location of the applied loads.
Concrete arches are usually monolithically cast, with the result that the interaction and
stress distribution among the components is extremely complex. Also, when the arches
have fixed ends they are very sensitive to differential settlement or rotation of the
foundation, which may produce overstressing and cracking locally.
Arches and the common terminology used to describe them are illustrated in Figures
1.8.1.4.

PART 1 1-113
1.8.1.5 Culverts, Tunnels and Soil-steel Structures
Culverts and soil-steel structures are bridges embedded in fill. In most cases, they convey
water through an embankment; however, occasionally they provide access to pedestrian,
rail or vehicular traffic through the embankment.
A tunnel is a bridge constructed through existing ground. In most cases it provides access
to pedestrian, rail or vehicular traffic. Occasionally, it is designed to convey water.
Culverts and tunnels may be made of concrete or wood. Soil- steel structures are
comprised of corrugated steel pipe or plates, and soil, designed and constructed to induce
a beneficial action between the structure and the soil. Soil-steel structures are constructed
in several shapes; namely, round, ellipses, pipe arches, superspans and with or without
ears or relieving slab.
High embankments or fills may impose very large vertical and lateral earth loads on
culverts and tunnels which can result in structural failure of the roof, floor slab or walls.
The strength of a soil-steel structure is derived from the interaction between the structure
and the surrounding soil. Vertical loads from the overlying soil and traffic are transmitted by
arching action to the underlying soil. If the side support is not provided due to inadequate
placement, compaction or loss of soil or backfill material; then, failure of the structure can
result.
Culverts, tunnels and soil-steel structures are divided into two main types according to
cross-section; namely, open invert and closed invert. An open invert structure has a floor
of natural soil, bedrock or other material that is not structurally integral with the walls. A
closed invert structure is one where the floor is structurally integral with the walls.
Where these structures are used to carry water their basic components can be divided into
inlet, barrel and outlet as shown in Figure 1.8.1.5(a). The inlet channels water into the
barrel and the outlet channels the water back into the stream. The inlet and the outlet may
also contain headwalls, cut-off walls, wingwalls, headerwalls and aprons to provide
protection against scour and piping. The barrel and outlet may also contain drop-outlets,
stilling basins, chutes and stepped flumes to dissipate the energy of the water before it re-
enters the stream, as shown in Figure 1.8.1.5(b).
When a roadway is widened or when the road grade is raised, extensions to these
structures may be built using different materials. It is necessary to inspect the full length of
these structures.
Typical examples of culverts, tunnels and soil-steel structures are illustrated in Figure
1.8.1.5(c).

1.8.1.6 Diaphragms
Diaphragms are made of steel, wood or concrete components.
Diaphragms span between the primary load carrying components such as beams, girders,
deck trusses or are located inside box sections. They are normally located in the vertical
plane.

PART 1 1-114
Diaphragms may be solid, or built up from individual steel or wood sections which are
assembled together to form x-frames or k-frames using rivets, bolts, nails or by welding.
Diaphragms can be distinguished as load bearing or non-load bearing. Load bearing
diaphragms directly support superstructure reactions or are designed for jacking purposes.
Non-load bearing diaphragms provide lateral support or restraint to other superstructure
components.
Typical diaphragms are illustrated in Figure 1.8.1.6.

1.8.1.7 Sway Bracings

Sway bracings are made of concrete, steel or wood.
Sway bracings are the transverse bracings between primary components and are normally
located in the vertical plane. In the case of half-through trusses the sway bracings are
attached to the outside of each truss instead of between the trusses.
Sway bracings may be solid, or built up from individual steel or wood sections which are
assembled together to form x-frames or k-frames using rivets, bolts, nails or by welding.
Typical sway bracings are illustrated in Figures 1.8.1.3(a) and Figure 1.8.1.4.

1.8.1.8 Lateral Bracings

Lateral Bracings are made of steel or wood.
Lateral bracings are the transverse bracings between primary components such as beams,
girders, trusses and arches and are normally located in the horizontal plane.
Lateral bracings are normally made from single components but sometimes may be made
into frames.
Typical lateral bracings are illustrated in Figures 1.8.1.3(a), 1.8.1.3(c) and Figure 1.8.1.8.

1.8.2 PRIMARY COMPONENTS

The following are to be considered as primary components:
• beams, girders;
• thick slabs;
• truss top and bottom chords, verticals and diagonals;
• arch ribs, ties, vertical and diagonals;
• stringers and floor beams;
• load bearing diaphragms that directly support or transmit wheel loads.
• connections to primary components.
• barrel of culverts, tunnels and soil-steel structures.

PART 1 1-115
1.8.2.1 Material Defects of Primary Components
Material defects are as given in Part 1, Section 1.2.

1.8.2.2 Performance Defects of Primary Components

Performance defects in primary components are related to their ability to support the dead
and live loads imposed on them and to transmit those loads to the substructure without
excessive deformations or vibrations.

1.8.3 SECONDARY COMPONENTS

The following are to be considered as secondary components:
• Non-load bearing diaphragms that do not directly support or transmit wheel
• loads;
• Sway bracings;
• Lateral bracings;
• Connections to secondary components.
• Inlet and outlet treatments of culverts.

1.8.3.1 Material Defects of Secondary Components

Material defects are as given in Part 1, Section 1.2.

1.8.3.2 Performance Defects of Secondary Components

The performance condition rating of non-load bearing diaphragms is based upon their
ability to restrict relative vertical and transverse movements between the primary
components and thus transmit vertical and transverse loads between them without
excessive or permanent deformations.
The performance condition rating of sway bracings is based upon their ability to restrict
relative transverse and vertical movements between primary components and thus prevent
lateral buckling of primary components.
The performance condition rating of lateral bracings is based upon their ability to restrict
relative longitudinal and transverse movements between primary components and thus
transmit longitudinal and transverse loads between them without excessive or permanent
deformations.
The performance condition rating of inlet and outlet treatments of culverts is based upon
their ability to provide for the functions they are designed for.

1.8.4 REFERENCES
1. The Bailey and Uniflote Handbook, 1974, Acrow Corporation of America

PART 1 1-116
 BEAMS & GIRDERS
TOP
TOP
FLANGE
FLANGE TOP
FLANGE

BOTTOM
B
WE FLANGE
BOTTOM
FLANGE

T - BEAM
CAST IN PLACE PRECAST BOX BEAM ROLLED BEAM WELDED BEAM

HORIZONTAL
STIFFENER

VERTICAL
STIFFENER

PRECAST TRAPEZOIDAL GIRDER PRESTR - I GIRDER WELDED PLATE GIRDER RIVETED PLATE GIRDER
CONCRETE BEAMS & GIRDERS STEEL BEAMS & GIRDERS

L
RA
TE
LA CING
A
BR

KEY

PLACE
CAST IN
VERTICAL
T STIFFENER
P RECAS LONGITUDINAL
INTERIOR STIFFENER
DIAPHRAGM
SEGMENTAL BOX GIRDER STEEL BOX GIRDER

SAWN BOLT GLUED

LAMINATED LAMINATED

WOOD BEAMS

Figure 1.8.1.1 Beams and Girders

PART 1 1-117
 Solid Thick Slab

ROUND VOIDS
RECANGULAR VOID
TRAPEZOIDAL VOID

Voided Thick Slab

Figure 1.8.1.2 Thick Slabs

TYPICAL STEEL TRUSSES TYPICAL WOOD TRUSSES

ELEVATION ELEVATION

SWAY
SWAY BRACING
C
BRACING


SECTION SECTION
HALF - THROUGH (PONY) TRUSS HALF THROUGH (WOOD) TRUSS

Figure 1.8.3.1(a) Trusses

PART 1 1-118
 DIAGONALS
BOTTOM
VERITCALS TOP CHORD
CHORD

ELEVATION ELEVATION

SWAY
SWAY BRACING
BRACING

SECTION SECTION
THROUGH TRUSS THROUGH (WOOD) TRUSS

DIAGONALS
VERTICALS TOP CHORD

BOTTOM
ELEVATION CHORD

BRACING OR
DIAPHRAGMS

LATERAL
BRACING
SECTION
DECK TRUSS

Figure 1.8.1.3(a) Trusses (cont)

PART 1 1-119
 C
L
MAIN GIRDER RAKER

A DIMENSION (A)
(TYP.)
STANDARD BAILEY..................... 3759 mm
STANDARD WIDENED BAILEY... 4343 mm

TOP CHORD
TRANSOM BRACING FRAME
SINGLE SINGLE VERTICAL
BRACING
TOP CHORD FRAME
BRACING FRAME
C
L C
L

TRANSOM TRANSOM
DOUBLE SINGLE DOUBLE DOUBLE
BRACING WIDENED
FRAMES FRAMES
CL
TOP CHORD
BRACING WIDENED TOP
FRAME CHORD BRACING
FRAME
C
L

TIE PLATE TIE PLATE

TRANSOM

(a) STANDARD (b) MODIFIED (a) STANDARD (b) MODIFIED

BAILEY PART BAILEY PART BAILEY PART BAILEY PART
TRIPLE SINGLE TRIPLE DOUBLE

Figure 1.8.1.3(b) Typical Bailey Configurations

PART 1 1-120
 Figure 1.8.1.3(c) Typical Bailey Components

PART 1 1-121
 TOP CHORD OR SWAY BRACING
RIB TOP CHORD
OR RIB HANGERS

ELEVATION ELEVATION

SWAY BRACING
SWAY BRACING

SECTION SECTION
THROUGH ARCH CONCRETE BOWSTRING ARCH

ARCH RIB
ARCH RIB

ELEVATION ELEVATION
CL
CL

FILL SWAY COLUMNS

BRACING

SECTION
FILLED SPANDREL ARCH
MULTIPLE RIB SINGLE RIB
SECTION
OPEN SPANDREL ARCH -
STEEL OR CONCRETE

ELEVATION
CONCRETE BARREL ARCH

Figure 1.8.1.4 Arches

PART 1 1-122
 OUTLET

BARREL
Mar. 2015

STREAM
FLOW
INLET

Figure 1.8.1.5(a) Basic Culvert, Tunnel and Soil-Steel Structure Components

WINGWALL
HEADWALL

WINGWALL HEADWALL

CUT-OFF
APRON
WALL
STILLING
ENERGY BASIN
DISSIPATORS
INLET OUTLET

Figure 1.8.1.5(b) Typical Inlet and Outlet Components

PART 1 1-123
 OPEN FOOTING CONCRETE CULVERT CONCRETE BOX CULVERT

WOOD CULVERT ROUND CORRUGATED PIPE CULVERT

Figure 1.8.1.5(c) Typical Culverts and Tunnels

PART 1 1-124
Rev 2008

ROUND CORRUGATED STEEL PLATE CORRUGATED STEEL PLATES

OPEN FOOTING ARCH

CORRUGATED STEEL PLATE CORRUGATED STEEL PLATE

PIPE ARCH SUPERSPAN ELLIPSE

CORRUGATED STEEL PLATE

INVERTED ELLIPSE

Figure 1.8.1.5(d) Typical Soil-Steel Structures

PART 1 1-125
 ~
~

NON-LOAD
LOAD
BEARING
BEARING
DIAPHRAGM
DIAPHRAGM
~

LOAD BEARING NON-LOAD BEARING

DIAPHRAGM IN STEEL DIAPHRAGM
BOX GIRDER
Figure 1.8.1.6 Diaphragms

TOP LATERAL
BRACING

1 1 GIRDER

BOTTOM
LATERAL LATERAL
1 BRACING 1 BRACING

SECTION
GIRDER GIRDER

1 PLAN
Figure 1.8.1.8 Lateral Bracing

PART 1 1-126
1.9 DECK COMPONENTS

1.9.1 DECK COMPONENTS

The following components are considered in this section:
• Decks
• Wearing Surfaces
• Curbs and Sidewalks
• Approaches and Approach Slabs and Ramps
• Drainage and Deck Drains

1.9.1.1 Decks
The types of decks commonly used are:
• Reinforced Concrete Decks;
• Wood Decks;
• Orthotropic Steel Decks;
• Open Grating Steel Decks; and
• Corrugated Metal Sheeting Decks.
Reinforced concrete decks are the most common type of deck used in structures.
They are commonly cast-in-place but may also be pre-cast. This type of deck includes
slab on beams, and the top surface of solid or voided thick slabs, or of rigid frames.
Wood decks are commonly used on secondary roads and rural highways. Types of wood
decks commonly used include longitudinal and transverse laminated wood decks,
prestressed wood decks, plank decks and composite wood and concrete decks.
Orthotropic steel decks consist of a flat steel top plate surface welded to a supporting
system of steel girders, floor beams and ribs. Flat bars or studs are often welded to the top
steel plate to improve the bond with the wearing surface.
Prefabricated steel grating is sometimes used as decking material. The open mesh grating
panels are installed over a network of steel floor beams and stringers to form the riding
surface. A variation of this deck is produced by placing a concrete infill slab over the
grating to form a composite deck surface.
Corrugated metal sheeting decks have been used in a few cases. They are normally
overlaid with asphalt or concrete wearing surface.
Figure 1.9.1.1 illustrates the types of decks commonly encountered.

PART 1 1-127
 1.9.1.2 Wearing Surfaces
The top surface of the deck is either left exposed and acts as the wearing surface or is
protected by an additional wearing surface. A waterproofing membrane placed between
the deck and asphalt wearing surface also provides additional protection.
Reinforced concrete and steel decks are typically covered with an asphalt wearing surface,
with or without waterproofing. Wood decks are typically covered with an asphalt, concrete
or wood planking wearing surface, normally without waterproofing.
Wearing surfaces are shown in Figure 1.9.1.1.

1.9.1.3 Curbs and Sidewalks

Curbs and sidewalks are located parallel to the side limits of the roadway and are typically
elevated between 100mm and 250mm in height above the roadway surface. Both these
components include a vertical face and a horizontal portion. For the purposes of this
manual, the only differentiation between a curb and a sidewalk shall be width. A width of
less than 1500mm shall be identified as a curb and 1500mm or greater shall be identified
as a sidewalk. This definition is used, despite the fact the many large curbs with widths of
600mm or more can safely accommodate pedestrians in rural areas. The difference
between curbs and sidewalks is illustrated in Figure 2.3.3 of Part 2.
Sidewalks and curbs are sometimes built on supports which cantilever beyond the deck
limits. These supports shall be inspected as part of the floor system (floor beams,
stringers, etc.) while only the face, top and bottom surfaces of the curb or sidewalk shall be
included with the curb/sidewalk component.
Curbs and sidewalks can be constructed of concrete, wood, asphaltic concrete or steel.
Precast masonry is sometimes used as well.
Typical examples of curb and sidewalk construction are illustrated in Figures 1.9.1.1 and
1.9.1.3.

1.9.1.4 Approaches, Approach Slabs and Ramps

Approaches shall be inspected immediately adjacent to the structure. The length to be
inspected shall be the length of the approach slab, or the length to the end of the wingwall
(whichever is greater). For jurisdictions where separate inspection of roadway features are
2008

not performed, a longer section of approach may be inspected for some elements (e.g.
Rev

include approach guide-rail or include longer length of approach sidewalk or curb).

Approach slabs are located at each end of the structure, however, they may not be present
at some structures on lightly travelled roads or on gravel roads.
Approach slabs, where present, are constructed upon the approach embankment. One
end of the approach slab is anchored to the ballast wall or abutment wall, the other end
rests upon the approach fill and is free to move.

PART 1 1-128
Where approach slabs are present, they are often paved over with an asphalt wearing
surface.
Approach ramps are sometimes provided at the approach to Bailey bridges and shall be
categorized as approach slabs.
A typical concrete approach slab is illustrated in Figure 1.9.1.4.

1.9.1.5 Drainage and Deck Drains

Surface drainage on structures is channelled along the curbs and drained through deck
drains or allowed to drain off the deck. Drainage from the approaches is normally drained
into drainage ditches or caught at catch basins before it reaches the structure.
Deck drains are usually located along the curb lines. Deck drains are typically made of
steel, although concrete, aluminum, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and
polyvinylchloride (PVC) are sometimes used as well. Steel drains are usually galvanized
or made of atmospheric corrosion resistant steel. Deck drains are anchored to the deck by
metal bars, or rely on their shape and bonding forces to secure them in place.
Deck drains vary in size and shape, and vary from single pipes to prefabricated pipe and
catch basin units. Deck drains can also occur individually or be interconnected to an
extensive collection system terminating at storm sewers. In either case, deck drains must
extend below or away from structure components below the deck to prevent water
discharge or spray from falling on those components.
Deck drains, in concrete decks, normally have drainage holes in them, at the interface
between the deck top surface and the asphalt wearing surface, to drain water that has
penetrated through the wearing surface.
Concrete decks with dams at expansion joints usually have 25mm diameter PVC tubes
placed through the deck, from the interface of the wearing surface and deck top surface, to
drain water which penetrates through the wearing surface.
Precast concrete box girders and steel box girders have drain holes in the bottom flange to
drain off any water that finds its way into the boxes. These also serve to provide
ventilation.
Drainage ditches, gutters and catch basins in the approaches to the structure are detailed
in References 1 and 2.
Figure 1.9.1.5 illustrates typical examples of drainage systems and deck drains commonly
encountered.

PART 1 1-129
1.9.2 PRIMARY COMPONENTS
Decks and wearing surfaces shall be considered as primary components.

1.9.2.1 Material Defects of Primary Components

Material defects are as given in Part 1, Section 1.2.
The top surfaces of exposed decks are directly subject to the adverse effects of weather,
traffic and the use of de-icing salts and chemicals. This results in rapid deterioration of the
decks.
Even with the added protection of the wearing surfaces, the deck top surfaces below the
wearing surfaces of covered decks are often prone to similar deteriorations as exposed
decks. Unfortunately, the wearing surfaces may hide these defects on the deck surfaces
until they are well advanced.

1.9.2.2 Performance Defects of Primary Components

Performance of decks relate to their ability to support imposed live and dead loads, to
transit those loads to the supporting superstructure components and to provide safe and
smooth riding surfaces for traffic.
Performance of wearing surfaces relate to their ability to provide safe and smooth riding
surfaces and to protect the underlying decks from deterioration.

1.9.3 SECONDARY COMPONENTS

Curbs, sidewalks, approaches, approach slabs and ramps are to be considered as
secondary components.

1.9.3.1 Material Defects of Secondary Components

Material defects are as given in Part 1, Section 1.2.

1.9.3.2 Performance Defects of Secondary Components

Performance of curbs and sidewalks relates to their ability to provide safe and comfortable
passage for pedestrians, and to protect structure components beyond the roadway limits
from vehicular collision and damage. Curbs also serve to channel roadway surface
drainage to deck drainage systems.
Performance of approaches, approach slabs and ramps relates to their ability to provide
smooth transition for traffic onto and off the structure. Performance of approach slabs also
relates to their ability to distribute live loads through the embankment and to the abutment
wall.

PART 1 1-130
1.9.4 AUXILIARY COMPONENTS
Deck drains, drainage ditches, gutters and catch basins shall be considered as auxiliary
components.

1.9.4.1 Material Defects of Auxiliary Components

Material defects are as given in Part 1, Section 1.2.

1.9.4.2 Performance Defects of Auxiliary Components

The performance of deck drains and drainage systems relates to their ability to remove
water from the deck and approaches, and to direct and discharge it safely away from the
structure and its components.
Trapped or ponded water is a safety hazard, particularly when frozen, as it can lead to loss
of vehicle control. It can also result in deterioration of the deck and other components.
Inadequate discharge of approach drainage results in erosion of the approach fills and loss
of support for structure components.
Deck drains and drainage systems discharging onto structure components result in rapid
deterioration of those components.

1.9.5 REFERENCES
1. MTO Drainage Manual.
2. Highway Engineering Standards - Roads, Barriers and Drainage.

PART 1 1-131
 DECK WEARING DECK WEARING
SURFACE SURFACE

CAST IN PLACE
WITH OR WITHOUT VOIDS

THIN DECK SLABS THICK DECK SLAB

WEARING
DECK SURFACE WOOD
COMPOSITE
WITH CONCRETE

PRECAST UNITS

CONCRETE ON PRECAST BEAMS

DECK PLATE OR
WELDED TO ALL WEARING
SUPPORT MEMBERS SURFACE WOOD PLANK WOOD LAMINATED
DECK DECK

WOOD DECKS

STEEL
GRATING
FLOOR BEAM LONGITUDINAL
RIBS

ORTHOTROPIC STEEL DECK

FLOOR BEAM

OPEN STEEL GRATING DECK

Figure 1.9.1.1 Typical Decks

PART 1 1-132
 CONCRETE,TIMBER OR
CONCRETE CURB OR PRECAST MASONRY
CURB FACE SIDEWALK DECK CURB
DECK

CONCRETE CURB OR SIDEWALK CURB WITH SIDEWALK

RAILING
RAILING
TIMBER CURB STEEL CURB
FACE FACE
TIMBER TIMBER STEEL
DECK SIDEWALK DECK SIDEWALK

TIMBER CANTILEVER SIDEWALK STEEL CANTILEVER SIDEWALK

ASPHALTIC CONCRETE ASPHALTIC

CURB FACE CONCRETE OVERLAY

DECK

ASPHALTIC CONCRETE SIDEWALK

Figure 1.9.1.3 Typical Curbs and Sidewalks

PART 1 1-133
 APPROACH SLAB WEARING SURFACE

BALLAST
WALL

APPROACH
EMBANKMENT

ABUTMENT

Figure 1.9.1.4 Concrete Approach Slab

PART 1 1-134
 PIER
CATCH BASIN ABUTMENT
DECK DRAINS

CURB OR SIDEWALK
APPROACH SLAB APPROACH ROAD
Plan

CATCH BASIN DECK DRAINS

BELOW
DECK
DRAIN DRAIN
SPLASH
PAD

ABUTMENT
Elevation DRAINS

Drainage Systems
CURB OR SIDEWALK

DECK DECK
CURB OR SIDEWALK
DRAIN

DECK

COLLECTOR DECK
PIPE OR HANGER FLEXIBLE
TROUGH HOSE
SUPPORT BRACKET
ABUTMENT
OR PIER
SLOPED
PIPE RING COLLECTOR PIPE
DISCHARGE DOWN PIPE

Figure 1.9.1.5 Drainage and Deck Drains

PART 1 1-135
 CURB OR
B WEEP HOLES
SIDEWALK
ROUND OR BASIN
A
SQUARE
A
DRAIN PIPE CURB OR
WEARING SIDEWALK
SURFACE
METAL DRAIN PIPE
WITH BASIN

PLAN
B

DRAIN PIPE WITH BASIN

CURB OR
SIDEWALK

WEARING
SURFACE

DECK
METAL
CONCRETE DRAIN BRIDGE DECK
DRAIN PIPE
PIPE - ROUND
(ROUND OR OVAL)

DRAIN PIPES WITHOUT BASINS

Figure 1.9.1.5 Drainage and Deck Drains(cont'd)

PART 1 1-136
1.10 RAILING SYSTEMS

1.10.1 RAILING SYSTEMS

Railing systems are to be considered as secondary components as they do not normally
contribute to the capacity of the structure, however, there are some structures in which the
parapet walls also act as the main beams. In those structures the parapet walls shall be
considered as primary components.
Railing systems are located at the outermost side limits of the roadway or sidewalk, and
may also be located along the median for separation of two way traffic.
Railing systems, post anchorages and rail connections are described below and illustrated
in Figure 1.10.1.

(a) Parapet Walls

Parapet Walls are rectangular reinforced concrete walls. They commonly support posts
and two tube rails or other rail configurations on them.

(b) Barrier Walls

New Jersey type barrier walls are reinforced concrete walls with a sloping front face.
Barrier walls on approaches may not be reinforced. Barrier walls 800 mm high are
provided with a top tube rail. Barrier walls 1025 mm high are not provided with a tube rail.
International Barrier Company (IBC) barrier walls are free standing zinc- galvanized steel
structures of cold formed profiles supported by interior steel bulkheads and covered by
galvanized steel lids. The exterior of the IBC barrier may be vinyl coated. The interior of
the IBC barrier is typically filled with sand or gravel.

(c) Railings

Railings consist of posts and rails and may be latticed, barred, balustered or other open
web configuration. Railings have been commonly used in conjunction with curbs and
sidewalks on structures with low volume or low speed traffic; and, on structures built before
about 1960. Their use was discontinued around that time on structures on King's highway
due to the greater protection provided by the introduction of parapet walls and, later, barrier
walls.

The following posts and railings are commonly encountered:

• concrete posts and concrete rails;
• concrete posts and steel rails;
• concrete posts and aluminum rails;

PART 1 1-137
 • concrete posts and steel flex-beam rails;
• steel posts and steel rails;
• steel posts and cable rails;
• steel I-posts and steel box beam rails;
• steel grillages;
• corrugated steel box filled with sand;
• aluminum posts and aluminum rails;
• wood posts and wood rails;
• wood posts and steel flex-beam rails;
• wood posts and steel cables.

In railings using cables, splices may be used to join lengths of cable. End fittings and
anchor blocks may also be provided to allow for tensioning of the cables.

(d) Splash Guards

Splash Guards are designed to protect pedestrians and railings from vehicular salt and
water splash; and, also serve to guide pedestrian traffic. Splash guards are typically made
from concrete, steel, aluminum or plastic.

(e) Post Anchorages

The method of anchoring posts depends on the post material and on the time of installation
of the post relative to the construction of the deck or structure component to which it is
connected.
Reinforced concrete posts are usually cast monolithically with the deck, curb or sidewalk,
or are, subsequently, cast around reinforcing extending from them.
Steel posts are anchored by direct embedment or by anchor plates and bolts. Embedded
posts are often set into a steel socket and caulked with hot poured sulphur and lead wool
or grouted with non-shrink grout. Anchor plates and bolts are generally used when the
post is installed on an existing structure component.
Square hollow steel posts commonly used for steel railings were often partially filled with
concrete with a drainage hole made through the side of the post, just above the level of the
concrete, to prevent bursting of the post due to the freezing of entrapped water. The top of
the post was capped to prevent the entry of water.
Aluminum posts are secured to the deck, curb or sidewalk by anchor bolts. Nylon washers
are required between the aluminum base plate and steel anchor bolts.
Wood posts are usually bolted to the side of the structure, or bolted in steel anchor shoes
which are bolted down to the deck, curb or sidewalk.

(f) Rail Connections

Rails are secured to posts by bolts, set screws, nails, or reinforcing steel, depending on the
combination of rail and post material:

PART 1 1-138
 • steel rails used with steel, concrete or wood posts are usually bolted to the
• post, steel rails sometimes pass through pre-drilled holes in steel posts;
• aluminum rails used with aluminum or concrete posts are usually bolted to the
• posts;
• concrete rails used with concrete posts are cast monolithically with the
• post, or may be precast;
• wood rails used with wood posts are usually nailed or bolted to the post;
• steel cable rails used with wood or steel posts are usually stapled to wood
• posts; and, bolted to or pass through pre-drilled holes in steel posts.

Sleeves are provided between sections of continuous tube rails; and, slotted holes are
provided at bolted rail splices and rail to post connections, to allow for: thermal expansion
and contraction of the rail; structure movements; and, construction tolerances. These
provisions do not apply for cable rails or for all concrete or all wood railing systems.
The ends of tube rails are capped to prevent water from entering and causing corrosion
inside the rail.

1.10.1.1 Material Defects of Railing Systems

Material defects are as given in Part 1, Section 1.2. In addition, defects in railings using
cables are:
• broken wires or entire cable;
• loose cables or inadequate cable tension;
• loose or corroded splices or fittings.

1.10.1.2 Performance Defects of Railing Systems

The performance of barrier walls and railings is based upon their ability to safeguard and
guide vehicular traffic and pedestrians along the structure; and, to deter the accidental
passage of vehicles over the side of the structure, or into oncoming traffic.
The performance of the top rail on parapet walls, barrier walls and railings is based on its
ability to provide a handrail for pedestrians, to withstand or absorb some vehicular impact
and to provide lateral support for some types of railings.
The performance of splashguards is based upon the protection provided to pedestrians or
railing systems against salt and water splash directed by vehicles passing in adjacent
lanes.
The performance of railing systems shall also be based upon their present condition with
regards to their ability to meet the safety standards and other requirements in effect at the
time they were originally installed.

PART 1 1-139
 RAIL SPLICE AND EXPANSION JOINT RAIL CAP
PEDESTRIAN RAIL (TYP.)

POST

BOTTOM RAIL
NYLON BUSHING
(ALUM.ONLY)
REINF. CONC.
MASTIC COATING PARAPET WALL
(ALUM. ONLY)

STEEL ANCHOR BLOTS

REINFORCED CONCRETE PARAPET WALLS (WITH RAILS)

PEDESTRIAN RAIL RAIL CAP

RAIL SPLICE AND
EXPANSION JOINT (TYP.)
POST
NYLON
BUSHING
(ALUM.
POST)
STEEL
MASTIC
ANCHOR
COATING REINF. CONC.
BOLTS
(ALUM. NEW JERSEY
POST) BARRIER WALL
WITHOUT RAIL WITH RAIL
REINFORCED CONCRETE NEW JERSEY BARRIER WALL

FILL - USUALLY SAND AND/OR GRAVEL

LID

STRAP
NUT

OPENING FOR ROAD

INTERIOR STEEL PANEL
DRAINS
STEEL
BULKHEAD INTERNATIONAL BARRIER COMPANY (IBC) BARRIER

Figure 1.10.1 Railing Systems

PART 1 1-140
 TOP RAIL CONNECTION BENT PLATE
POST CAP
HOLLOW WITH SLOTTED HOLE STEEL PEDESTRIAN
STEEL FOR EXPANSION RAIL
POST
TOP OF
CONCRETE

DRAINAGE
HOLE
STEEL CHANNEL

CONCRETE CONCRETE BOT. RAIL CONNECTION WITH

POST STEEL DECK SLOTTED HOLE FOR EXPANSION
POST

STEEL RAILING

PEDESTRIAN RAIL SPLICE

RAIL & EXPANSION JOINT
TOP
TRAFFIC
RAIL MIDDLE
TRAFFIC
RAIL
BOTTOM
TRAFFIC
RAIL

ANCHOR BOLT TRAFFIC RAILS

3-RAIL 4-RAIL
METAL RAILING (STEEL OR ALUMINUM)

JOINT BENT PLATE ALUM.

COVER ALUM.
BALLISTERS PEDESTRIAN RAIL
TOP RAIL
CONNECTION
ALUM. H POST
BOTTOM RAIL
CONNECTION

BASE
PLATE

ANCHOR STEEL CHANNEL

BOLT
CONCRETE DECK
ALUMINUM RAILING

Figure 1.10.1 Railing Systems (cont'd)

PART 1 1-141
 REINF.
CONCRETE
POST

REINF.
CONCRETE
RAIL

CONCRETE
DECK

REINFORCED CONCRETE RAILING

REINF.
CONCRETE RAIL

REINF.
CONCRETE RECESS FOR
POST RAIL

CONCRETE
DECK

REINFORCED CONCRETE RAILING

CABLE END CONNECTION

AND TENSION DEVICE
STEEL ANGLE
POST
STEEL
ANGLE
POST STEEL
CABLE

ANCHOR DECK
BOLT

ANCHOR
BOLTED EMBEDDED

STEEL POST AND CABLE RAILING

Figure 1.10.1 Railing Systems (cont'd)

PART 1 1-142
 STEEL STEEL SPIKES
SPIKES
PEDESTRIAN RAIL

WOOD
RAILS
STEEL CONNECTING
TRAFFIC RAILS
BOLTS (TYP.)

WOOD POST

WOOD ANCHOR
DECK BOLTS

WOOD RAILING

ALUMINUM OR
STEEL PIPE

ALUMINUM OR
CORRUGATED GALV. STEEL STEEL PIPE
ALUMINUM OR PLASTIC
SHEET PANEL

EMBEDDED OR
ANCHOR BOLTED

RAILING WITH SPLASH GUARD

Figure 1.10.1 Railing Systems (cont'd)

PART 1 1-143
 SLOTTED HOLE & SLOTTED HOLE
OFFSET SPLICE BOLT AND BOLT
WOOD BLOCK WOOD POST
OFFSET WOOD STEEL BEAM
BLOCK POST GUIDE RAIL RECTANGULAR
POST STEEL WASHER
BOLT CHANNEL

POST ~
CONNECTION SLOTTED HOLE & SPLICE BOLT STEEL
BOLT SPLICE PLATE POST
BASE

DRAIN
HOLE
ANCHOR BOLT WEARING SURFACE
ALONG MEDIAN ALONG EDGE OF ROADWAY

WOOD POST AND STEEL FLEX-BEAM RAIL

STEEL PLATES SPLICE CONNECTION

SPLICE BOLT

STEEL BOX
POST
BEAM RAIL
BOLTS
SPLICE PLATE
STEEL POST

STEEL POST AND BOX BEAM RAIL

METAL POST

CONCRETE CAULK WITH

LEAD WOOL METAL POST
DECK
CONCRETE STEEL BASE
DECK PLATE
CAULK WITH HOT
POURED SULPHUR
STEEL OR
NEOPRENE SHIM
STEEL SOCKET
ANCHOR BOLT

STEEL PLATE
CAP
EMBEDDED BOLTED

METAL POST ANCHORAGE DETAILS

Figure 1.10.1 Railing Systems (cont'd)

PART 1 1-144
 STEEL BEAM GUIDE RAIL

WOOD OFFSET BLOCK

REINF. CONCRETE RAIL
BOLT

CONCRETE
DECK

CONCRETE POST WITH STEEL FLEX-BEAM

AND WITH CONCRETE RAIL

STEEL STAPLE
STEEL CABLES
END
POST SPICER FITTING

POST
STEEL
BOLT
BASE
ANCHOR
BOLTS
EARTH
CONCRETE
DRAIN DECK
HOLE
WOOD POST AND STEEL CABLE

Figure 1.10.1 Railing Systems (cont'd)

PART 1 1-145
 1.11 STRUCTURAL STEEL COATINGS

1.11.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL COATINGS

Structural steel coatings are to be considered as primary or secondary components based
upon the designation of the component that is coated. The following coatings and coating
systems have been used on provincial steel structures (References 1 to 5).

(a) 3 Coat Alkyd System (discontinued)

This system was used on most coated steel bridges until about 1974 when it was
discontinued. It consisted of:
• red lead primer;
• light grey second coat;
• green top coat;
Rev 2003

(b) Inorganic-Zinc/Vinyl System (discontinued)

This system has been used since about 1982 on a number of coated steel bridges.
It consists of:
• reddish grey to greenish grey inorganic zinc primer;
• reduced vinyl wash second coat or proprietary tie coat, in white, green or grey;
• green high build vinyl third coat;
• high build vinyl topcoat, usually grey in colour, sometimes green.
Rev 2003

(c) Epoxy-Zinc/Vinyl System (discontinued)

This system was used on coated steel bridges starting in 1987. It consists of:
• green or reddish grey organic zinc primer;
• high build vinyl second coat, in green or light grey;
• high build vinyl top coat, grey in colour.

(d) Aluminum-Filled Epoxymastic System

This system has been used since about 1982 on a number of coated steel bridges.
It has also been used in selected locations on atmospheric corrosion resistant
(weathering) steel, under expansion joints. It was discontinued in 1988. It consists
of:

• two coats of aluminum coloured epoxy mastic.

Rev 2003

(e) Inorganic-Zinc/Epoxy/Urethane System

PART 1 1-146
 This low VOC system has been used on coated steel bridges since 1996. It consists
of:
• reddish grey to greenish grey inorganic zinc primer;
• an epoxy second coat, green or white;
• urethane top coat, grey in colour.
Rev 2003

(f) Epoxy-Zinc/Epoxy/Urethane System

This low VOC system will be used on coated steel bridges starting in 1990. It
consists of:
• green or reddish grey organic zinc primer;
• an epoxy second coat, in green or white;
• urethane top coat, grey in colour.
2003

(g) Inorganic Zinc/Acrylic/Acrylic

This system is one of the low VOC systems that is in the DSM list for coating
structural steel. It has only been used on a few bridges. It consists of:
• greenish grey inorganic zinc primer;
• buff acrylic mid coat;
• grey acrylic topcoat.

(h) Epoxy-Zinc/Acrylic/Acrylic

This system is one of the low VOC systems that is in the DSM list for coating
structural steel. It has only been used on a few bridges. It consists of:
• greenish grey organic (epoxy) zinc primer;
• buff acrylic mid coat;
• grey acrylic topcoat.
Rev

(i) High Build Alkyd System

This system was used on most coated steel bridges from about 1974 to 1985. Its
use has virtually been discontinued. It consists of:
• yellow zinc chromate primer, one or two coats;
• green high build alkyd top coat (for handrails); or
• grey high build alkyd topcoat (for other steelwork).

(j) Hot Dip Galvanizing

Galvanizing has been used since about 1970 on Bailey bridges and on handrails. It
consists of zinc applied to steel in a variety of methods and has a fairly smooth,
large grain, shiny to semi-dull surface appearance.

PART 1 1-147
(k) Metallizing

Metallizing has been used since about 1970 on Bailey bridges and on handrails. It
consists of a sprayed coating of zinc or zinc/aluminum and has a coarse or gritty
surface appearance resembling sandpaper. It has also been used to recoat the
girders of one bridge.

(l) Coal Tar Epoxy

This system has been used in the past on the inside of some box girders. It is black
or dark brown in colour.

(m) Coal Tar for Piles

This system has been used in the past on the inaccessible areas of steel behind
abutment diaphragms and on steel piles. It is black in colour.

1.11.1.1 Material Defects of Coatings

Material defects are as given in Part 1, Section 1.2.

1.11.1.2 Performance Defects of Coatings

The performance of coatings is based upon the ability of the coating to protect the
component against deterioration resulting from direct exposure to elements in the
environment; such as, moisture, de-icing salts, and airborne abrasives, pollutants and
contaminants.
This degree of protection may be provided by a less than desirable material condition of
the coating; however, increasing material defects and deterioration will ultimately result in
loss of protection provided by the coating or coating system.
The rate of deterioration of the coating depends on the degree of exposure of the
component to the destructive elements.
In addition, where identical exposure conditions prevail, the following features can also
affect the rate of deterioration of the coating, namely:
• horizontal surfaces usually deteriorate at a faster rate than vertical surfaces;
• outside corners and edges of components usually exhibit greater deterioration,
as coating thickness is often less at these locations;
• poor surface preparation or inadequate coating thickness, usually due to poor
workmanship or difficult accessibility of the surface.
• the amount of time the steel is damp and the degree to which the component is
ventilated also has an effect.

PART 1 1-148
 1.11.2 REFERENCES
1. Technical Data on Approved Coating Systems Designated Sources List DS: 113,
MI-72. Materials Information, Engineering Materials Office, M.T.C.
.
2003

2. SSPC Painting Manual, Volume 2, Good Painting Practice, SSPC the Society for
2018

Protective Coatings.

3. SSPC Painting Manual, Volume 2, Systems and Specifications, SSPC the

Rev

Society for Protective Coatings.

4. Ridley, Grant, “Laboratory Evaluation of Low VOC Coating Systems for Abrasive
2003

Blast Cleaned Steel”, Nov. 1993, Internal Report, Ministry of Transportation,

Chemical Section, Material Engineering and Research Office, Building C, 1201
Rev

Wilson Avenue, Downsview.

2018
Rev2003

5. Ministry of Transportation Structural Steel Coating Manual.

PART 1 1-149
1.12 SIGNS

1.12.1 SIGNS
The signs most commonly used to indicate restrictions at structures are described below
and shown in Figure 1.12.1. Where signs are available in two sizes, the oversize signs are
used on Provincial Highways. They may also be used on other equally important high
speed roadways or at locations where greater visibility or impact of the sign is required.

A full description of these signs and their application is contained in References 1, 2 and 3.

a) Narrow Structure Signs

The Narrow Structure sign is used to indicate a bridge culvert, subway, overpass or similar
structure having a clear roadway width of 5 to 6 m inclusive or any structure with a roadway
clearance less than the width of the approach pavement.

The Narrow Structure sign is erected not less than 150 m nor more than 250 m in advance
of the structure.

It is available in two sizes.

Hazard Markers shall be used with the narrow structure signs.

b) One Lane Signs

Where the structure has a clear roadway width of less than 5 m, thereby permitting only a
single lane of traffic, a tab sign reading "One Lane" is added immediately below the Narrow
Structure sign.
The "One Lane" tab sign may also be used where the structure roadway width is less than
5.5 m when commercial vehicles constitute a significant proportion of the traffic using the
structure or when the alignment approaching the structure is poor.

c) One lane Only When Used by Trucks Signs

"One Lane Only When Used By Trucks" sign is used to supplement the Narrow Structure
symbol sign where the shape of the subway or the curvature of the road requires trucks to
swing to the centre of the roadway in order to pass through. It may also be used where the
structure roadway width is less than 5.5 m when commercial vehicles constitute a
significant proportion of the traffic using the structure, or where the alignment approaching
the structure is poor.
It is erected approximately 50 m beyond the Narrow Structure Symbol Sign.

PART 1 1-150
d) Hazard Marker Signs

Hazard Marker signs are used to mark structure limits when they are within 2 m of the edge
of the roadway in conjunction with the Narrow Structure sign.
Left or right hazard markers are erected with the stripes sloping at an angle of 45 degrees
down towards the edge of the travelled portion of the roadway.
The right marker is always used to the right of traffic and left marker to the left.
Left and right hazard marker is used where traffic may pass on both sides of an
obstruction.

e) Low Clearance Signs

The Low Clearance signs, indicating low overhead clearance and showing the exact
amount of clearance at low bridges, underpasses and other structures, are used at all
points where clearance from the roadway to the low point of the structure is less than 4.5
m.
The Clearance sign is erected, if possible, on the structure just above the opening and over
the centre of the roadway unless the clearance across the structure varies between the
centreline and the curb or edge of pavement, in which case a second sign is erected to
indicate the lesser clearance. Where there is a difference in clearance across the structure
and the roadway is considered "one lane" when used by trucks, there shall be three signs
posted; at the centreline and each edge of pavement.
The Advance clearance sign is located not less than 100 m nor more than 250 m in
advance of the subway. The advance clearance sign is available in two sizes.

f) Maximum Weight Signs

Single maximum weight signs and multiple maximum weight signs are erected to limit the
gross weight on bridges under the authority of an Ontario Regulation or a Municipal Bylaw
approved by the Ministry as per the Highway Traffic Act and Directive B-43, Maximum
Weight On Bridges Sign.
Regulatory maximum weight signs have black legend, symbols and border on white
reflective background.
Advisory maximum weight signs have black legend, symbols and border on yellow
reflective background.

g) Others

There may also be other signs at structures, such as, speed restriction, slippery when wet,
bailey bridge ahead, marine warning lights and signs.

PART 1 1-151
1.12.1.1 Defects of Signs
The following are some of the typical defects in signs:
• loose, broken or missing components;
• illegible;
• not located according to standards;
• gives misleading, wrong or inaccurate information;
• not a standard sign.

1.12.2 REFERENCES
1. Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Ontario, Division 5.
2. The Highway Traffic Act - Government of Ontario
3. Ministry Directive B-43 - Maximum Weight On Bridges Sign

PART 1 1-152
 (75 X 75) CM OR (90 X 90) CM
(A) NARROW STRUCTURE SIGN (B) ONE LANE SIGN

(90 X 90) CM
(C) ONE LANE ONLY WHEN USED BY TRUCKS SIGN

Figure 1.12.1 Signs

PART 1 1-153
 (d) Hazard Marker Signs

Figure 1.12.1 Signs (cont'd)

PART 1 1-154
 (60 X 90) CM (60 X 60) CM OR(90 X 90) CM
CLEARANCE SIGN ADVANCE CLEARANCE SIGN

(E) LOW CLEARANCE SIGNS

SINGLE POSTING SIGN MULTIPLE POSTING SIGN

(F) MAXIMUM WEIGHT SIGNS

Figure 1.12.1 Signs (cont'd)

PART 1 1-155
 1.13 ATTACHMENTS
2008

1.13.1 GENERAL
2018

The owner should be contacted to determine which attachments to the structure need to be
Rev

inspected as part of the structure inspection

1.13.1.1 Utilities
Utilities most commonly hung from, attached to, or installed in the structure are:
• Water mains
• Gas mains
• Bell ducts
• Hydro lines
A variety of attachment methods are used to install these utilities on the structure.

1.13.1.2 Electrical
This category is not used by the Ontario Ministry of Transportation (MTO) since MTO
Maintenance Contractors inspect electrical installations in accordance with the Electrical
Engineering Manual, Volume 2 – Electrical Maintenance.
This category can be used by jurisdictions that do not perform separate inspections of their
electrical attachments to their structures. Electrical attachments to bridges generally are:
• Light Poles
• Underpass Lighting
• Cathodic Protection Conduits
A variety of attachment methods are used to install these accessories on the structure.

1.13.1.3 Bridge Mounted Sign Supports

This category is not used by the Ontario Ministry of Transportation (MTO) since MTO
inspects Bridge Mounted Sign Supports separately in accordance with the Sign Support
Inspection Guidelines.
This category can be used by jurisdictions that do not perform separate inspections of their
Rev

bridge mounted sign supports.

PART 1 1-156
 1.13.1.4 Noise Barriers
Noise barriers on bridges typically have posts anchored to the barrier wall with panels
2008

between the posts.

1.13.1.5 Other Attachments

Other attachments can include:
• Banner mounting hardware on bridges,
• Fixed Automated Spray Technology (FAST)for de-icing
•
Rev 2018

Light poles on structure (if cursory inspection and others are performing detailed
inspection on pole).

1.13.2 DEFECTS OF ATTACHMENTS

The following are some typical defects of attachments:
• loose, broken or missing components;
• cracks in anchorages, connections or clamps;
• corrosion (i.e. on clamps, posts or steel noise barriers);
• concrete deterioration such as scaling, spalling, etc. (i.e. on noise barriers);
Rev

• mechanical damage;
• other visually apparent defects which may cause the attachment(s) to fail resulting in
loss of support.

PART 1 1-157
 1.14 LIVE LOADS

1.14.1 LIVE LOADS AND POSTING PROCEDURES

This section gives historical information on design and evaluation live loads.

1.14.1.1 Design Live Loads

Design live loads from 1917 to present date are shown in Table 1.14.2 (References 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, and 6).
Design live loads prior to 1917 are not documented. In general, truck loads of 15 tons or
less were used depending on the age of the bridge and the class of highway.
The time periods in Table 1.14.2 refer to the years during which a particular loading was
widely used in Ontario. The higher loads were normally used first for the major highways
and later introduced on the other road systems.
For example, HS20-16 was first used in 1953 for bridges designed for the Trans Canada
Highway followed in 1956 for bridges designed for Provincial Highways. By 1960 it was
being used for all bridges designed for the Municipalities as well, except a few in remote
areas.
Similarly, bridges on Provincial Highways have been designed by OHBDC since 1979,
whereas, most bridges owned by the municipalities were still being designed to HS20-16
2018

for a number of years. Since the mid to late 1980’s, OHBDC was used almost exclusively.
Since 2000, The Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code has been used as per Ontario
Rev

Regulation 104/97 of the Public Transportation and Highway Improvement Act (PTHIA).
The design loads are documented to provide the inspectors with experience in relating
actual loading conditions to design loads.

1.14.1.2 Evaluation Loads

Evaluation loads, Table 1.14.2, were introduced in Ontario in 1979. Prior to that evaluation
of bridges for load carrying capacity was normally based on the design loads.

1.14.2 REFERENCES
1. General Plans for Steel Highway Bridges. The Department of Public Highways, Ontario,
1917

2. General Specifications for Steel Highway Bridges. The Department of Public Highways,
Ontario, 1923

PART 1 1-158
 3. General Specification for Highway Bridges Ontario - 1935

4. Design of Bridges, CSA Standard S6. Canadian Standard Association

5. Standard Specification for Highway Bridges, AASHTO

6. Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code, Ministry of Transportation and Communications

Rev 2018

7. Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, CSA Standard S6, Canadian Standard
Association

PART 1 1-159
 Table 1.14.2 Design Live Loads and Evaluation Loads

Hwy
Class / Truck
Date Axle Loads and Spacing Distributed Loads
Truck Loads
Type
5 10 tons
1917 – 1922 Class A 15 tons 100 lb/ft2 Over full width of deck
Ontario
10’

5 10 tons
1923 – 1934 Class A 15 tons Span < 100’ – 100 lb/ft2
Ontario 100’ ≤ span ≤ 200’ – 100 to 80 lb/ft2
10’ Span > 200’ – 80 lb/ft2

Class B 10 tons 3.33 6.67 tons Span < 100’ – 80 lb/ft2

100’ ≤ span ≤ 200’ – 80 to 80 lb/ft2
10’ Span > 200’ – 50 lb/ft2
Span < 30’ – 135 lb/ft2
Class C 20 tons 6.67 13.33 tons 30’ ≤ span ≤ 100’ – 135 to 100 lb/ft2
100’ ≤ span ≤ 200’ – 100 to 80 lb/ft2
10’ Span > 200’ – 80 lb/ft2

Class A for Main and County Roads; Class B for Rural Roads

4 16 tons
1935 – 1952 H 20 20 tons Span < 100’ – 100 lb/ft2
Ontario 100’ ≤ span ≤ 200’ – 100 to 80 lb/ft2
14’ Span > 200’ – 80 lb/ft2
2018

H 15 15 tons 3 12 tons Span < 100’ – 90 lb/ft2

100’ ≤ span ≤ 200’ – 90 to 70 lb/ft2
14’ Span > 200’ – 70 lb/ft2
2 8 tons
H 10 10 tons Span < 100’ – 80 lb/ft2
100’ ≤ span ≤ 200’ – 80 to 60 lb/ft2
14’
Rev

Span > 200’ – 60 lb/ft2

4 16 16 tons
1953 – 1978 HS 20-44 36 tons 640 lb/linear foot of load lane +
CSA – S6 Concentrate load for moment: 18,000 lb
AASHTO 14’ 14’ for shear: 26,000 lb

HS 15-44 27 tons 3 12 12 tons 3/4 of HS 20-44 load

14’ 14’

PART 1 1-160
 Hwy
Class / Truck
Date Axle Loads and Spacing Distributed Loads
Truck Loads
Type
2018

Level 3
1979 - 1991 Level 3 700 kN 70% of truck load + UDL
OHBDC Level 2
Evaluation Level 2 540 kN Level 1 where UDL for
Loads level 3 level 2 level1 are:
Level 1 340 kN 60 140 140 200 160 kN
10 or 9.0 or 7.5 kN/m for class A hwy
9 or 8.1 or 6.75 kN/m for class B hwy
3.6 1.2 6.0 7.2 m
8 or 7.2 or 6.0 kN/m for class C hwy

Level 3
1992 - 1999 Level 3 740 kN 70% of truck load + UDL
OHBDC Level 2
Evaluation Level 2 580 kN Level 1 where UDL for
Loads level 3 level 2 level1 are:
Level 1 380 kN 60 160 160 200 160 kN
10 or 9.0 or 7.5 kN/m for class A hwy
9 or 8.1 or 6.75 kN/m for class B hwy
3.6 1.2 6.0 7.2 m
8 or 7.2 or 6.0 kN/m for class C hwy

Level 1
2000 - Level 1 625 kN 80% of truck load + UDL
CHBDC Level 2
Evaluation Level 2 505 kN Level 3 where UDL for all levels are:
Loads
Level 3 330 kN 50 140 140 175 120 kN 9 kN/m for class A hwy
8 kN/m for class B hwy
7 kN/m for class C hwy
3.6 1.2 6.6 6.6 m
Rev

PART 1 1-161
 Ministry of
Transportation

ONTARIO
STRUCTURAL INSPECTION MANUAL

PART 2 – DETAILED VISUAL INSPECTION

This page is intentionally left blank
PART 2 : DETAILED VISUAL INSPECTIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
2.1 OVERVIEW OF VISUAL INSPECTIONS ............................................ 2-1
2.1.1 QUALIFICATIONS OF INSPECTORS ..................................................... 2-1
2.1.2 RESPONSIBILITIES OF INSPECTORS .................................................. 2-1
2.1.3 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS...................................................................... 2-1
2.1.4 INSPECTION EQUIPMENT ..................................................................... 2-2
2.1.4.1 STANDARD EQUIPMENT CARRIED BY INSPECTORS ............... 2-2
2.1.4.2 SPECIAL ACCESS EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS ..................... 2-2
2.1.5 SYSTEMATIC INSPECTION PROCEDURES ......................................... 2-3
2.1.5.1 PREPARATION PRIOR TO FIELD INSPECTION .......................... 2-3
2.1.5.2 SITE INSPECTION ......................................................................... 2-3
2.1.5.3 POST INSPECTION PROCEDURES ............................................. 2-5
2.2 ELEMENT LIST .................................................................................. 2-6
2.3 ELEMENT QUANTITY CALCULATIONS ......................................... 2-13
2.3.1 CALCULATIONS FOR ELEMENT DIMENSIONS AND QUANTITIES ... 2-14
2.3.1.1 Element Group: Abutments ........................................................... 2-14
2.3.1.2 Element Group: Accessories (Attachments and Signs) ................ 2-15
2.3.1.3 Element Group: Approaches ......................................................... 2-15
2.3.1.4 Element Group: Barriers ............................................................... 2-16
2.3.1.5 Element Group: Beams / Main Longitudinal Elements (MLE’s)..... 2-17
2.3.1.6 Element Group: Bracings .............................................................. 2-21
2.3.1.7 Element Group: Coatings .............................................................. 2-22
2.3.1.8 Element Group: Culverts ............................................................... 2-22
2.3.1.9 Element Group: Decks .................................................................. 2-23
2.3.1.10 Element Group: Embankments and Streams ................................ 2-26
2.3.1.11 Element Group: Foundations ........................................................ 2-26
2.3.1.12 Element Group: Joints................................................................... 2-26
2.3.1.13 Element Group: Piers .................................................................... 2-27
2.3.1.14 Element Group: Retaining Walls ................................................... 2-28
2.3.1.15 Element Group: Sidewalks / Curbs ............................................... 2-28
2.3.1.16 Element Group: Trusses / Arches ................................................. 2-29
2.4 MATERIAL CONDITION STATES.................................................... 2-36
2.4.1 ASPHALT WEARING SURFACES ........................................................ 2-40
2.4.2 BEARINGS ............................................................................................. 2-40

PART 2 2-i
 2.4.3 COATING* – STEEL RAILINGS............................................................. 2-41
2.4.4 COATING* – STRUCTURAL STEEL SUBSTRUCTURES AND
SUPERSTRUCTURES........................................................................... 2-41
2.4.5 CONCRETE – SUBSTRUCTURES AND SUPERSTRUCTURES ......... 2-43
2.4.6 CONCRETE – TOP OF DECK BENEATH ASPHALT WEARING SURFACE
............................................................................................................... 2-44
2.4.7 DRAINAGE SYSTEM ............................................................................. 2-45
2.4.8 EMBANKMENTS .................................................................................... 2-45
2.4.9 EXPANSION JOINT – ARMOURING AND RETAINING DEVICES ....... 2-45
2.4.10 EXPANSION JOINT- SEALS / SEALANTS ............................................ 2-46
2.4.11 MASONARY CONSTRUCTION ............................................................. 2-46
2.4.12 ACCESSORIES (ATTACHMENTS AND SIGNS) ................................... 2-46
2.4.13 SLOPE PROTECTION ........................................................................... 2-46
2.4.14 SOIL-STEEL STRUCTURES ................................................................. 2-47
2.4.15 STEEL – ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION RESISTANT SUBSTRUCTURES
AND SUPERSTRUCTURES .................................................................. 2-47
2.4.16 STEEL OR ALUMINUM – SUBSTRUCTURES AND SUPERSTRUCTURES
............................................................................................................... 2-48
2.4.17 STEEL OR ALUMINUM - RAILINGS ...................................................... 2-48
2.4.18 STREAMS AND WATERWAYS ............................................................. 2-49
2.4.19 WOOD – SUBSTRUCTURES AND SUPERSTRUCTURES .................. 2-49
2.5 SUSPECTED PERFORMANCE DEFICIENCIES.............................. 2-50
2.5.1 SUSPECTED PERFORMANCE DEFICIENCY TYPES ......................... 2-51
2.5.1.1 Load Carrying Capacity (#1) ......................................................... 2-51
2.5.1.2 Excessive Deformations (#2) ........................................................ 2-52
2.5.1.3 Continuing Settlement (#3) ........................................................... 2-53
2.5.1.4 Continuing Movements (#4) .......................................................... 2-53
2.5.1.5 Seized Bearings (#5)..................................................................... 2-54
2.5.1.6 Bearing not uniformly loaded/unstable (#6)................................... 2-54
2.5.1.7 Jammed expansion Joint (#7) ....................................................... 2-54
2.5.1.8 Pedestrian / vehicular hazard (#8) ................................................ 2-54
2.5.1.9 Rough Riding Surface (#9)............................................................ 2-55
2.5.1.10 Surface Ponding (#10) .................................................................. 2-55
2.5.1.11 Deck/Wall Drainage (#11) ............................................................ 2-55
2.5.1.12 Slippery Surfaces (#12)................................................................. 2-56
2.5.1.13 Flooding/Channel Blockage (#13) ................................................. 2-56
2.5.1.14 Undermining of Foundation (#14) ................................................. 2-57
2.5.1.15 Unstable Embankments (#15)....................................................... 2-57
2.5.2 REFERENCES ....................................................................................... 2-57
2.6 MAINTENANCE NEEDS .................................................................. 2-58

PART 2 2-ii
2.7 INSPECTION FORMS ...................................................................... 2-61
2.7.1 INVENTORY DATA AND HISTORICAL DATA (P. 1) ............................. 2-61
2.7.2 SCHEDULED IMPROVEMNETS AND APPRAISAL INDICES (P. 2) ..... 2-61
2.7.3 FIELD INSPECTION INFORMATION AND ADDITIONAL
INVESTIGATIONS (P. 3)........................................................................ 2-61
2.7.3.1 FIELD INSPECTION INFORMATION ........................................... 2-61
2.7.3.2 ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS REQUIRED.............................. 2-62
2.7.3.3 OVERALL STRUCTURE NOTES ................................................. 2-62
2.7.4 ELEMENT DATA (P. 4) .......................................................................... 2-63
2.8 EXAMPLES ...................................................................................... 2-72
2.8.1 ABUTMENTS ......................................................................................... 2-72
2.8.2 APPROACHES ...................................................................................... 2-81
2.8.3 BARRIERS ............................................................................................. 2-84
2.8.4 BEAMS / MAIN LOGITUDINAL ELEMENTS .......................................... 2-88
2.8.5 BRACING ............................................................................................... 2-90
2.8.6 COATINGS............................................................................................. 2-92
2.8.7 CULVERTS ............................................................................................ 2-95
2.8.8 DECKS ................................................................................................... 2-99
2.8.9 EMBANKMENTS & STREAMS ............................................................ 2-106
2.8.10 FOUNDATIONS ................................................................................... 2-113
2.8.11 JOINTS................................................................................................. 2-115
2.8.12 PIERS................................................................................................... 2-119
2.8.13 RETAINING WALLS ............................................................................. 2-122
2.8.14 TRUSSES / ARCHES........................................................................... 2-123
2.9 APPENDIX A – COMBINED SUMMARY OF MATERIAL DEFECTS
AND CONDITION STATES ............................................................ 2-126
2.9.1 SUMMARY - CONCRETE .................................................................... 2-126
2.9.2 SUMMARY - STEEL / ALUMINUM ...................................................... 2-128
2.9.3 SUMMARY - WOOD ............................................................................ 2-129
2.9.4 SUMMARY - MASONRY ...................................................................... 2-130
2.9.5 SUMMARY - ASPHALT WEARING SURFACE ................................... 2-131
2.9.6 SUMMARY - ASPHALT COVERED CONCRETE DECK ..................... 2-132
2.9.7 SUMMARY - COATING........................................................................ 2-133
2.9.8 DEFECT SUMMARY SHEET ............................................................... 2-135
2.9.8.1 DEFECT SUMMARY FOR CONCRETE ..................................... 2-135
2.9.8.2 DEFECT SUMMARY FOR ASPHALT......................................... 2-135

PART 2 2-iii
 2.1 OVERVIEW OF VISUAL INSPECTIONS

2.1.1 QUALIFICATIONS OF INSPECTORS

Detailed visual inspections of structures should be carried out by:
• Professional Engineers with a background in inspection, design and construction of
bridges, or
• Trained bridge inspectors reporting to, or under the supervision of, a Professional
Engineer

2.1.2 RESPONSIBILITIES OF INSPECTORS

The main responsibilities of inspectors are:
Responsibilities Section
Reference
Inspect all elements that comprise the structure 2.2, 2.3
Record all areas of material defects for each element, and categorise them 2.4
under a defined Condition State
Identify suspected performance deficiencies 2.5
Note areas of the structure where maintenance is required 2.6
Make recommendations for repairs and rehabilitation of the structure 2.7
Indicate the suggested time frame or urgency of the proposed work 2.6,2.7
Identify additional detailed investigations that are required 2.7
Ensure that appropriate actions are taken or initiated to address safety 1.1.2.2,
Rev2008

concerns 2.1.5.3

2.1.3 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

Inspectors shall take proper safety precautions and comply with the appropriate safety and
traffic control legislation, regulations, manuals and guidelines such as the Occupational
Health and Safety Act, The Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices, Safety Practices for
Structure Inspections, etc. The specific requirements of these safety and traffic control
guidelines and procedures are not covered in this manual.

PART 2 2-1
 2.1.4 INSPECTION EQUIPMENT
2.1.4.1 STANDARD EQUIPMENT CARRIED BY INSPECTORS
All inspection personnel should be equipped with and be thoroughly familiar with the use of
the following equipment:

• Binoculars • Flotation vest

• •
2018

Camera Safety cones and flashing light

Rev

• Chalk, markers and paint markers • Scraper

• Inspection forms and clip boards • Screwdriver (large)
• Flashlight (focussing type) • Sounding line (lead line)
• Chain (2 m) • Straight edge (1 m)
• Light chipping hammer • Air thermometers
• Measuring tape (3 m) • Wire brush
• Measuring tape (30 m) • Re-chargeable drill with bits
• "Workers ahead” signs • Grinder
• Mirror on a swivel head with an • Wood borer and treated plugs
extension arm • Eye level and hand level
• Plumb bob • String-line
• Pocket knife or multi-tool • Other equipment as required
• Range poles
• Safety belts and lanyard
• Boots, hat, gloves, vest

2.1.4.2 SPECIAL ACCESS EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS

Certain locations on a structure may not be accessible for inspection without special
2008

equipment. This special access equipment may only be required on some structures
periodically during Enhanced OSIM inspections and not during all biennial inspections (see
Part 1, Section 1.1.3.2). Inspectors should prearrange with the appropriate parties, for the
use of the special equipment such as:
• Extension or folding ladder (3.5 m)
• Boat or barge
• Scaffolds - mobile, cable supported or stationary
• Scissors Lift
• Truck mounted inspection bucket on a hydraulically operated boom off a truck
• "Cherry Picker"
•
2018

"BridgeMaster"
•
Rev

Lane closures

PART 2 2-2
 2.1.5 SYSTEMATIC INSPECTION PROCEDURES
2.1.5.1 PREPARATION PRIOR TO FIELD INSPECTION
The inspector shall:

• Obtain and review existing records of the structure prior to field work, including
design and "as-built" drawings, previous inspection reports, correspondence and
details of repairs, rehabilitations or modifications carried out after original
construction. It is often useful for the inspector to take to the field a one or two page
summary of general inventory data and information on previous rehabilitation work.
See Part 2, Section 2.7 for a sample of this type of inventory data.
• Prepare inspection forms, (See Part 2, Section 2.7) for each structure to be
inspected. An individual inspection report can be built up, for any structure, by
selecting the elements required to completely describe the structure under
consideration (See Part 2, Section 2.2).
• Record dimensions and calculate the quantities for the bridge elements under
consideration as described in Part 2, Section 2.3. This information should be
summarized on Page 4 in the “Element Data” section of the inspection form (See
Part 2, Section 2.7). In certain cases, elements shall be divided into sub-elements
as indicated in Part 2, Section 2.2.
• Decide the time schedule for the inspection and any required special equipment,
including traffic protection devices.
• Make arrangements for special equipment and traffic control devices, if required.
• Obtain permission from the railway company if the bridge is over railway tracks, and
mobile platforms or other special equipment is going to be used in the track area.

2.1.5.2 SITE INSPECTION

The inspector shall:
• Complete a brief overview inspection of the site to:
2003

o Assess the overall integrity of the structure and identify areas where more
detailed examination may be required
o Observe the bridge under truck loading and identify any abnormal flexibility,
deflections or noises (rattling or vibration of members, etc)
o Look for abnormal deflections, settlements or rotations by looking along the
Rev

rail or barrier wall or other members

o Identify obstacles that may either interfere with the inspection or indicate a
need for additional special equipment.

PART 2 2-3
 • Discuss inspection procedures with the foreman of the traffic crew so that
adjustments, lane closures and traffic detours, etc. are timed to suit inspection
needs.
• Check that all signs, temporary barriers, protective screens, etc. are in place.
• Once the site has been secured, the inspection of each element (as selected in Part
2, Section 2.1.5.1) shall proceed in a systematic fashion (top to bottom of structure
or bottom to top) by completing the various parts of the inspection form. (See Part 2,
Section 2.7). Material defects, performance deficiencies, maintenance needs,
recommended work and time frame for work shall be noted for each element.
• The inspector has the choice of inspecting all the spans of a structure together or
“span by span”. If the condition of each span varies considerably from one span to
the next, then the inspector should inspect each span separately. Element data
would then be recorded separately for each span. Note that if the “span by span”
option is chosen, element dimensions and quantities should be recorded for the
span under consideration only.
• In general, if several elements of the same type exist for one structure (e.g. Piers,
abutments), one “Element Data” table can be used unless the condition of each of
the elements varies considerably. If element condition does vary, separate “Element
Data” tables should be used and the “Location” part of the inspection form should be
filled in to distinguish one element from the next (e.g. North Abutment and South
Abutment).
• Sub-elements, as defined in Part 2, Section 2.2, should be used in dividing up the
structure, calculating quantities and during the inspection.
• If elements are changed or added in the field, element quantities must be adjusted
accordingly.
• Record observations and make sketches where appropriate.
• Take photographs to adequately describe the structure and the defects found. In
general, the following photographs should be taken:
• One photograph which clearly shows the deck cross-section and features such as
number of traffic lanes, curbs and sidewalks, medians and railing system. Note: This
photograph is normally taken from the approach roadway looking along the length of
the bridge.
• One photograph of the elevation of the structure which clearly shows the number of
spans and superstructure type.
• One photograph of the underside (soffit) which shows the type and number of main
superstructure element(s).
• Individual photographs should be taken of all areas in a poor condition state (areas
with severe defects and deterioration). These photographs should be taken at
sufficiently close range such that the type, location and extent of the defects are
clearly visible and apparent. Note: Where there are no areas of severe deterioration

PART 2 2-4
 in an element, then a photograph should be taken showing a typical area which
represents the worst condition state in that element.
• Check if the structure and its elements are built in accordance with existing available
information and record any significant discrepancies, so that existing records can be
revised accordingly. If changes have taken place as the result of rehabilitation work,
element dimensions and quantities should be updated.
• Identify additional detailed investigations that are required.

2.1.5.3 POST INSPECTION PROCEDURES

The inspector shall:
• Ensure that the appropriate action is taken (notify bridge owner immediately) for any
2008

critical structural defects or deficiencies (i.e. fatigue cracks in steel, imminent deck
Rev

punch through, etc.) and all other unsafe conditions that are discovered in the field,
• Make sure all inspection equipment and temporary traffic control devices are
removed from the site and the site is left in workmanlike order,
• Ensure the appropriate follow-up action is taken for any Suspected Performance
Deficiencies noted during the inspection,
• Submit Maintenance Needs list to maintenance crew for action,
• Ensure additional investigations are initiated in the timeframe recommended,
• Write all necessary follow-up correspondence and reports.

PART 2 2-5
2.2 ELEMENT LIST
The first step in performing a detailed visual inspection is to divide the structure into
individual elements. Bridge components, as described in Part 1 of this manual, have been
grouped into elements where convenient. Although primary, secondary and auxiliary
components are described in Part 1, for inspection purposes, no distinction is made between
these types of components. Table 2.2.1 lists the standard elements available for each
element group. Table 2.2.1 also gives the standard unit of measurement for quantities for
each element and the appropriate Condition State Table for categorising material defects.
Table 2.2.2 lists the elements that are typically required for the most common types of
structures. It should be noted that this list is for guidance only. The actual element list
should be customised to suit the structure being inspected. For an explanation of what
components of the structure are included under each element category, refer to Table 2.3.1
in Part 2, Section 2.3. The following general guidelines should be followed when selecting
elements:

• Similar element types, within the same Element Group, should be grouped together,
and a separate “Element Data” table should be filled out for each element type (e.g.
similar bearing types, diaphragm types, etc).
• If element condition varies for similar element types, separate “Element Data” tables”
should be used and the “Location” part of the inspection form should be filled in to
distinguish one element from the next (e.g. North Abutment and South Abutment).
• Elements should be divided into “sub-elements”, as shown in Table 2.2.2. The
definitions for sub-elements are given in Table 2.3.1. A separate “Element Data” table
should be filled out for each sub-element. The following sub-elements should be
used:
- For structures with expansion joints, an “End” element must be used for the
superstructure element(s) (deck, girder, etc). Each “End” shall be rated separately
from the “Middle” portion of that element. An “end” element is defined as having a
length of 1 to 3 metres. The length should be selected based on the extent of
deterioration in the element end. An assumption of 2 metres can be made initially
and adjusted in the field afterwards. If the length of the end element is changed,
the quantity calculations, as described in Part 2, Section 2.3, should also be
adjusted accordingly.
- For deck soffits, “Exterior” cantilevers shall be rated separately from the “Interior”
of the soffit.
- For diaphragms, floor beams and stringers, “End” and “Intermediate” sub-elements
shall be used.
- For barrier/parapet walls, the “Interior” face shall be rated separately from the
“Exterior” face.
• At this stage, a decision should also be made regarding the overall process for
inspecting the bridge. Part 2, Section 2.1.5.2 describes the criteria for selecting
whether the bridge should be inspected as a whole or span by span.

PART 2 2-6
 • The element list in Table 2.2.1 includes the most common bridge components. If a
particular component is not found in the element list, the most appropriate (closest
match) element should be selected from the list. The “Location” part of the inspection
form can also be used when trying to identify non-standard elements.

Table 2.2.1: Element List and Condition State Cross Reference Table

Element Unit for Applicable Condition State

Element Name6,7,8
Group Quantity1,2,3, 4 Section Number 5
Abutments Abutment walls Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.11, 2.4.19
Ballast walls Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.11, 2.4.19
Bearings Each 2.4.2
Wingwalls Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.11, 2.4.19
Accessories Bridge Mounted Sign Supports9 Each 2.4.12
2008

(Attachments Electrical9 Each 2.4.12

and Signs) Noise Barriers m10 2.4.12
Other Each 2.4.12
Signs Each 2.4.12
Rev

Utilities Each 2.4.12

Approaches Approach slabs Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.6
Barriers9 m10 2.4.17, 2.4.19
2008

Curb and Gutters m. 2.4.5

Drainage System Each 2.4.7
Rev

Sidewalk/Curbs Sq.m. 2.4.5

Wearing surface Sq.m. 2.4.1, 2.4.5, 2.4.6
Barriers Barrier/Parapet Walls Sq.m. 2.4.5
Hand Railings m10 2.4.17
2008
Rev

Posts Each 2.4.5, 2.4.16, 2.4.19

Railing Systems m10 2.4.17, 2.4.19
Beams/Main Diaphragms Each (Sq.m if 2.4.5, 2.4.15, 2.4.16, 2.4.19
Longitudinal Concrete)
Elements Floor beams Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.16, 2.4.19
Girders Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.15, 2.4.16, 2.4.19
Inside boxes (sides & bottom) Sq.m. 2.4.5 , 2.4.15
Stringers Each 2.4.5 , 2.4.16, 2. 4.19
Bracing Bracing Each 2.4.15, 2.4.16, 2.4.19
Coatings Railing Systems / Hand Sq.m. 2.4.3
Railings
Structural Steel Sq.m. 2.4.4
Culverts Barrels Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.14
Inlet Components Sq.m. 2.4.5
Outlet Components Sq.m. 2.4.5
Decks Deck Top Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.6, 2.4.19
2008

Drainage System Each 2.4.7

Rev

Soffit – Inside Boxes Sq.m. 2.4.5

Soffit – Thick slab Sq.m. 2.4.5
Soffit – Thin Slab Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.19
Wearing Surface Sq.m. 2.4.1

PART 2 2-7
 Element Unit for Applicable Condition State
Element Name6,7,8
Group Quantity1,2,3, 4 Section Number 5
Rev 2008

Embankments & Embankments Each 2.4.8

Streams Slope protection Each 2.4.13
Streams and Waterways All 2.4.18
Foundations Foundation (below ground N/A Rate performance only.
level)
Joints Armouring/retaining devices m. 2.4.9
Concrete end dams Sq.m 2.4.5
Seals/sealants Each 2.4.10
Piers Bearings Each 2.4.2
Caps Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.11, 2.4.16, 2.4.19
Shafts/columns/Pile Bents Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.11, 2.4.16, 2.4.19
Retaining walls Barrier Systems on walls Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.17, 2.4.19
Rev 2008

Railing Systems m10 2.4.17, 2.4.19

Drainage Systems All 2.4.7
Walls Sq.m. 2.4.5
Sidewalks/ Curbs Sq.m. 2.4.5
curbs Sidewalks and medians Sq.m. 2.4.5
Trusses/ Bottom chords Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.16, 2.4.19
Arches Connections Each 2.4.16, 2.4.19
Top chords Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.16, 2.4.19
Verticals/diagonals Sq.m. 2.4.5, 2.4.16, 2.4.19
Notes: 1– For “All”, place the entire component (100%) in one condition state.
2– For “Each”, give the number of occurrences of the component in each state.
3– For cracks in concrete, estimate repair area (4m of crack = 1 sq. m of repair).
4– For cracks in steel, estimate required repair area.
Rev 2018

5– The condition states given in Part 2, Section 2.4 are typical for element. Use appropriate
section for applicable material.
6– Sub-elements (End/Middle) to be used for the following elements at expansion joint locations:
Deck Top, Girders, Inside Boxes
Sub-elements (End/Intermediate) to be used for the following elements at expansion joint
locations:: Floor Beams, Stringers, Bracing and Diaphragms
Sub-elements (End/Interior/Exterior) to be used for Soffits
Sub-elements (Interior/Exterior) to be used for Barrier/Parapet Walls
7– For an explanation of which bridge components are included in each element, see Table 2.3.1.
8– Similar element types should be grouped together (e.g. I-girders, x-frames, etc.)
Rev 2008

9- Optional element. Not required for MTO use.

10 - For these elements that are inspected by linear metre, a defect in the post shall be assumed to
affect the tributary area for that post.

PART 2 2-8
 Table 2.2.2: Element List for Each Bridge Type*

Element Name Sub- Slab on Slab on Slab on Slab on Post- Post- Solid Slab Truss Culvert Rigid
element I-girder I-girder Box-girder Box-girder tensioned tensioned Frame
(Steel) (Concrete) (steel) (concrete) deck deck
(rect. voids) (circ. voids)
Element Group: ABUTMENT
Abutment walls X X X X X X X X X
Ballast walls X X X X X X X X
Bearings X X X X X X X X
Wingwalls X X X X X X X X X X
Element Group: ACCESSORIES (ATTACHMENTS AND SIGNS)
Bridge Mounted ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
2008

Sign Supports
Electrical ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Noise Barriers ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Other ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Signs ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Rev

Utilities ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Element Group: APPROACHES
Approach slabs X X X X X X X X X
2008

Barriers ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Curb and gutters ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Drainage System X X X X X X X X ? X
Sidewalk/Curb ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Rev

Wearing surface X X X X X X X X ? X
Element Group: BARRIERS
Barrier/Parapet Interior/ X or X or X or X or X or X or X or X or X or X or
Walls Exterior
(for faces
of barrier)
Hand Railings ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Posts ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Railing Systems X X X X X X X X X X

PART 2 2-9
 Element Name Sub- Slab on Slab on Slab on Slab on Post- Post- Solid Slab Truss Culvert Rigid
element I-girder I-girder Box-girder Box-girder tensioned tensioned Frame
(Steel) (Concrete) (steel) (concrete) deck deck
(rect. voids) (circ. voids)
Element Group: BEAMS / MAIN LONGITUDINAL ELEMENT (MLE’S)
Diaphragms
End X X X X
Intermediate X ? X ?
Floor beams End X
Intermediate X
Girders X or X or X or X or

End / X (only with X (only with X (only with X (only with

Middle exp. Joints) exp. Joints) exp. Joints) exp. Joints)
Inside boxes X or X or X or
End/Middle X (only with X (only with X (only with
exp. Joints) exp. Joints) exp. Joints)
Stringers End X
Intermediate X
Bracing End X
Intermediate X
Element Group: COATINGS
Barrier Systems / ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Hand Railings
Structural Steel X (Not X (Not X (Not X (Not
applicable applicable applicable applicable
for ACR for ACR for ACR for ACR
steel) or steel) or steel) or steel) or
End/Middle X (only with X (only with X (only X (only
exp. Joints) exp. Joints) with exp. with exp.
Joints) Joints)
Element Group: CULVERTS
Barrels X
Inlet Components X
Outlet Components X

PART 2 2-10
 Element Name Sub- Slab on Slab on Slab on Slab on Post- Post- Solid Slab Truss Culvert Rigid
element I-girder I-girder Box-girder Box-girder tensioned tensioned Frame
(Steel) (Concrete) (steel) (concrete) deck deck
(rect. voids) (circ. voids)
Element Group: DECKS
Deck Top X X X X X X X X X
2008

Drainage System ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Rev

Soffit – Inside X or X or X or
Boxes End / X (only with X (only with X (only with
Middle exp. Joints) exp. Joints) exp. Joints)
Soffit – Thick slab X
(Post-tensioned End X (only with X (only X (only
decks and Rigid exp. Joints) with exp. with exp.
Frames) Joints) Joints)
Exterior X X X X
Interior X X X X
Soffit – Thin Slab End X (only with X (only with X (only with X (only with X (only
(Slab on I or Box exp. Joints) exp. Joints) exp. Joints) exp. Joints) with exp.
Girders) Joints)
Exterior X X X X ?
Interior X X X X X
2018

Wearing Surface X X X X X X X X ? (should X

call it
approach)
Rev

Element Group: EMBANKMENTS AND STREAMS

Embankments X X X X X X X X X X
Slope protection X X X X X X X X X X
Streams and ? (only for ? (only for ? (only for ? (only for ? (only for ? (only for ? (only for ? (only for X ? (only for
Waterways water water water water water water water water water
crossing) crossing) crossing) crossing) crossing) crossing) crossing) crossing) crossing)
Element Group: FOUNDATIONS
Foundation (below X X X X X X X X X X
ground level)
Element Group: JOINTS
Armouring / ? ? ? ? ? ? ? X
retaining devices
Concrete end ? ? ? ? ? ? ? X
dams
Seals / sealants ? ? ? ? ? ? ? X

PART 2 2-11
 Element Name Sub- Slab on Slab on Slab on Slab on Post- Post- Solid Slab Truss Culvert Rigid
element I-girder I-girder Box-girder Box-girder tensioned tensioned Frame
(Steel) (Concrete) (steel) (concrete) deck deck
(rect. voids) (circ. voids)
Element Group: PIERS (only for multi-span structures)
Bearings X X X X ? ? ? X
Caps ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Shafts/Columns/Pil X X X X X X X X X X
e Bents
Element Group: RETAINING WALLS
Barrier Systems on Interior / ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Walls Exterior
(for faces
of barrier)
Walls ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Element Group: SIDEWALKS / CURBS
Curbs ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Sidewalks and ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
medians
Element Group: TRUSSES / ARCHES
Bottom Chords X
Connections X
Top chords X
Verticals / X
Diagonals

Notes:
* = It should be noted that this list is for guidance only. The actual element list should be customised to suit the structure being inspected.
X = Element Required
X or = Element or subsequent element must be chosen (only 1 of the choices needs to be selected) e.g. Barrier /parapet wall or Railing System
? = May be applicable if component exists (e.g. Exp. Joint)

PART 2 2-12
2.3 ELEMENT QUANTITY CALCULATIONS
As described earlier, this version of the Ontario Structure Inspection Manual is based on
the “severity and extent” philosophy. In order to estimate rehabilitation needs, quantities
of material defects in each Condition State must be recorded for each element. To
determine the most suitable rehabilitation option, the recorded defect quantity must be
compared to the overall quantity for that element. The Structure Rehabilitation Manual
describes how to select the appropriate rehabilitation option based on the extent of
material defects.

Table 2.3.1 describes how to calculate dimensions (length, width, height) and quantities
for the various types of elements. In general, dimensions can be obtained from structural
drawings, however, these values should be verified in the field (e.g. curb height may have
been reduced after a resurfacing operation). It should be noted that the quantity
calculation is approximate in some cases (e.g. surface area of a girder), but is accurate
enough to be used in estimating rehabilitation needs. In general, quantities are calculated
for one element (e.g. girder) and then the Total Quantity is calculated by multiplying the
quantity by the number of that type of element (Count).

In an effort to simplify the inspection process, the parts of the structure that are likely to be
in similar condition are grouped together. This is accomplished by using “sub-elements”,
as described in Part 2, Section 2.2. When sub-elements are used, element quantities shall
be calculated for each sub-element, as described in Part 2, Table 2.3.1 and Figures 2.3.1
– 2.3.4.

For elements that are partially buried, quantities should be calculated for the part of the
element that is visible above the ground (e.g. pile bents). For all other elements, the
quantity shall be based on the total area of the element as shown on the plans. (e.g.
ballast wall). When inspecting an element that is partially hidden (e.g. ballast wall), the
quantity of material defects should be estimated based on the portion that is visible. For
example, a ballast wall at an expansion joint location may show signs of severe defects if
the expansion joint has been leaking. If the visible part of the wall is in “Poor” Condition,
the inspector can probably assume that the remainder of the wall is in similar condition.

PART 2 2-13
 2.3.1 CALCULATIONS FOR ELEMENT DIMENSIONS AND QUANTITIES
2.3.1.1 Element Group: Abutments
Element Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
Name element
Abutment N/A average width of Average top of # of abutments width x height x a
walls abutment from bearing seat (2 max.) count
wing wall to wing elevation – average
wall top of ground
elevation + bearing
seat width + visible
part of footing
Ballast walls N/A average width For Decks without # of ballast walls width x height x b
wing wall to wing exp. Joints count
wall Average underside
of deck soffit
elevation – average
bearing seat
elevation
For Decks with exp.
joints
Top of deck
elevation – average
bearing seat
elevation
Bearings N/A N/A N/A Total # of count
bearings at (Units are Each)
abutments
Wingwalls average length of N/A Average visible # of wingwalls length x height x
2018
Rev

wing walls (from height count

centreline
bearing to end of
approach)
2018

COMMENTS: a) Includes bearing seat width and top of footing (if visible). For abutments with timber piles use 2 locations:
Rev

“Pile” = pile area (πDL): “Cap” = pile cap beam area

b) Quantity includes entire ballast wall even if some areas are not visible due to diaphragms.

PART 2 2-14
 2.3.1.2 Element Group: Accessories (Attachments and Signs)
Element Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
Name element
Bridge N/A N/A N/A # of Accessories Count (Each)
2008

Mounted Sign
Supports
Electrical N/A N/A N/A # of Accessories Count (Each)
Noise Barriers Average length N/A Height # walls (typ. 2) Count x Length (m)
(including
approach)
Rev

Other N/A N/A N/A # of Accessories Count (Each)

Signs N/A N/A N/A # of Accessories Count (Each)
Utilities N/A N/A N/A # of Accessories Count (Each)

2.3.1.3 Element Group: Approaches

Element Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
Name element
Approach Approach slab curb to curb width Thickness # of approaches count x width x
slabs length length
Barrier Length of Barrier # of approaches count x length a
2018
2008

(units are m)
Curb and avg. length of N/A Min. height of curb # of curbs (2 per count x length
gutters approach slab abutment (units are m)
maximum)
Drainage N/A N/A N/A N/A Count (typ.) b
Rev

System Units are Each

Sidewalk/Curb avg. Length of avg. width of Min. height of # of sidewalks count x length x
approach slab sidewalk sidewalk curb (width + height)
Wearing Approach slab curb to curb width Thickness # of approaches count x width x
surface length length
2018
Rev

COMMENTS: a) Optional element. Not required for MTO use

b) General drainage at each corner of the bridge.

PART 2 2-15
 2.3.1.4 Element Group: Barriers
Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
2008

Barrier/Parapet Interior / total length Thickness at top Barrier height # of sides length x height* x a
Walls Exterior including (typically 2) count
(for faces of approaches (to
2018

barrier) end of approach * include barrier top

slabs) for one with interior.
Rev

side
Hand Railings total length of N/A N/A # of sides count x length b
railing on top of (units are m)
barrier (includes
approaches) on
one side
2008

Posts Length dimension width of post in Height of posts # of posts Count c

of a post along transverse (units are Each)
length of bridge direction
Rev

Railing length of 1 steel N/A Height of barrier # of panels length x count d

Systems panel (units are m)
Rev 2018

COMMENTS: a) Sub-elements must be used and interior and exterior of barrier/parapet must be rated separately.
This element is also used for concrete end posts on open railings – interior/exterior not required.
b) This element is to be used for railings on top of barrier/parapet walls.
c) This element is to be used for the post component of open type railing systems. (Posts of Wood, Steel, Concrete, etc).
d) This element is to be used for open type of railing systems (steel railing, flex beam, etc)

PART 2 2-16
 2.3.1.5 Element Group: Beams / Main Longitudinal Elements (MLE’s)
Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Diaphragms girder spacing or average width of Depth of section # of individual Count a
Rev 2008

for cross or “K” flanges diaphragm (Units are Each)

bracing: total segments or
length of all For concrete use
bracing members length x count x
measured along (height x 2 + width)
the length of the
member
End2 girder spacing or average width of Depth of section # of individual Count b
Rev 2008

for cross or “K” flanges diaphragm (Units are Each)

bracing: total segments or
length of all For concrete use
bracing members length x count x
measured along (height x 2 + width)
the length of the
member
Intermediate girder spacing or average width of Depth of section # of individual Count c
for cross or “K” flanges members (Units are Each)
bracing: total (braces) or
length of all For concrete use
bracing members length x count x
measured along (height x 2 + width)
the length of the
member

COMMENTS: a) All Diaphragms on bridges with no expansion joints. To be used if all diaphragms are of the similar type and the deck does not have
expansion joints. End sub-elements are not required. (See Figure 2.3.1b)
b) Diaphragms at support locations with expansion joints (piers, abutments). Similar diaphragm types should be grouped together. End
sub-elements are required. (See Figure 2.3.1b)
c) All diaphragms in the span(s).

PART 2 2-17
 Element Group: Beams / Main Longitudinal Elements (MLE’s) - cont

Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Floor beams curb to curb width average width of Girder depth # of beams length x count x a
flanges (flange to flange) (height x 2 + width x
(simple avg.) 3)

End curb to curb width average width of Girder depth # of beams length x count x b
flanges (flange to flange) (height x 2 + width x
(simple avg.) 3)
Intermediate curb to curb width average width of Girder depth # of beams length x count x c
flanges (flange to flange) (height x 2 + width x
(simple avg.) 3)

COMMENTS: a) All floor beams.

To be used if all floor beams are of the same type and the deck does not have expansion joints. (See Figure 2.3.1c)
b) End floor beams at expansion joint locations. (See Figure 2.3.1c)
c) Intermediate floor beams (See Figure 2.3.1c)

PART 2 2-18
 Element Group: Beams / Main Longitudinal Elements (MLE’s) - cont

Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Girders total length For I girders: Girder depth (flange # of lines of For I girders: a
(spans + average width of to flange) girders or boxes length x count x
overhangs3) flanges (height x 2 + width x
(simple avg.) 3)
For Boxes: For Boxes:
bottom flange length x count x
width (height x2+width)
End 2m (inspector For I girders: Girder depth (flange # of lines of For I girders: b
2018

option of a length average width of to flange) girders or boxes length x count x

from 1 to 3 m) flanges (height x 2 + width x
per Beam end x (simple avg.) 3)
number of ends For Boxes: For Boxes:
along line of bottom flange length x count x
Rev

girders. width (height x 2 + width)

Middle Sum of span For I girders: Girder depth (flange # of lines of For I girders: c
lengths + sum of average width of to flange) girders or boxes length x count x
overhangs – sum flanges (simple (height x 2 + width x
of “Ends” avg.) 3)
For Boxes: For Boxes:
bottom flange length x count x
width (height x 2 + width)

COMMENTS: a) Entire length of girders.

To be used if the deck does not have expansion joints. (See Figure 2.3.1a)
b) For decks with expansion joints. (See Figure 2.3.1a)
c) To be used in areas away from expansion joints in conjunction with the “end” element. (See Figure 2.3.1a)

PART 2 2-19
 Element Group: Beams / Main Longitudinal Elements (MLE’s) - cont
Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Inside boxes total length bottom flange Girder depth (flange # of lines of length x count x a
(spans + width to flange) boxes (height x 2 + width)
overhangs)
End 2 m (inspector bottom flange Girder depth (flange # of lines of length x count x b
2018

option of a length width to flange) boxes (height x 2 + width)

from 1 to 3 m) per
Beam end x
number of ends
along line of
Rev

girders.
Middle Sum of span bottom flange Girder depth (flange # of lines of length x count x c
lengths + sum of width to flange) boxes (height x 2 + width)
overhangs – sum
of “Ends”
COMMENTS: a) Entire length to be used if deck does not have expansion joints.
b) For decks with expansion joints.
c) To be used in areas away from expansion joints in conjunction with the “end” element. (See Figure 2.3.1a)

Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Stringers floor beam average width of Depth # of stringers count a
spacing flanges (Units are Each)
2008

(For Length of stringer Spacing of Stringer depth # stringer set count b

Modular sets stringer sets wide x # stringer (Units are Each)
Bridges) sets long
Rev

End floor beam average width of Depth # of stringers count c

spacing flanges (Units are Each)
Intermediate floor beam average width of Depth # of stringers Count d
spacing flanges (Units are Each)
COMMENTS: a) All stringers. To be used if the deck does not have expansion joints.
b) Stringer sets often span over a transom. Ramp at bridge ends is an approach slab and not a stringer..
c) Stringers in end panel at exp. joint locations. (See Figure 2.3.1c)
d) Stringers in intermediate panels

PART 2 2-20
 2.3.1.6 Element Group: Bracings
Element Name Sub-element Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
Bracing average length of N/A N/A # of bracing Count a
1 bracing members (Units are Each)
member
End average length of N/A N/A # of bracing Count b
1 bracing members (Units are Each)
member
Intermediate average length of N/A N/A # of bracing Count c
1 bracing members (Units are Each)
member

COMMENTS: a) All Bracings - includes bracing between trusses and lateral bracing between floor system in horizontal plane - vertical plane is
considered a diaphragm element. (See Figure 2.3.1b)
b) Bracings in end panel. (See Figure 2.3.1b)
c) Bracings in Intermediate panel. (See Figure 2.3.1b)

PART 2 2-21
 2.3.1.7 Element Group: Coatings
Element Name Sub-element Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
2008

Barrier N/A N/A N/A N/A Use Area of corresponding Barrier a

Systems / Hand System element
Railings
Rev

Structural Steel N/A N/A N/A N/A Use Area of corresponding element b
such as girder, floor beams etc.
End N/A N/A N/A N/A Use Area of corresponding sub- c
element such as end of girder, end
floor beams etc.
Middle N/A N/A N/A N/A Use Area of corresponding sub- d
element such as middle of girder,
end floor beams etc.

COMMENTS: a) If the element units are not sq. m., obtain appropriate area..
b) For all structural steel.
c) To be used if the corresponding element used “End” elements.
d) To be used if the corresponding element used “Middle” elements

2.3.1.8 Element Group: Culverts

Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Barrels total length of Average cell Height of cell # of cells total interior surface a
culvert width area for one cell x # of
cells
Inlet N/A N/A N/A 1 area of all inlet b
Components components
Outlet N/A N/A N/A 1 area of all outlet b
Components components

COMMENTS: a) Interior surface area includes soffit, walls and bottom slab of culvert if present and not buried.
b) Includes all components. (head walls, cut-off walls, aprons, etc)

PART 2 2-22
 2.3.1.9 Element Group: Decks
Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Deck Top sum of span overall width Deck thickness N/A length x width a
lengths + sum of (out-to-out) minimum
overhangs3
Rev 2008

Drainage N/A N/A N/A N/A Count b

System (units are Each)
Soffit – Inside sum of span Sum of distance N/A N/A length x width c
Boxes lengths + sum of between top
overhangs3 flanges inside of
boxes (steel or
concrete)
End 2m (inspector Sum of distance N/A N/A length x width d
option of a length between top
from 1 to 3 m) per flanges of boxes
Beam end x (steel or
number of ends concrete)
along line of
girders.
Middle Sum of span Sum of distance N/A N/A length x width e
lengths + sum of between top
overhangs – sum flanges of boxes
of “Ends” (steel or
concrete)
Continue on next page…
COMMENTS: a) See Figure 2.3.2b
b) Includes all components such as drains, drain pipes, connecting pipes, etc. Can also be per side of bridge
c) The entire soffit length inside the boxes. To be used for decks without expansion joints. (See Figure 2.3.2c)
d) For decks with expansion joints. (See Figure 2.3.2c)
e) To be used in areas away from expansion joints in conjunction with the “end” element. (See Figure 2.3.2c).

PART 2 2-23
 Element Group: Decks - cont
Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Soffit – Thick End 2m (inspector overall width + N/A N/A length x width a
2018

slab option of a length fascias

(Post-tensioned from 1 to 3 m) per
decks and Rigid Beam end x
Frames) number of ends
along line of
Rev

girders.
Exterior Sum of span fascias + N/A N/A length x width b
lengths + sum of cantilevers4
overhangs – sum
of “Ends”
Interior Sum of span overall width – N/A N/A length x width c
lengths + sum of cantilevers4
overhangs – sum
of “Ends”
Continue on next page…
COMMENTS: a) For decks with expansion joints
b) For Rigid frames, span lengths are from faces of abutments and piers and the cantilever is assumed to be 1m as shown in Figure 2.3.4.
When End elements are used, the length will be reduced by the sum of the End elements.
(See Figure 2.3.2c)
c) For Rigid frames, span lengths are from faces of abutments and piers.
When End elements are used, the length will be reduced by the sum of the End elements. (See Figure 2.3.2c)

PART 2 2-24
 Element Group: Decks - cont
Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Soffit – Thin End 2m (inspector fascias + N/A N/A length x width a
2018

Slab option of a length exterior

(Slab on I or from 1 to 3 m) per cantilevers to
Box Girders) Beam end x flanges + sum of
number of ends distances
along line of between flanges
Rev

girders. (for boxes use

outside of box
top flanges only)
Exterior Sum of span fascias + N/A N/A length x width b
lengths + sum of exterior
overhangs – sum cantilevers to
of “Ends” flanges
Interior Sum of span sum of N/A N/A length x width b
lengths + sum of distances
overhangs – sum between flanges
of “Ends” (for boxes use
outside of box
top flanges only)
Wearing Sum of span Roadway width Thickness of N/A length x width
Surface lengths + Sum of (curb to curb) wearing surface
overhangs from drawings

COMMENTS: a) For decks with expansion joints

b) When End elements are used, the length will be reduced by the sum of the End elements.

PART 2 2-25
 2.3.1.10 Element Group: Embankments and Streams
Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Rev 2008

Embankments N/A N/A N/A N/A Units are Each a

Slope protection N/A N/A N/A N/A Units are Each b
Streams and N/A N/A N/A N/A Units are All
Waterways

COMMENTS: a) A typical abutment has 3 embankments (1 at front face and 2 side slopes).
b) A typical abutment has 3 slopes (1 at front face and 2 side slopes).

2.3.1.11 Element Group: Foundations

Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Foundation N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A a
(below ground
level)
Rev 2018

COMMENTS: a) Foundation is considered to be anything below ground. This element is rated for performance only and not material condition.
If top of footing is visible, it should be rated under the Retaining Wall, Abutment wall or Pier Shaft element.

2.3.1.12 Element Group: Joints

Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Armouring / Overall width (out- N/A N/A # of armourings count x length (units 1
retaining to-out) for 1 (Typically, 2 per joint are m)
devices armouring x # of joints)
Concrete end Curb to curb width width of one N/A # of end dams (2 per length x width x
dams side only joint x # of joints) count
Seals / sealants Overall width of N/A N/A # of seals count
bridge (for 1 seal) (units are Each)
Rev 2018

COMMENTS: a) For multi-seal joints, the total length shall include the armouring and separator beams

PART 2 2-26
 2.3.1.13 Element Group: Piers
Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Bearings N/A N/A N/A Total # of bearings count
at piers (Units are Each)
Caps Thickness or length width of cap Depth or height of # of caps count x 2 x [(width x a
of caps parallel to cap height) + (length x
length of bridge height) + (length x
width)]
Shafts/Columns/ For Rectangular For rectangular Bearing seat # of shafts or # of For Rectangular b
Pile Bents Shaft or Column: Shaft or elevation or columns or # of Shafts or Columns:
Thickness parallel Column: elevation at bottom piles 2 x (length + width) x
to bridge length avg. width of of pier cap - top of height x count
shaft or column ground elevation
(if under water use
For Round For Round stream bed For Round Columns,
Columns , Pipe Columns , Pipe elevation)+ Pipe Piles or Timber
Piles or Timber Piles or Timber bearing seat width Piles:
Piles: Piles: + visible part of π x width x height x
2018

Diameter Diameter footing (footing may count

also be treated as a
separate “cap” For H Piles:
For H-Pile Bents: For H-Piles: element) count x height x (2 x
web heights flange width length + 4 x width)
Rev

COMMENTS: a) The cap beams for timber abutments with wooden piles can recorded as Pier Caps.
b) Similar shapes should be combined as an element
Includes bearing seat width and top of footing (if visible) – may not be applicable for all situations.

PART 2 2-27
 2.3.1.14 Element Group: Retaining Walls
Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Barrier Interior / total length Thickness at Barrier height # of sides (typically length x height* x a
2018

Systems on Exterior top 2) count

Walls (for faces of
Rev

barrier)
Walls average length of N/A Average height of # of walls length x height x
wall wall count

COMMENTS: a) Sub-elements must be used and interior and exterior of barrier/parapet must be rated separately. * - include barrier top with interior.
Rev 2018

2.3.1.15 Element Group: Sidewalks / Curbs

Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Curbs total length of avg. width of all Maximum height # of curbs length x ( width + a
bridge excluding curbs (need to verify in height) x count
approaches field because of
resurfacing)
2018

Sidewalks and total length of avg. width of all Maximum height # of sidewalks / length x ( width + a,b
medians bridge excluding sidewalks / (need to verify in medians height) x count
approaches medians field because of
resurfacing)

COMMENTS: a) See Figure 2.3.3 for definition of sidewalk / median and curb
b) It is acceptable to include the entire length of sidewalk/curb (including the portion on the approach) in one element and omit the
Rev

sidewalk/curb on approach element

PART 2 2-28
 2.3.1.16 Element Group: Trusses / Arches
Element Name Sub- Length (m) Width (m) Height (m) Count Quantity (Sq.m)1 Comments
element
Bottom Chords total length of top average flange Depth of section # of chords/side For I Sections:
chord (all panels) width = 2 usually quantity = count x
length x(height x 2 +
4 x width)

For T or L Sections:
quantity = count x
length x (height x 2
+ 2 x width)
Connections N/A N/A N/A # of connections Count a
(Units are Each)
Top chords total length of top average flange Depth of section # of chords/side For I Sections:
chord (all panels) width = 2 usually quantity = count x
length x (height x 2
+ 4 x width)

For T or L Sections:
quantity = count x
length x (height x 2
+ 2 x width)
Verticals / average length of average flange Depth of section # of verticals / For I Sections:
Diagonals diagonals width diagonals for all quantity = count x
sides length x (height x 2
+ 4 x width)

For T or L Sections:
quantity = count x
length x (height x 2
+ 2 x width)
2018

COMMENTS: a) Main truss connections. For Modular truss bridges, a separate connection occurs at each main pin location for each top and
bottom chord and chord reinforcement. Other less significant connections ( such as transom clamps, raker pins, bracing
Rev

frame bolts) should be inspected and recorded with the actual elements.

PART 2 2-29
 General Notes:-

1– Default units are sq.m unless noted otherwise.

2– End elements are to be used at all expansion joint locations
3– Overhang = Distance from centre of bearing to end of deck (See Figure 2.3.1a, 2.3.2a)
4– For definition of Cantilever, See Figure 2.3.4
5– Culverts include soil-steel structures
2008
Rev

6– The length of the “approach” should be taken as the length of the approach slab or the length to the end of the wingwalls (whichever
is greater). For modular bridges, the ramps are taken as approaches.

PART 2 2-30
 (a) Girders (Elevation view)

(b) Girders, Diaphragms and Bracing (Plan view)

(c) Floor Beams and Stringers

Figure 2.3.1: Structural Steel Definitions

PART 2 2-31
 ABUT CL CL ABUT
OVERHANG OVERHANG

END INTERIOR END

(a) Deck (Elevation view)

2018

ABUT CL CL PIER CL ABUT

EXT GIRDER
CL OR END OF
CANTILEVER

CL GIRDER

CL GIRDER

CL GIRDER

EXT GIRDER
CL OR END OF
Rev

CANTILEVER

(b) Deck Top (no sub-element)

ABUT CL CL PIER CL ABUT

EXT GIRDER
EXTERIOR CL OR END OF
CANTILEVER
END

END
INTERIOR

EXT GIRDER
CL OR END OF
EXTERIOR CANTILEVER

(c) Deck Soffit (with possible sub-elements as shown)

Rev2018

Figure 2.3.2: Deck Definitions

PART 2 2-32
 Figure 2.3.3: Curb and Sidewalk Definitions

PART 2 2-33
 Figure 2.3.4: Cantilever Definitions

PART 2 2-34
 This page is intentionally left blank

PART 2 2-35
 2.4 MATERIAL CONDITION STATES
In general, Material Condition States are used to categorize the condition of an element
based on the severity of material defects. Four Material Condition States have been
defined for bridge elements, namely, Excellent, Good, Fair and Poor. The condition of
bridge elements is defined to be in any one or more of these Condition States. At any given
time, areas within a bridge element may be in different Condition States, or the whole of the
element may be in the same Condition State. For each bridge element, the inspector
assesses and records the amount (area, length or unit, as appropriate) of the element in
each of the four Condition States. This assessment is based predominately on visual
observations, however, some non-destructive testing, such as hammer tapping of concrete
for delamination, will be required to determine or verify areas in poor condition. Where an
area in poor condition is noted, the area is to be measured (if practicable), or
estimated.

In some cases, an exceptionally poor localized zone in a critical element may render the
2008

entire element ineffective. For such cases, the particular element can be considered to be
100% Poor and immediate action must be taken. This includes notifying the owner to
initiate temporary repairs and a strength evaluation. Examples of this include:
• A truss member where perforation corrosion at one location (i.e. near a gusset or
passing through a sidewalk) will result in the length between panel points being
rated as Poor.
• A corrugated steel pipe where perforation corrosion at one location (i.e. bottom or
waterline) will result in the entire circumferential band being rated as Poor.
• A timber pile where damage (decay, ice damage, etc.) that greatly reduces the
capacity, but occurs in a small zone (i.e. the waterline) will result in that pile being
rated as Poor.
If the element is repaired and the repair is of a temporary nature, but does substantially
2018

restore the element effectiveness (capacity), then only the portion of the original element in
Poor condition is rated as such. If the element has been repaired locally in a permanent
and durable manor so that the capacity has been fully restored, the condition of the
repaired area can be considered good (the quantity of repair compared to the original area
is small and recording these minor quantities as Excellent is not required). If the
permanent repair is to the entire element (such as a deck overlay, a complete abutment or
Rev

barrier refacing, or a column wrapping), the element would be considered Excellent.

The importance of recording quantities of defects cannot be over-emphasized. Using

rough percentages without some sort of verification will usually lead to a grossly inaccurate
estimation of rehabilitation needs. This is especially true in the “Poor” Condition State.
Although the extent of defects is still based on visual observations, studies have shown that
the recording of actual quantities (square metre or metre) leads to a better estimation of
rehabilitation needs.

There are four basic units that are used to describe the material condition of various
elements (See Table 2.2.1):

PART 2 2-36
 • SQUARE METRE (Area): For many elements, the condition states will be recorded
as an area measurement, m2. For example, a deck element of area 1000 m2 may
have 100 m2 in excellent condition, 700 m2 in good condition, 100 m2 in fair condition
and 100 m2 in poor condition.
• LINEAR METRE (Length): For some elements, such as the expansion joint
armouring, the data is recorded by linear metre. For example, an expansion joint
armouring of 10 m length may have 0 metres in excellent condition, 3 metres in good
condition, 2 metres in fair condition, and 5 metres in poor condition.
• EACH: For some elements, such as bearings, the unit is “each”. For example, a
bridge with 10 bearings may have 5 bearings in excellent condition, 3 bearings good
condition, 1 bearing in fair condition and 1 bearing in poor condition.
• ALL: For some elements, the entire element is placed completely into one condition
2018

state as described in the appropriate condition state (e.g. streams and waterways).
The Condition States in Sections 2.4.1–2.4.19 have been created for each material type
Rev

(e.g. steel, concrete) and, where required, for specialized elements (e.g. bearings,
expansion joint seals, etc). The Condition State that an element is in is defined by the
severity of the defect(s) that exist in that element. All material defects are defined in Part 1,
Section 1.2 of this manual. In general, the severity of a defect is defined by the terms
“Light, Medium, Severe and Very Severe”. The definitions of these severity terms are also
Rev 2008

contained in Part 1, Section 1.2 for each type of defect. Appendix A of Part 2 contains
Tables with an amalgamation of the information in Part 1, Section 1.2 and this Section.

As a general rule of thumb, the following philosophy is used for most condition state
tables:

(i) Excellent:
• This refers to an element (or part of an element) that is in “new” (as constructed)
condition
• No visible deterioration type defects are present and remedial action is not
required.
• Minor construction defects do not count as visible deterioration type defects.
• Examples:
o “bug holes” in concrete barrier walls
Rev 2003

o well-formed patina in atmospheric corrosion resistant(ACR) steel girders

(ii) Good:
• This refers to an element (or part of an element) where the first sign of “Light”
(minor) defects are visible. This usually occurs after the structure has been in
service for a number of years. These types of defects would not normally trigger
any remedial action since the overall performance of the element is not affected.
• Examples:
o Light corrosion (no section loss)
o Light scaling
o Narrow cracks in concrete
o Light decay in wood

PART 2 2-37
 (iii) Fair:
• This refers to an element (or part of an element) where medium defects are visible.
These types of defects may trigger a “preventative maintenance” type of remedial
action (e.g. sealing, coating, etc) where it is economical to do so.
• Examples:
o Medium corrosion (up to 10% section loss)
o Medium cracks in concrete

(iv) Poor:
• This refers to an element (or part of an element) where severe and very severe
defects are visible. In concrete, any type of spalling or delamination would be
considered “poor” since these defects usually indicate more serious underlying
problems in the material (e.g. corroding reinforcing steel). These types of defects
would normally trigger rehabilitation or replacement if the extent and location affect
the overall performance of that element.
• Examples:
o Severe corrosion (Greater than 10% section loss)
o Spalling, delaminations, etc

For a typical inspection, the “Poor” areas of each element are identified first. Generally,
2008

each area of “Poor” also has an area in the “Fair” Condition State surrounding it. This area
is usually, as a minimum, equal to the area of “Poor” for small quantities of “Poor”, while for
larger quantities of “Poor” a smaller percentage of the area can be used. There are also
separate areas in the “Fair” Condition State that are to be included. The remainder of the
areas are in either “Good” or “Excellent” Condition.

For most elements, a general progression through the various condition states occurs over
time. The difference between The “Excellent” and “Good” condition states is not always
obvious from a distance. However, minor defects can be detected upon close visual
inspection of elements more than 5 years old (depending on the exposure environment).
The following general guidelines may be used by the inspector to supplement visual
inspection data to determine when an element (concrete, ACR steel, Coated Steel, or
Coating) should progress from “Excellent” to “Good”:
(i) Severe Environment – 5 years to become Good
(ii) Moderate Environment – 15 years to become Good
(iii) Benign Environment – 25 years to become Good
For a few inspections prior to the timelines listed above, proportions of the element in both
“Excellent” and “Good” may be used to ensure a smooth transition from “Excellent” and
Rev

“Good”.

The presence of material defects usually triggers further, more detailed investigations. The
most common types of investigations are for concrete elements (e.g. Bridge Deck Condition
Survey, Substructure Condition Survey, etc). Investigations can also be done for other
materials such as steel, wood, etc. Additional investigations are usually triggered when a
pre-determined percentage is exceeded in the “poor” Condition State. Sections 2.4.1 to
2.4.19 list these triggers. In some cases, the first sign of a material defect would trigger a
more detailed investigation. An example would be a fatigue crack in a steel girder, which

PART 2 2-38
would trigger an immediate fatigue investigation. Part 3 of this manual describes some of
the additional investigations that can be done.

In addition, material defects often lead to performance deficiencies, which would trigger
other follow-up actions, such as a strength evaluation. Performance deficiencies and
corresponding follow-up actions are described in Part 2, Section 2.5.

PART 2 2-39
 2.4.1 ASPHALT WEARING SURFACES
Defects
Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition
Rev 2003

Cracking Light Medium Severe to very severe

Ravelling Light Medium Severe and very severe
Potholes Light Medium Severe and very severe
Wheel track rutting Light Medium Severe and very severe
Rippling Light Medium Severe and very severe
Flushing Light Medium Severe and very severe
Loss of bond

Notes:
1) Excellent Condition – No observed material defects
2) For all calculations, the actual area shall be determined for areas containing numerous
Rev 2003

cracks (i.e. alligator cracks, radial cracks).

3) For isolated cracks, 4 m of crack length is equal to 1 square metre of defect repair area.

2.4.2 BEARINGS

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Cracks in elastomeric Hairline Narrow to medium Very wide cracks and/or steel
pads plates debonded
Bulging or shear Light Medium Severe
deformations in
elastomeric pads
Local deformation of Light Medium Severe
roller/rocker plates
Scoring/scratches in Light Medium Severe
TFE or stainless steel and/or rips and tears
Corrosion Light Medium Severe and very severe
and/or cracks in steel
Anchor bolts slightly bent severely bent and broken
cracked
Guide bars and thrust slightly worn moderately worn severely worn and/or loose or
plates missing nuts
Bonded sliding Up to 5% 5% to 20% Over 20%
surface is debonded
Internally confined compression
material is squeezing or
squeezed out
Note: Excellent Condition – No observed material defects

PART 2 2-40
 2.4.3 COATING* – STEEL RAILINGS

Excellent Condition Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

RUST CONDITION** RUST CONDITION RUST CONDITION RUST CONDITION
RATING : RATING : RATING : RATING :

CATEGORY 1 CATEGORY 2 CATEGORY 3 CATEGORY 4 or

higher
Notes:
1) * Galvanized elements are included under the “Coating” category
2) ** Rust Condition Ratings based on ASTM D 610 (Standard Practice for evaluating
Rev 2018

Degree if Rusting on Painted Steel Surfaces) sketches are shown in Figure 2.4.1.

2.4.4 COATING* – STRUCTURAL STEEL SUBSTRUCTURES

AND SUPERSTRUCTURES

Excellent Condition Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Rev 2008

No Observed Material Chalking Checking, cracking,

Defects alligatoring
Intercoat Undercutting, blisters,
delamination, peeling peeling (prime coat),
(top coat only) underfilm corrosion
Signs of chemical
attack
Rev 2008

Overspray, runs, sags, Bridging, edge

pinholing defects, shadows
RUST CONDITION** RUST CONDITION** RUST CONDITION** RUST CONDITION**
RATING: RATING: RATING: RATING:

CATEGORY 1 CATEGORY 2 CATEGORY 3 CATEGORY 4 or

higher
2003

Coating Condition Survey is required if the

combined area in the Fair and Poor Condition
States is greater than 25% and the area in the
Rev

Poor Condition State is less than 10% ***

Notes:
1) * Galvanized elements are included under the “Coating” category
2003

2) ** Rust Condition Ratings based on ASTM D 610 sketches are shown in Figure 2.4.1.
3) *** In order to consider overcoating as a viable rehabilitation option, a detailed
condition survey should be triggered before deterioration is too widespread. If the
percentage in Poor Condition exceeds 10%, overcoating is not a feasible treatment
Rev

and a coating condition survey is not required.

PART 2 2-41
 Condition State: Excellent Condition State: Good
Category 1: No Rust Category 2: Light Surface Rust

Condition State: Fair Condition State: Poor

Category 3: Medium Surface Rust Category 4: Severe Surface Rust

Figure 2.4.1: Rust Condition Rating Categories for Coatings

PART 2 2-42
 2.4.5 CONCRETE – SUBSTRUCTURES AND
SUPERSTRUCTURES
Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition
Scaling Light Medium Severe to very
severe. Plus erosion
and disintegration
2003

Corrosion of reinforcing Rust stains on Leading to rust stains on Medium to very

steel concrete due to concrete severe
corroding rebar chairs
Surface defects Carbonation Eg Stratification,
(Reaction with CO2 , segregation, cold joints,
associated abrasion, wear, slippery
discolouration, surfaces, wet areas and
shrinkage and cracks) surface deposits (except
2018

due to salt contaminated

water).
Rev

Honeycombing and Light Medium Severe to very

pop-outs severe
2003

Cracks Hairline and narrow Medium All wide

Rev

Alkali-aggregate Light Medium Severe and very

reaction severe
Relative displacement Stable. Leaking between Active
between precast units precast units.
2018
Rev 2003

Wet areas Active; without cracks. Active; With

(due to salt contaminated associated cracks or
water) leachate deposits.
(due to salt
contaminated water)
Delaminated and
spalled area 
See notes 5 and 6
For retaining wall structure only (including RSS walls, notes 7)
2018

Joints between precast Difference up to ±20 Difference up to ±50% Larger than 50%
concrete panels as %
constructed (notes 8)
Perform structural condition survey if > 50% wall
Rev

is in fair or poor condition

Notes:
1) Excellent Condition – No observed material defects. Or joints are the same as constructed.
2003

2) For all calculations, the actual area shall be determined for areas containing numerous
cracks (i.e. pattern cracks, map cracks).
3) For isolated cracks, 4 m of crack length is equal to 1 square metre of defect repair area.
Rev

4) If shear cracks are found at girder ends, an evaluation should be done. If cracks are wide,
2008

the inspector should mark “URGENT” for the timeframe of the evaluation. As with other
potentially unsafe conditions, the bridge owner should be notified if these cracks are noticed.
5) For superstructure: if area of deterioration in poor condition state >5%, perform Deck
Rev

Condition Survey
6) For substructure: if area of deterioration in poor condition state >10%, perform Condition
PART 2 2-43
 Survey
7) For low and medium performance RSS walls, condition state table is not available at this
2018

time and the inspection should be done using the judgement of the inspector.
8) Constructed joint in Reinforced Soil Structure is 19 mm
Rev

2.4.6 CONCRETE – TOP OF DECK BENEATH ASPHALT

WEARING SURFACE
Based on Visual Inspection of Asphalt
Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition
2003
2008

Top-down or bottom-up Top-Down Bottom-Up Bottom-Up

asphalt defects.
Cracks in asphalt Light and medium Wide isolated cracks include: All Pattern cracks e.g
isolated cracks i) longitudinal cracks: - map,
- above location of voids, - alligator,
- edge of beam flanges, - radial, and or
- joint between precast units, - edge cracking
- construction joints, etc., or
ii) transverse cracks)
Local protrusions in
asphalt 
Potholes in asphalt

Bond Defects in asphalt
e.g. rippling, loss of
bond

Surface Defects in
asphalt
e.g. ravelling, flushing, 
slippery surface)
Surface Distortions in
asphalt
e.g. wheel track rutting

Condition survey if
2008

the area of
deterioration in this
state >10% if not
already done.

Notes:
1) Excellent Condition – No observed material defects
2) For all calculations, the actual area shall be determined for areas containing numerous cracks
Rev

(i.e. alligator cracks, radial cracks).

3) For isolated cracks, 4 m of crack length is equal to 1 square metre of defect repair area.
4) If a bridge has been recently repaved without rehabilitating the deck, the inspector must
estimate the condition of the concrete deck using other means. This would include using
previous inspection information, the age of the waterproofing, deck condition survey data, etc.

PART 2 2-44
 2.4.7 DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Individual drainage Up to 20% 20% to 60% More than 60%
system has loose or
deteriorated
2008

components,
connections or
fasteners
Broken pipe components resulting
Rev

in water draining onto substructure

Note: Excellent Condition – No observed material defects

2.4.8 EMBANKMENTS

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

loss of material for Up to 10% 10% to 30% More than 30%
embankments not
directly supporting
foundations
loss for up to 5% 5% to 15% More than 15%
embankments directly
supporting
foundations
loss of material to the 5% to 15%
top of foundations
loss of material to the More than 15%
bottom of foundations
Note: Excellent Condition – No observed material defects

2.4.9 EXPANSION JOINT – ARMOURING AND RETAINING

DEVICES

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Corrosion as defined Light Medium Severe
in Table 2.4.16
Bolts, anchors, armouring,
clamping devices or welds are
loose, broken or missing.
Note: Excellent Condition – No observed material defects

PART 2 2-45
 2.4.10 EXPANSION JOINT- SEALS / SEALANTS

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Defect in seal Abrasions with no Loss of resiliency Cracks, tears or holes
perforations with no
perforations
Debonded or allowing leakage on
the substructure
Defect in sealant Debonded, pulled out or settled.
Note: Excellent Condition – No observed material defects

2.4.11 MASONARY CONSTRUCTION

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Cracks Hairline and Medium Wide
narrow
Splitting, spalling and Light Medium Severe and very severe
disintegration
Loss of pointing Light Medium Severe and very severe
mortar And loss of stones
Leaching of lime
based mortar
Note: Excellent Condition – No observed material defects

2.4.12 ACCESSORIES (ATTACHMENTS AND SIGNS)

Defects
Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition
Sign conditions Not standard Not located Illegible, missing or provides
2008

according to misleading, wrong or inaccurate

standards information
Material defects Light Medium. Severe and very severe .
Components on Loose, damaged Broken or missing
Rev

attachment or bent
Note: Excellent Condition – No observed material defects

2.4.13 SLOPE PROTECTION

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Loss or deterioration of less than 20% 20% to 60% more than 60%
slope protection material
Note: Excellent Condition – No observed material defects

PART 2 2-46
 2.4.14 SOIL-STEEL STRUCTURES

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Cusping or Medium (less than 10 mm Severe (greater than 10
2008

crimping of in height) mm in height)

corrugations
Global Medium (less than 10% of Severe (greater than 10%
Deformation culvert diameter) of culvert diameter or with
reverse curvature)
Corrosion Light (surface rust) Medium Severe
pitting shallow deep
Corrosion scale less than 10% section loss) greater than 10% section
over surface loss)
Bolt tilting

Cracks

Notes:
1) Excellent Condition – No observed material defects
2) Unit of measure for soil-steel structures is m2.
3) The area of defect should be recorded for Severe Corrosion (excluding corrosion with
perforations), as well as for the Excellent, Good and Fair Condition States.
4) For all other portions in the Poor Condition State (cusping, crimping, deformations, cracks
and corrosion with perforations) the area shall be taken to include the entire circumference.
This is due to the importance of soil-steel interaction and continuity of the radial
corrugations of steel where such a defect at one point on the culvert will affect the entire
Rev

circumference.

2.4.15 STEEL – ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION RESISTANT

SUBSTRUCTURES AND SUPERSTRUCTURES

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Patina conditions Early signs of Flaking and delamination More than 10% section loss
flaking but no with up to 10% section (see notes 2)
section loss loss
Connection Light Medium Severe
deficiencies
Cracks

Permanent
deformations 
Notes:
1) Excellent Condition – No observed material defects. Rust layer (patina) is formed and
uniform.
2) Evaluation and condition survey (measure thickness of critical member to determine section
loss as it varies across the element) are required.

PART 2 2-47
2.4.16 STEEL OR ALUMINUM – SUBSTRUCTURES AND
SUPERSTRUCTURES

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Corrosion Light – no section Medium - up to 10% Severe and very severe –
loss section loss more than 10% section loss
(see notes 2)
Connection Light Medium Severe
deficiencies
Cracks
notes 3
Permanent
deformations 
Notes:
1) Excellent Condition – No observed material defects.
2) Evaluation and condition survey (measure thickness of critical member to determine section
loss as it varies across the element) are required.
3) Immediate action is required - estimate repair area)

2.4.17 STEEL OR ALUMINUM - RAILINGS

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Corrosion Light – no section Medium - up to 10% Severe and very severe –
loss section loss more than 10% section loss
Loss of cable Slight Moderate Significant
tension or slight
slippage of cable
anchors and
splices
Connection Light Medium Severe
deficiencies
Broken cable
strands/supports 
Collision or
vandalism
damage/missing 
sections
Permanent
deformations 
Note: Excellent Condition – No observed material defects

PART 2 2-48
 2.4.18 STREAMS AND WATERWAYS

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Scour or A few locations but Numerous locations Any locations att the bottom
degradation of the not exposing the at the top of the of previously covered
stream bed or foundations previously covered foundations
stream banks foundations
Scour at inlet or Slight Moderate Extensive and with loss of
outlet of culverts and embankment fill
soil-steel structures
Stream alignment but not encroaching and encroaching with stream flow directly
shifted against components close to components against most of components
not previously subject not previously subject not previously subject to
to stream flow to stream flow stream flow
Aggradation A few locations Medium Extensive
affecting the stream no significant very severely
flow at the structure

Note: Excellent Condition – No observed material defects

2.4.19 WOOD – SUBSTRUCTURES AND

SUPERSTRUCTURES

Defects Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Checks and shakes (see Light Medium Severe and very severe
notes 2) And all splits (see notes 2)
Weathering Light Medium Severe and very severe
Rot or decay Light Medium Severe and very severe
Insect damage Light Medium Severe and very severe
Abrasion and wear Light Medium Severe and very severe
Cracking, splintering, Light Medium Severe and very severe
crushing and shattering
Fire or chemical damage Light Medium Severe and very severe
Connection deficiencies Light Medium Severe
Perform Condition Survey if
area of deterioration in this
state > 10%
Notes:
1) Excellent Condition – No observed material defects.
2) These naturally occurring cracks in the wood, caused by shrinkage, are not as severe as
2008

overload cracking or splintering since wood fibres exist to bridge the crack and reduce the
impact on the member capacity. The actual area containing the defect shall be determined
for areas containing numerous defects. For isolated cracks, 8 m of crack length is equal to 1
square metre of defect for checks, shakes and splits; while 4 m of crack length is equal to 1
square metre of defect for cracking, splintering, crushing and shattering. The length of
Rev

cracks, shakes, splits, etc. shall be measured on all surfaces.

PART 2 2-49
 2.5 SUSPECTED PERFORMANCE
DEFICIENCIES
A Performance deficiency should be recorded if an element’s ability to perform its intended
function is in question, and one or more performance defects exist. Performance defects
for the various elements of a structure are described in Part 1, Section 1.2. Often, an
inspector “suspects” a performance deficiency, but is unsure of the extent of this deficiency
until some follow-up action is taken. A list of common performance deficiencies is shown in
Section 2.5.1. These deficiencies are often applicable to several elements, however, in
some cases, the deficiencies listed are applicable to only one type of element. An example
of a suspected performance deficiency is “Load Carrying Capacity”. The typical follow-up
action for this deficiency would be to carry out a strength evaluation of the structure (or
element). Section 2.5.1 also describes typical deficiencies for various elements, and lists
possible follow-up actions. The follow-up action could take the form of either an additional
investigation or a maintenance operation.

In most cases, performance defects in an element are closely related to or attributable to

material defects. In some cases, performance defects exist due to defects in design or
construction and may not be directly related to material defects. Also, performance defects
in a component may be the result of unexpected behaviour of the structure or due to
performance defects in other components of the structure.
Rev 2008

It should be noted that the list of suspected performance deficiencies should be

considered during the inspection of each element.

For Retaining walls:

2018

All retaining walls must be maintained in a stable condition. Any portion showing signs of
deterioration, deflection or settlement should be monitored, repaired, reinforced or replaced.
Any wall showing signs of tilting, settling or other movement should be monitored to
determine whether the process is ongoing.

Since RSS technology is well established, the need for monitoring programs should be
limited to:
• cases in which new features or materials have been incorporated in the design
• substantial post construction settlements are anticipated and/or construction rates
require control and,
• where degradation/corrosion rates of reinforcements require monitoring because of
the use of marginal fills or anticipated changes in the in-situ regime.

A comprehensive program may involve:

• Deflection monitoring to establish gross structure performance and as an indicator
of the location and magnitude of potential local distress to be more fully investigated.
• Structural performance monitoring to primarily establish tensile stress levels in
the reinforcement and or connections. A second type of structural performance
Rev

monitoring would measure or establish degradation rates of the reinforcements.

PART 2 2-50
 • Pullout resistance proof testing to establish the level of pullout resistance within a
reinforced mass as a function of depth and elongation.

2.5.1 SUSPECTED PERFORMANCE DEFICIENCY TYPES

2.5.1.1 Load Carrying Capacity (#1)
Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Girder, • Material defects leading to loss of strength, or • Strength evaluation
Deck Top, which are indicative of inadequate strength of • Monitoring of deformations
Railing System, the component (eg.20% section loss at mid- (displacements or rotations) or
etc span of girder) cracks.
• Detrimental modifications made subsequent to
(Note – construction;
2008

deficiencies in • Strong evidence of under design for current

most elements loads.
can trigger a
strength
Rev

evaluation)
Retaining walls • Bulging upward of grade in front of wall. This • Excavate an exploratory hole
2018

indicates that a large movement has occurred behind the retaining wall in
Examples: and failure is imminent. order to prove its thickness and
slipping or tilting • If ground in front of wall is disturbed, the wall • construction (i.e. are there
of wall may have lost passive resistance for sliding counterforts built in the wall?)
stability • A wall which is overturning can
• Material defects leading to loss of strength be strengthened by building
• Possible bearing capacity failure. counterforts behind or in front
• Detrimental modifications made subsequent to of the wall
construction • Strength evaluation
• Differential out-of-plumb orientation of wall • Drill the wall in a number of
along its length selected places measuring the
• Ground pressure under toe of wall is excessive thickness and observing the
thus forward tilting of wall may result. type and condition of the
• Old walls are often deficient in toe thickness and material penetrated.
this might result in fractures at the toe. This • Seal these cracks and monitor
condition does not necessarily signify danger, • Situation should be evaluated
but if discovered wall should be kept under by qualified geotechnical
observation specialist
• Sloped vegetation on top of wall
• Differential settlement or low spot in wall
• Overall wall leaning beyond vertical alignment
tolerance
• Panel contact, resulting in spalling/cracking
• Foundation (subgrade) material is too soft or
wet for proper bearing.
• Fill material of poor quality or not properly
Rev

compacted

PART 2 2-51
 2.5.1.2 Excessive Deformations (#2)
Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Railing System, • Severely bent members • Strength evaluation
Deck Top, • Overloading, either single or repetitive • Monitoring of deformations
Truss Chord, occurrence, resulting in permanent (displacements or rotations)
Abutment Wall, deformations of the deck or deck components.
Bearings, etc • Permanent deformations, especially in
compression components
• Unanticipated or excessive vibration or
deflection of components, connections or
joints under live loads
• Unexpected noise from components or
connections due to vehicles moving across the
structure.
• Mis-alignment, lateral deformation, warping,
etc. of components;
• Inability of the abutment to withstand lateral
earth pressures, as indicated by long, medium
horizontal cracks in abutments;
• Deformation of the roof slab, floor slab or walls
of culverts.
• Deformation of soil-steel structures such as
flattening or peaking of the soffit or buckling of
the shoulders or haunches;
• Up-lift at ends of soil-steel structures
• Movements causing distress in a bearing or it's
components, or in other structure components;
Retaining walls • Backward Tilting of Wall • Removal of reinforced fill and
2016

• A deep rotational slip is occurring dislodging reinforcing elements, followed

Examples: the retaining wall by the resetting of the panel
Deflection or • Panel not battered sufficiently.
rotations, • Oversized backfill and/or compaction
equipment working within 1 m (3 ft) zone of
Wall out of back of wall facing panels.
vertical alignment • Backfill material placed wet of optimum
tolerance moisture content. Backfill contains excessive
(plumbness), ie fine materials (beyond the specifications for
leaning in or out, percent of materials passing a No. 200 sieve)
• Backfill material pushed against back of facing
Wall out of panel before, being compacted above
horizontal reinforcing elements.
alignment • Excessive or vibratory compaction of uniform,
tolerance, or medium-fine sand (more than 60 % passing
bulging No. 40 sieve).
• Backfill material dumped close to free end of
Large variations
reinforcing elements, then spread toward back
in movement of
of wall, causing displacement of
adjacent panels.
reinforcements and pushing panel out.
• Shoulder wedges not seated securely.
• Shoulder clamps not tight.
• Slack in reinforcement to facing connections.
• Inconsistent tensioning of geosynthetic
reinforcement to MBW unit.
Rev

• Localized over-compaction adjacent to MBW

PART 2 2-52
 Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
unit.
2018

• Excessive batter set in panels for select

granular backfill material being used
• Inadequate compaction of backfill.
• MBW unit manufactured out of vertical
tolerance.
• Backfill saturated by heavy rain or improper
grading of backfill after each day’s operations.
• Backfill material not uniform.
• Backfill compaction.
Rev

• Inconsistent setting of facing panels.

2.5.1.3 Continuing Settlement (#3)

Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Foundations • Loss of strength or support for applied loads • Regular Monitoring of
due to material defects; settlement, pier and abutment
• Loss of material supporting foundations due to elevations and crack widths
scour or erosion • Strength evaluation
• Consolidation or failure of underlying soil • Geotechnical investigation
resulting in cracking or movement of • Underwater investigation
foundations, abutments or piers
• Loss of contact between piles and pile cap or
pier cap;
• Changes in the inclination of piles.
• Rotational movement of pile caps and loss of
full contact with piles.
Retaining walls • Sunken grade behind the wall or the top of
wall alignment has dropped
Rev 2018

• Differential settlement between walls and

abutment

2.5.1.4 Continuing Movements (#4)

Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Abutment Wall, • Out of plumb of abutment walls, piles, piers or • Regular monitoring and
Pier, other components supported on them; measurement of movements,
Deck Top, • Tilting or bulging of Retained Soil System inclinations, crack widths, etc.
Bearings, (RSS) walls • Underwater investigation
Retaining walls • Unusual or unexpected substructure • Geotechnical investigation
etc movements occurring during the passage of
2018

heavy vehicles over the bridge; For retaining wall:

• Tapering or misalignment of cracks and joints • Drive sheet piling in front of
in foundations, abutments, piers or other the toe to cut through the slip
components supported on them; plane and thus prevent further
• Sudden drops or kinks in the structure profile movement.
over piers or abutment walls when sighting
along railings or beam lines; • As a temporary measure,
Rev

PART 2 2-53
 Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
•
2018

Abnormally large or small openings or excavate soil from the top of

misalignment of deck expansion joints at the wall and dump it over the
abutments and piers; wall
• Abnormal displacements or inclinations of • Place concrete under and in
bearings; front of the wall toe in short
• Abnormally large or small clearance between lengths for length required.
ballast wall and superstructure;
• Cracks in abutment wall and ballast wall
•
Rev

Shift in alignment from original position;

2.5.1.5 Seized Bearings (#5)

Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Bearings • Binding or jamming of expansion or rotational • Strength evaluation to account
components due to corrosion, lack of for change in articulation
lubrication or damage to sliding surfaces; • Lubricate Bearings
(Maintenance Operation)

2.5.1.6 Bearing not uniformly loaded/unstable (#6)

Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Elastomeric • Non-uniform contact of bearing surfaces with • Regular monitoring of bearing
Bearing, Rocker each other or with bearing seat movements
Bearing, etc • Excessive inclinations of bearings

2.5.1.7 Jammed expansion Joint (#7)

Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Armouring/ • Inadequate joint gap to accommodate • Regular monitoring of deck
retaining devices, anticipated further movement; movements
Rev 2018

Retaining walls • Surfacing materials have jammed in the joints • Clean out gap (Maintenance
during resurfacing of deck; operation)
• Design or construction problems not allowing
proper movement of multi-seal joints.

2.5.1.8 Pedestrian / vehicular hazard (#8)

Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Armouring/ • Vertical or horizontal misalignment across the • Remove obstruction
retaining devices, joint; (Maintenance operation)
Sidewalk, • Severe material defects (e.g. Spalling) • Review Code requirements for
Rev 2018

Retaining walls • Horizontal, vertical or rotational curb height

PART 2 2-54
 Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
displacements in curbs and sidewalks as they
are hazardous to pedestrian and vehicular
safety, and present obstructions to snow
plows.
• Inadequate curb height, or loss of curb height
for sidewalks due to the placement of an
additional layer of wearing surface or deck
overlay

2.5.1.9 Rough Riding Surface (#9)

Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Wearing Surface, • Rough approaches, settlement or • Smooth out asphalt at
Deck Top consolidation of approach embankments, or approach (Maintenance
(exposed), deterioration of the approach slabs or ramps, operation)
Approach slabs resulting in vehicles "bouncing" onto the • Patching bridge deck
bridge. In addition to applying excessive (Maintenance operation)
dynamic loading to the bridge, this may also • Strength evaluation
result in difficulty in maintaining vehicle
control
• Rough surface on bridge.
• Depressions and cracks in the roadway
pavement above culverts and soil-steel
structures;

2.5.1.10 Surface Ponding (#10)

Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Sidewalk, • Water ponding on sidewalks/wearing surface, • Fill in depression with asphalt
Wearing surface as it presents a safety hazard, especially if (Maintenance Operation)
allowed to freeze;
Rev 2018

2.5.1.11 Deck/Wall Drainage (#11)

Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Drainage System • Deck drains not provided where necessary, • Review deck drainage
or have inadequate size of opening; requirements
• Deck drains and drainage systems
Rev 2018

improperly constructed with inadequate For retaining walls:

slopes or sharp directional changes; • Clean wall drains
• Drainage system plugged or partially plugged
and not allowing for free and unobstructed
flow of water;
• Drainage outlets discharging directly onto
structure components or roadways below the
deck;

PART 2 2-55
 Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
• Drainage outlets discharging directly onto
embankment without proper provision for
collecting, channelling and controlling of
discharge with splashpads, spillways or
gutters;
• Inadequate provision for drainage at the
structure approaches.

For retaining walls:

2018

• Add water pressure behind wall

• Percolate down through the expansion joints
and softening the soil under the toe of the
Rev

wall. Lateral creep of the wall can occur

2.5.1.12 Slippery Surfaces (#12)

Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Deck Top • Loss in riding comfort and potential loss of • Resurface problem area
vehicle control due to defects in the (Maintenance Operation)
component material;
• Loss of protection to underlying surfaces due
to defects in the wearing surface materials;

2.5.1.13 Flooding/Channel Blockage (#13)

Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
• •
Rev 2018

Streams & The inspector should look for the Determine historical frequency
Waterways, following evidence of high water levels, of flooding and recorded water
Retaining walls inadequate opening at the structure and levels and compare to current
adverse affects on other components of high water elevation
the structure: • Monitor water elevations
• Bending or buckling of the lower chord of throughout year
steel trusses in the downstream direction by • Perform hydrology study
ice or heavy debris;
• Ice scars and damage to substructures; For retaining walls:
• Coarse debris, such as branches and small • Seal the ground behind the
trees, caught or wedged under the wall
superstructure; • Seal these cracks and monitor
• Fine debris, such as grass and twigs, on
fences, trees, embankments, structures, etc.;
• Wash lines on bare soil slopes;
• Mud or silt deposited on embankments;
• Marks and stains on structures.

PART 2 2-56
 2.5.1.14 Undermining of Foundation (#14)
Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Streams & • Loss of material supporting foundations • Underwater Investigation
Waterways, due to scour or erosion. • Strength elevation
Rev 2018

Foundations,
Retaining walls

2.5.1.15 Unstable Embankments (#15)

Element
Group /Name Description of Deficiency Possible Follow-up Action
(Examples)
Embankments • Settlement of embankment, slope Geotechnical investigation
protections or approach roadway;
• Sliding failure of the toe or slopes of the
embankment;
• Surface or deep seated slips;
• Loss of embankment material from
under foundations.
2018

Retaining walls • Slope has started to move and allowing Seal the ground behind wall
water in the cracks thus increasing the
pressure behind the wall

2.5.1.16 Other Performance Deficiencies (#16)

2.5.2 REFERENCES
• Railway Bridge Maintenance, Frank Turton, C. Eng., 1972.
• FHWA – NHI-00-043, Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes -
Design and Construction Guidelines, March 1, 2001.
• Foundations, Retaining and Earth Structures, 2nd edition, Gregory P. Tschebotarioff,
McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, Ltd., 1973.
• Foundation Design, Wayne C. Teng, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,1962
• Foundation Analysis and Design, Joseph E. Bowles, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,1968.
Rev

• ASTM D 610: Standard Practice for Evaluating Degree of Rusting on Painted Steel Surfaces

PART 2 2-57
 2.6 MAINTENANCE NEEDS
2008

Maintenance work is defined as any type of work that does not require the issuing of a
capital construction project. It includes routine maintenance items as well as targeted
structural repairs to a specific element.
Routine Maintenance - preventative maintenance and minor repair work to an element
that can be performed without engineering direction. Routine maintenance is an important
2018

part of prolonging bridge life. It includes regular work such as cleaning or debris removal,
as well as some urgent safety items that are not structural issues. It is usually carried out
by bridge crews or road maintenance personnel.
Structural Maintenance Work – is work to improve the structural capacity of a select
element, and not part of a larger construction project to improve the entire bridge. It
generally requires engineering design drawings to complete the work, but the work must
be done in a timeframe that precludes a conventional capital construction contract from
being used. Structural Maintenance Work includes emergency repairs to restore
structural capacity as well as holding strategy repairs to select elements to maintain the
structure in a safe condition until a capital construction contract is carried out.
The bridge inspector should note the need for maintenance work when performing a
detailed visual inspection, and also the timeframe required. The following timeframes can
be used:
• “Urgent” applies to structure, motorist and pedestrian safety items that should be
2018

completed as soon as possible. Work in this category typically includes; routine

maintenance items such as protruding expansion joint armouring, missing electrical
covers, very severe pothole repairs and scaling loose concrete or flaking patina. It
also includes emergency structural maintenance items such as repairing fatigue
cracks in girders, addition of temporary supports to severely corroded beam ends
and repairs to severely damaged piles.
• “1 year” timeframe generally applies to serviceability items that should be done
2018

within about a 1 year timeframe. Work in this category typically includes; routine
maintenance items that do not affect safety such as many types of bridge and deck
drain cleaning, debris removal from waterway, worn timber wearing boards and
sidewalk surface repairs.
• “2 year” timeframe applies to durability items that can be done in 2 years or more.
These items must be low enough in urgency that they will not become a serious
concern before the next biennial inspection, should they not be completed. At that
time the urgency can be revised if it is approaching a more critical state. Work in
this category typically includes: cosmetic patching of concrete, repair of signs,
painting, concrete sealing, rout and seal cracks and expansion joint seal
replacement.
Rev

Minor defects that will most likely never be repaired, need not be identified as a
Maintenance Need.

PART 2 2-58
 Defects that are recorded as “recommended work” should not also be recorded as
maintenance work, except for those concerns that are recorded as “urgent” since they
must be acted on immediately.
A maintenance list is then forwarded to maintenance crews for action – either to complete
the routine maintenance work or to initiate a structural maintenance contract for those
items requiring more complex procedures or engineering design. At the completion of the
maintenance work, the maintenance crew should inform the engineer responsible for the
detailed inspection so that it can be confirmed that all safety related maintenance was
performed satisfactorily. A standard list of maintenance needs, and a description of each,
is shown in Table 2.6.1.

Table 2.6.1: Maintenance Needs

Maintenance Need Description

2018

1 Lift and Swing Bridge The operation, maintenance and repair activities that are unique to
Maintenance * lift and swing bridge structures, including all mechanical equipment
and electrical devices such as signals, flashers, lighting, navigation
Rev

lights, etc., but not including work defined by other structural

maintenance operations.
2 Bridge Cleaning The cleaning of bridge components including:
1) Washing of bearings, bearing seats, truss members, etc.
2) Sweeping of bridge decks, curbs and gutters.
3) Removal of debris from expansion joints.
4) Debris pick-up or minor removal of aggregate.
5) Cleaning of catch-basins, man-holes and deck drains.
2018

3 Railing System Repair Repair and/or replacement of metal handrails, railing systems and
Rev2008

posts, as well as securing the railings.

4 Painting Steel Bridge The preparation (sandblasting, etc.) and painting of structural steel.
Structures * Includes handrails when performed as part of an overall bridge
painting operation.
5 Bridge Deck Joint The repair of expansion joints and end dams.
Repair
6 Bridge Bearing The adjustment, repair and/or replacement of bridge bearings.
Maintenance * Includes all work directly associated with bridge bearings.
7 Structural Steel Repair The repair of all structural steel, including bolts and fasteners.
8 Concrete Repair The repair of all concrete components of the structure, such as
2008

localized areas on exposed decks or concrete end dams, curbs,

pedestrian walks, concrete handrail posts, parapet walls, abutments,
piers and retaining walls, except when the repair is more directly
Rev

associated with one of the other defined bridge maintenance

operations or the quantity of repair is excessive for a maintenance
operation.
9 Timber Repair The repair of all structural timber, including the repair of timber decks
on steel bridges.
10 Works for Modular The works include installation, removal, repair and maintenance that
Bridges is unique to modular bridges, but not including work defined by other
structural maintenance operations.
Rev

PART 2 2-59
 Maintenance Need Description
11 Animal/Pest Control The installation and maintenance of animal/pest control devices
under bridge structures such as pigeon-proofing.
12 Bridge Surface Repair The repair of bridge surfaces such as pothole patching.

13 Erosion Control at Operations performed to prevent or repair damage due to erosion,

Bridges such as scour at abutments and around piers, and washouts on
slopes. Includes removal of obstructions to water flow, clearing of
vegetation growth, etc.
14 Concrete Sealing The sealing or treatment of bridge concrete surfaces with approved
materials, as well as the preparation of surfaces prior to treatment.

15 Rout and Seal – The routing of joints and/or cracks in concrete and asphalt pavement
2018

Concrete and Asphalt and the filling of same with joint fillers or rubberized asphaltic sealing
Pavement on Bridge compounds.
Decks *
16 Works for Drainage The works include repair, maintenance and replacement / extension
system of deck drains. Includes steaming and calcium application to
unthaw. Repair and maintenance of other drainage system such as
Rev

retaining walls.
17 Scaling (Loose The removal of loose delaminated concrete or delaminated patina of
2008

Concrete or ACR ACR steel girders that pose a risk as a falling hazard.
Steel)
18 Other Maintenance A maintenance activity that does not fit into any other category.
Rev
Rev 2018

*This maintenance need is not applicable anymore. Do not specify this maintenance need
in the inspection report.

PART 2 2-60
 2.7 INSPECTION FORMS
The inspection forms required for recording field information are shown at the end of this
Section. The form usually consists of four main pages. A description of each page and
the definitions of the various data entry fields are contained below.

2.7.1 INVENTORY DATA (P. 1)

This is a one page summary of general inventory data and historical
inspection/rehabilitation information. It is often useful for the inspector to take this page to
the field for reference purposes. The type of data on this page is defined by the owner
and usually originates from a main inventory database. The inspector should note any
discrepancies in the data when performing the inspection. An example of a typical form is
shown at the end of this section.

2.7.2 HISTORICAL DATA, SCHEDULED IMPROVEMNETS

AND APPRAISAL INDICES (P. 2)
In some jurisdictions, it is often of benefit to the inspector to know what improvements are
planned for the bridge. In addition, if some specific studies have been done (e.g. seismic,
fatigue, etc.), a summary of the results may be useful to the inspector in the field (e.g. The
inspector may pay particular attention to certain details if they have been identified as
susceptible in a study). Examples of some of this optional appraisal data are shown at the
end of this section.

2.7.3 FIELD INSPECTION INFORMATION AND

ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS (P. 3)
2.7.3.1 FIELD INSPECTION INFORMATION
This page is completed in the field and consists of the following data fields:

Date of Inspection: The date when the inspection was done.

2008
2018

Type of Inspection: Regular OSIM or Enhanced OSIM.

Rev

Inspector: The name of the inspector and the name of the consulting
engineering company (if applicable).
Others in Party: The other member(s) of the inspection team.
2008

Access Equipment Used:List of any special access equipment used in the inspection.
Rev

Weather: Indicate the weather conditions at the time of the inspection.

Temperature: Indicate the temperature at the time of the inspection.

PART 2 2-61
 2.7.3.2 ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS REQUIRED
These investigations are described in Part 3 of this manual. The required data and priority
(urgency) of the inspection is described below:

Priority – None: Indicates that the investigation is not required.

Priority – Normal: Indicates that the investigation should be completed before the
time of the next inspection (usually within two years).
Priority – Urgent: Indicates that the investigation should be completed as soon
2008

as possible.
Investigation Notes: Indicate any general comments about the investigations
required.

2.7.3.3 OVERALL STRUCTURE NOTES

1. Recommended Work on Structure and Timing of Recommended Work:
This section is intended to include the inspector’s preliminary assessment of the
capital construction work that may be required. It is recognized that the actual work
required and timing will be determined as priority setting methodologies are
employed and the bridge progresses through preliminary and detailed design.
Recommended work is for work that requires a capital construction contract. In
general, enough work must be required on the various elements to warrant placing
the bridge on the rehabilitation program. For example, defects such as spalled
concrete on an abutment wall, may not warrant that the bridge be placed on the
rehabilitation program just to repair the wall. Repairs classified as Maintenance,
including Structural Maintenance work, are recorded in the Maintenance area for
the specific element, as described in Part 2, Section 2.6. Similarly, functional
deficiencies or additional investigations are also recorded in other areas of the
inspection form.

The inspector should record the magnitude of the recommended work and the
timeframe as described below.

a) Recommended Work on Structure:

Minor Rehab: This includes work to elements of the bridge other than the
deck. It can include bearings, expansion joints, barrier walls
or substructure elements.
Major Rehab: This must include major work to the deck to improve its overall
condition. It includes a patch-waterproof-pave rehab, deck
overlay and deck replacement. It may also include some
other elements (i.e. bearings, barriers, etc.)
Structure Replacement: This involves complete replacement of the structure.

b) Timing of Recommended Work:-

Rev

PART 2 2-62
 1 to 5 years: A rehabilitation or replacement that can be done in a normal
2008

time frame. The rehabilitation is to be designed and preferably

completed in one to five years.
6 to 10 years: Some rehabilitation work is expected in 6 to 10 years.

2. Overall Comments:
Indicate any general comments or concerns related to the bridge, including any
concerns that do not necessarily apply to a particular element – also indicate any
recommended work comments.
Rev

3. Date of Next Inspections:

Next Detailed Visual Inspection: Indicate the date when the next biennial
inspection is required. If deemed necessary by the inspector, this could be at a
time sooner than two years.

2.7.4 ELEMENT DATA (P. 4)

The data for each bridge element shall be shown on one table. The tables can be
duplicated for as many elements as exist for each bridge.

Element Group:
The main category of element (See Table 2.2.1)
Element Name:
The individual element name and sub-element name (if applicable) (See Table 2.2.1)
Location:
A description of where the element is on the structure (e.g. East pier, portal bracing, etc)
Material:
The material the element is made of (See Table 2.7.1 )
Table 2.7.1: List of Materials
Aluminum Corrugated steel Mass concrete Steel
Asphalt Gravel Plastic Weathering steel
Cast Iron Hybrid Precast concrete Wood
Cast-in-place Masonry Retained soil Other

Element Type:
The specific type of element (e.g. I-girder, elastomeric bearing, etc.)
2008

Environment:
The degree to which the element is exposed to salt spray. See examples below:
Rev

PART 2 2-63
 Severe Moderate Benign
2008

Exposed Concrete Deck Concrete Deck with

waterproofing
Exterior Soffit Interior Soffit
Railings and inside face of Outside face of barrier
Barrier Walls wall
Abutment in splash zone Abutment at expansion Abutment with no joint
joint (integral abutment)
Pier in splash zone Pier at expansion joint Pier with no joint (where
deck continuous)
End Portion of Beams (at Remainder of Beams
joints)
Rev

Joints

Protection System:
The type of protection system for that element (e.g. Deck overlay type – latex, cathodic
protection; rebar type- coated, stainless, etc.)
Length, Width, Height:
The dimensions used to calculate the total quantity of the element, as described in Part 2,
Section 2.3, Table 2.3.1
Count:
The number of occurrences of the element under consideration (e.g. 6 girders)
Total Quantity:
The count times the quantity for one element (Units are defined in Table 2.2.1)
Condition Data:
This table is used to record the “severity and extent” of the material defects of the various
2008

bridge components as described in Part 2, Section 2.4. A close-up visual inspection is

Rev

required for all elements. Appropriate special equipment (Bridgemaster, bucket truck,
ladders, etc) should be used to facilitate this assessment.
When recording the “extent” (quantity) that an element is in a particular condition state,
the following guidelines should be followed:

• Select the appropriate inspection quantity units from Table 2.2.1 (m2, m., Each,
All)
• For Elements with units of m2 or m:
The actual inspection quantity units should always be used for the part of the
2008
2018

element in the Poor Condition State (e.g. 15 m2). Percent should not be used
Rev

unless the quantity in poor exceeds 33%.

• Enter the estimated quantity in the 3 Condition States (Good, Fair, Poor). See
the appropriate Condition State Table in the Part 2, Section 2.4.
• Quantity in Excellent = Total - Quantities in other states
• Elements with “each” as unit - give number of occurrences of the element in
each State

PART 2 2-64
 • Elements with “all” as unit - place entire quantity in one state
• If an element is not completely visible, or the view is obstructed, quantities
Rev 2008

should be estimated and the “Limited Inspection” box should be checked on the
form.

Comments:
2018

• Comments should provide information on the poor condition state (e.g. How the
quantity was estimated, location of defects, etc.).
• Comments can also be used to provide general information on the element.

Suspected Performance Deficiencies:

Suspected Performance Deficiencies, as described in Part 2, Section 2.5, should be
2008

recorded if a potential deficiency exists, or if a follow-up action is required. (e.g. strength

evaluation, specialized inspection, etc.) Select deficiencies from the pick list on page 3 of
the form and enter the appropriate Code number.

Recommended Work:
This area should be used by the inspector to recommend work on an element and the
time frame for completing the work. It is used for recommending a specific action for the
element, either rehabilitation or replacement. It is not for maintenance work, functional
deficiencies or additional investigations. Recommended work must be consistent with
the condition of the element, and as such, is usually driven by the quantity of defects in
the poor condition state. As a guide, the following ranges can be used to estimate the
timing of recommended work for the five major elements:

1 to 5 year
Deck Top 10% to 20% Poor
Deck Soffit 5% to 15% Poor
Barrier Wall 15% to 30% Poor
Expansion Joint 15% to 25% Poor
Girders 5% to 10% Poor

If the percent Poor is in the low end of the range, it is assumed that the timing would be
closer to the 5 year timeframe. Conversely, if the percent Poor is in the high end of the
range, the timing would be closer to the 1 year timeframe. If the percent Poor for the
element exceeds the upper bound of the range, the inspector should ensure that safety of
the structure is not a concern. For critical elements, the inspector may recommend the
element be rehabilitated even though the quantities in Poor condition are less than above.
For elements not listed above, the inspector may still record the recommended work and
time frame if necessary.
The inspector is often unsure of the extent of the work required based solely on the visual
inspection, thus, the following general terms should be used:

Rehabilitation – Element requires patching, refacing, overlay, or partial

replacement or,
Replacement – Element requires complete replacement.
Rev
Rev

PART 2 2-65
 Priority – 1 to 5 years: A rehabilitation or replacement of element that is
2018

required in one to five years.

6 to 10 years: A rehabilitation or replacement of element
that is required in 6 to 10 years.

Maintenance Needs:
Maintenance Needs should be selected from the pick list on page 3 of the form and the
appropriate Code number entered on the form, along with the timeframe. Written
comments can also be made about maintenance needs. For additional information, refer
Rev

to Part 2, Section 2.6,

PART 2 2-66
 This page is intentionally left blank

PART 2 2-67
 Ontario Structure Inspection Manual – Inspection Form MTO Site Number:

Inventory Data:
Structure Name
On or Under Service on Navig. Water Non-Navig. Water
Main Highway #
Structure structure: Rail Road Ped. Other
Service Navig. Water Non-Navig. Water
Location description
under Rail Road Ped. Other
Owner/Custodian LHRS: LHRS offset:
MTO Region Latitude: Longitude:
Heritage Not Cons. Cons./not App. List/not
Regional Engineer
Designation: Desig. Desig./not List Desig. & List
MTO Area Hwy Class: Freeway Arterial Collector Local
Old County Posted Speed No. of Lanes
Township AADT % Truck
Structure Type 1 Travel Stream
Structure Material 1 Traffic Directional Bound
Structure Type 2 Inspection Route Sequence
Structure Material 2 Inspection Frequency (years)

Total Deck Length (m) Inspection Year

Overall Str. Width (m) Inspection Duration (hrs)
Culvert length (m) Interchange Number
Total Deck Area (sq.m) Interchange Structure Number
Roadway Width (m) Min. Vertical Clearance (m)
Skew Angle (Degree) Detour Distance (km)
No. of Spans Fill on Structure (m)
Span Lengths (m)
2018

For retaining wall:

Total Wall Length (m) Max. Wall Height (m)

Total Wall Area (sq.m) Ave. Wall Height (m)
Rev

Angle of Backfill (Degree)

Page 1

PART 2 2-68
 Ontario Structure Inspection Manual – Inspection Form MTO Site Number:

Historical Data:
2018

Year Built Year of superstruct. constructed

Last Reg OSIM Inspection Year of Last Minor Rehab.
Last Enh. OSIM Inspection Year of Last Major Rehab.
Current Load Limit / / (tonnes)
Rev

Work History: (Date/description)

Rev 2018

Investigation History: (Date/description)

Scheduled Improvements:
Regional Priority Number Programmed Work Year
Nature of Program Work:

Appraisal Indices: Comments

Fatigue

Seismic

Scour

Flood

Barrier

Curb

Load Capacity
Page 2

PART 2 2-69
 Ontario Structure Inspection Manual – Inspection Form MTO Site Number:

Field Inspection Information:

Rev2008
2018

Date of Inspection: Type of Inspection: Reg. OSIM Enh. OSIM

Inspected By:
Others in Party:
Enh. Access Equipment:
Special Access Equipment:
Weather: Temperature:

Additional Investigations Required: Priority

None Normal Urgent
Material Condition Survey
2008

Detailed Deck Condition Survey:

Non-destructive Delamination Survey of Asphalt-Covered Deck:
Concrete Substructure Condition Survey:
Detailed Coating Condition Survey:
Detailed Timber Investigation
Post-Tensioned Strand Investigation
Underwater Investigation:
Fatigue Investigation:
Seismic Investigation:
Structure Evaluation:
Monitoring
Deformations, Settlements and Movements:
Crack Widths:
2018

RSS Horizontal movements of face:

RSS Vertical movements of overall structure:
RSS Local movements or deterioration of facing elements:
RSS Horizontal movements within overall structure:
RSS Vertical movements within overall structure:
RSS Lateral earth pressure at the back of facing elements:
Investigation Notes:

Overall Structure Notes:

Recommended Work on Structure: None Minor Rehab. Major Rehab. Replace
Timing of Recommended Work: 1 to 5 years 6 to 10 years
Rev

Overall Comments:

Date of Next Inspection:

Suspected Performance Deficiencies

06 Bearing not uniformly loaded/unstable 12 Slippery surfaces
01 Load carrying capacity 07 Jammed expansion joint 13 Flooding/channel blockage
02 Excessive deformations (deflections & rotations) 08 Pedestrian/vehicular hazard 14 Undermining of foundation
03 Continuing settlement 09 Rough riding surface 15 Unstable embankments
04 Continuing movements 10 Surface ponding 16 Other performance deficiencies
2018

05 Seized bearings 11 Deck/Wall drainage

Maintenance Needs
01 N/A 07 Structural Steel Repair 13 Erosion Control at Bridges
02 Bridge Cleaning 08 Concrete Repair 14 Concrete Sealing
03 Railing System Repair 09 Timber Repair 15 N/A
04 N/A 10 Works for Modular bridges 16 Works for Drainage System
05 Bridge Deck Joint Repair 11 Animal/Pest Control 17 Scaling (Loose Concrete or ACR Steel)
2008
Rev

06 N/A 12 Bridge Surface Repair 18 Other Maintenance

PART 2 2-70 Page 3
 Element Data
Element Group: Length:
Element Name: Width:
Location: Height:
Material: Count:
Element Type: Total Quantity:
Environment: Benign / Moderate / Severe Inspected: Yes No Limited
Protection System: Perform.
Rev2008

Condition Units Exc. Good Fair Poor* Deficiencies

Data: 2
m / m / each / % / all
Comments:
Rev2008

Recommended Work: Rehab Replace Maintenance Needs:

1-5 years 6-10 years Urgent 1 year 2 year

Element Group: Length:

Element Name: Width:
Location: Height:
Material: Count:
Element Type: Total Quantity:
Environment: Benign / Moderate / Severe Inspected: Yes No Limited
Protection System: Perform.
Deficiencies
Rev2008

Condition Units Exc. Good Fair Poor*

Data: m2 / m / each / % / all
Comments:
Rev2008

Recommended Work: Rehab Replace Maintenance Needs:

1-5 years 6-10 years Urgent 1 year 2 year

Element Group: Length:

Element Name: Width:
Location: Height:
Material: Count:
Element Type: Total Quantity:
Environment: Benign / Moderate / Severe Inspected: Yes No Limited
Protection System: Perform.
Rev2008

Condition Units Exc. Good Fair Poor* Deficiencies

Data: 2
m / m / each / % / all
Comments:
Rev2008

Recommended Work: Rehab Replace Maintenance Needs:

1-5 years 6-10 years Urgent 1 year 2 year

* A quantity must be estimated using the appropriate unit (e.g. m2). Percent should not be used. Page 4
PART 2 2-71
2.8 EXAMPLES
The following pages depict examples of various material defects and performance
deficiencies. The photographs are listed in order of Element Group first and then by
Element. For each photograph, the Condition State is identified for the portion on the
element with the worst material defects. During an actual inspection, the quantity of the
element in each condition state would be recorded.

2.8.1 ABUTMENTS

Figure 2.8.1(a) Concrete Abutment Wall

Condition State: Fair/Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Numerous medium cracks and several Deterioration present may reduce the
wide cracks with penetration of water strength of the wall. An evaluation is
through wall and efflorescence. required to determine the extent of
strength reduction

PART 2 2-72
 Figure 2.8.1(b) Wood Lagging - Abutment Wall

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: None

Light weathering of wood. Slight movement of piles and lagging
which has stabilized. No significant effect
on other components

Figure 2.8.1(c) Wood Crib - Abutment Wall

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Continuing

Movement; Continuing Settlement
Very severe decay, crushing and Continuing increasing movement and a
splintering of wood loss of strength affecting the stability of the
structure

PART 2 2-73
 Figure 2.8.1(d) Masonry Abutment Wall

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Medium loss of Mortar Wall is satisfactorily supporting
superstructure loads

Figure 2.8.1(e) Concrete Abutment Wall

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Medium cracking under the bearing seat No loss of bearing area

PART 2 2-74
 Figure 2.8.1(f) Concrete Abutment Wall

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Bearing Not

Uniformly Loaded/Unstable

Very severe disintegration of concrete Bearing seat area reduced

Figure 2.8.1(g) Concrete Ballast Walls

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: None

Light surface scaling No performance defects

PART 2 2-75
 Figure 2.8.1(h) Concrete Ballast Wall

Condition Statement: Poor Performance Deficiency: Continuing

Movement / Load Carrying Capacity
Very severe delamination, spalling and Continuing movement. Loss of section
corrosion of exposed reinforcement may affect the capacity of wall to retain
backfill. An evaluation is required to
determine the extent of strength reduction

Figure 2.8.1(i) Steel Plate Sliding Bearing

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: None

Light rusting Anchor bolts near end of travel in slots of base plate.
Minor allowance for further expansion of superstructure
Maintenance Needs: Bridge Bearing Maintenance
Cleaning of debris around bearing required

PART 2 2-76
 Figure 2.8.1(j) TFE Elastomeric Bearing

Condition State: Fair/Poor Performance Deficiency: Continuing

Movement
Anchor bolts severely bent. Elastomer Movement of structure not adequately
being squeezed out restrained

Figure 2.8.1(k) Laminated Elastomeric Bearing

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Medium bulging and cracks in elastomeric
pad

PART 2 2-77
 Figure 2.8.1(l) Pot Bearing

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Seized

Bearings
TFE squeezed out Almost complete loss of sliding capability

Figure 2.8.1(m) Steel Rocker Bearing

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: Bearing Not Uniformly

Loaded/Unstable
Light corrosion Rocker should be tilting toward the ballast wall based
upon temperature of 20o C at the time of inspection.
Rocker in danger of falling over during colder weather

PART 2 2-78
 Figure 2.8.1(n) Steel Rocker Bearing

Condition State: Excellent Performance Deficiency: Bearing Not

Uniformly Loaded/Unstable
No material defects Bearing in danger of collapse

Figure 2.8.1(o) Roller Bearing

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Seized

Bearings
Very severe corrosion Rollers frozen. No capability for
movement

PART 2 2-79
 Figure 2.8.1(p) Concrete Wingwall

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: None

Narrow cracking with efflorescence No evidence of movement. Wall is
satisfactorily retaining backfill

Figure 2.8.1(q) Concrete Wingwall

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Continuing

Movement / Load Carrying Capacity
Very severe erosion, spalling and Very severe section loss and continuing
delaminations movement critically affecting the strength and
stability of the wall. An evaluation is required to
determine the extent of strength reduction

PART 2 2-80
2.8.2 APPROACHES

Figure 2.8.2(a) Concrete Approach Slab

Condition State: Excellent Performance Deficiency: Pedestrian/Vehicular

Hazard / Rough Riding Surface
No visible defects Approach has settled by 20 mm adjacent to the bridge,
and provides a rough transition onto the bridge

Figure 2.8.2(b) Concrete Sidewalk

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency:

Pedestrian/Vehicular Hazard
Very severe spalling Curb inadequate to prevent vehicles from
climbing curb

PART 2 2-81
 Figure 2.8.2(c) Wood Curb

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: None

Insignificant collision damage and Satisfactory curb height, with no
deterioration of wood displacements or projections

Figure 2.8.2(d) Concrete Sidewalk

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency:

Pedestrian/Vehicular Hazard
Severe scaling and spalling with exposure Sidewalk surface irregular with large spalls
of severely corroded reinforcement and very severe scaling presenting
difficulty for pedestrian passage

PART 2 2-82
 Figure 2.8.2(e) Wood Sidewalk

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: Slippery Surfaces

Light weathering of wood planks Slightly slippery surface when wet

Figure 2.8.2(f) Gravel Approach

Condition State: Not Applicable Performance Deficiency: Rough Riding

Surface
Approaches are slightly rough and should be re-
graded
Maintenance Needs: Bridge Surface Repair
Gravel should be removed from the deck surface

PART 2 2-83
2.8.3 BARRIERS

Figure 2.8.3(a) Parapet Wall

Parapet Wall
Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: Non
Light defects No performance defects

Hand Railing
Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying
Capacity
Permanent deformation of hand railing An evaluation is required to determine the
extent of strength reduction

Figure 2.8.3(b) Barrier Wall

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: None

Light scaling No performance defects

PART 2 2-84
 Figure 2.8.3(c) Concrete Railing

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Many broken rails and posts An evaluation is required to determine the
extent of strength reduction

Figure 2.8.3(d) Concrete Railing

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Very severe disintegration of concrete An evaluation is required to determine the
extent of strength reduction

PART 2 2-85
 Figure 2.8.3(e) Steel Railing with Steel Posts (concrete filled)

Condition State (for posts): Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Cracks in posts An evaluation is required to determine the
extent of strength reduction

Figure 2.8.3(f) Steel Railing with Concrete Posts

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Many broken areas An evaluation is required to determine the
extent of strength reduction

PART 2 2-86
 Figure 2.8.3(g) Concrete Guide Rail

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Very severe disintegration of concrete An evaluation is required to determine the
extent of strength reduction

Figure 2.8.3(h) Steel Flex Beams

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Permanent deformation of flex beam An evaluation is required to determine the
extent of strength reduction

PART 2 2-87
2.8.4 BEAMS / MAIN LOGITUDINAL ELEMENTS

Figure 2.8.4(a) Floor Beam of Steel Through Truss

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

capacity
Very severe corrosion with perforation of More than 20% loss of cross-section of
floor beam web floor beam. An evaluation is required to
determine the extent of strength reduction

Figure 2.8.4(b) Reinforced Concrete Girders

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: None

A few wide longitudinal cracks due to Cracking has little effect on girder capacity
corrosion of reinforcement

PART 2 2-88
 Figure 2.8.4(c) Concrete T-Beam

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Full height, medium shear crack Potentially inadequate beam capacity. An
evaluation is required to determine the
extent of strength reduction

Figure 2.8.4(d) Steel Beam

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Very severe corrosion of web and bottom Possible loss of load carrying capacity. An
flange evaluation is required to determine the
extent of strength reduction

PART 2 2-89
2.8.5 BRACING

Figure 2.8.5(a) Sway Bracing and Bottom Lateral Bracing

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: None

Light corrosion of both bracing systems Bracings are providing satisfactory lateral
support

Figure 2.8.5(b) Bottom Lateral Bracing

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: None

Light corrosion over the surfaces of Bracing is providing satisfactory lateral
bracing angles support

PART 2 2-90
 Figure 2.8.5(c) Top Lateral Bracing in Steel Through Truss

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Permanent deformation of member Possible loss of strength and ability to
provide lateral support, due to
deformation. An evaluation is required to
determine the extent of strength reduction

PART 2 2-91
2.8.6 COATINGS

Figure 2.8.6(a) Through Truss - Connection of Primary Components

Condition State: Excellent Performance Deficiency: Not Applicable

No defects in coating material

Figure 2.8.6(b) Railing

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Not Applicable

Material defects and severe surface rust

(Rust Condition Rating – Category 4)

PART 2 2-92
 Figure 2.8.6(c) Connection of Primary Components

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Not Applicable

Coating is peeling

Figure 2.8.6(d) Through Truss - Connection of Primary Components

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Not Applicable

Coating is peeling

PART 2 2-93
 Figure 2.8.6(e) Steel Pony Truss

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: Not Applicable

Material defects and medium surface rust
(Rust Condition Rating - Category 3)

Figure 2.8.6(f) Truss Primary Connection at Abutment Bearing

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Not Applicable

Material defects and severe surface rust
(Rust Condition Rating - Category 4) of the
connection surface

PART 2 2-94
 2.8.7 CULVERTS

Figure 2.8.7(a) Multi-plate Pipe Arch

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load

Carrying Capacity
2008

Medium crimping of corrugations. Quantity is Possible inadequate capacity to

Rev

measured as the area of the crimpling zone only support applied loading

\
Figure 2.8.7(b) Multi-plate Pipe Arch

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Excessive

Deformations
2008

Severe cracks along bolt line in the valley Severe local deformation has occurred.
corrugations of the haunch lap joint. Present strength is just adequate, but local
Quantity is measured as the area of the or general collapse of the pipe may occur
Rev

circumferential band where cracks exist suddenly

(i.e. there is a small band (under the ridge
bolt) that is not cracked and is not Poor

PART 2 2-95
2008

Figure 2.8.7(b1) Multi-plate Pipe Arch

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Excessive

Deformations, Load Carrying Capacity
Deformation and reverse curvature of Possible inadequate capacity to support
culvert roof, plus cusping(separation of applied loading and local or general
plates at joint <10mm. Quantity is collapse may occur suddenly
measured as the area of the
circumferential band for the length that
reverse curvature extends

Figure 2.8.7(b2) Multi-plate Pipe Arch

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Separation of culvert units. Quantity is Present strength appears adequate, but local
measured as the band area where the continued loss of support material for soil-steel
Rev

separation occurs culvert may lead to general collapse of the pipe

PART 2 2-96
2008

Figure 2.8.7(b3) Multi-plate Pipe Arch

Condition State: Good/Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Moderate rust along waterline, light rust elsewhere

Figure 2.8.7(b4) Multi-plate Pipe Arch

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Severe rusting along floor of culvert. Severe rusting has occurred. Present
Quantity is measured as the strength is just adequate, but local or
circumferential band area where there are general collapse of the pipe may occur
perforations and the actual area of suddenly
corrosion where the section loss is >10%,
but no perforations exist
Rev

PART 2 2-97
 Figure 2.8.7(c) Wood Culvert

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Continuing

Movement
Walls breaking up and soil entering into the Severe sway and continuing movement of
waterway. Washout of fill behind the walls the walls with possible sudden collapse

Figure 2.8.7(d) Concrete Open Footing Culvert

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: None

Light deterioration of concrete Culvert supporting fill satisfactorily
Maintenance Needs: Erosion Control at Bridges
Heavy vegetation growth should be cleared.

PART 2 2-98
2.8.8 DECKS

Figure 2.8.8(a) Exposed Concrete Deck of a Voided Slab

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Medium longitudinal cracks in deck top Material defects unlikely to cause
surface at the void locations reduction in load carrying capacity

Figure 2.8.8(b) Exposed Concrete Deck

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Medium transverse cracks in deck top Cracking has no significant effect on the
surface load capacity or load distribution of the
deck

PART 2 2-99
 Figure 2.8.8(c) Concrete Deck

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: Rough Riding

Surface
Many locations of medium scaling and Deck is satisfactorily carrying load but
surface staining due to corrosion of provides a slightly rough ride around the
reinforcement deck joint

Figure 2.8.8(d) Concrete Deck

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Rough Riding

Surface
Previously repaired delaminated areas are Deck provides a slightly rough ride
delaminating again

PART 2 2-100
 Figure 2.8.8(e) Deck Drain (Hole in Deck)

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: Deck Drainage

Medium deterioration, with a full depth A proper drain has not been installed.
wide crack, honeycombing and scaling of Discharge runs along soffit and onto
concrete at the drain location structure components below

Figure 2.8.8(f) Steel Deck Drain

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Medium corrosion over 25% of drainage Drain flows freely and discharges well
system away from other components

PART 2 2-101
 Figure 2.8.8(g) Deck Drain With Basin

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: Surface Ponding

Light corrosion of basin Slight accumulation of debris in the basin, and
evidence of slight ponding of water around the basin
Maintenance Needs: Bridge Cleaning
Debris should be removed from catch basin

Figure 2.8.8(h) Drainage System

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Insignificant and localized deterioration of Slight accumulation of debris in the trough,
drainage trough under deck joint not affecting the adequacy of the system

PART 2 2-102
 Figure 2.8.8(i) Drainage System

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: None

Light corrosion of corrugated pipe deck drain.
Drainage system on abutment in good condition
Maintenance Needs: Bridge deck drainage
Pipe drain discharges directly onto embankment causing severe erosion

Figure 2.8.8(j) Drainage System

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Deck

Drainage
Drain pipe broken off at connection
Maintenance Needs: Bridge Deck Drainage / Erosion Control at Bridges
Drain discharging directly onto embankment causing very severe erosion

PART 2 2-103
 Figure 2.8.8(k) Rigid Frame, Thick Slab Soffit

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Medium longitudinal cracks with water No loss of load carrying capacity

leakage and deposits on soffit

Figure 2.8.8(l) Thick Slab Soffit

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Very severe pattern cracking with severe Material defects may result in marginal
spalling and exposed corroded loss of load carrying capacity. An
reinforcement evaluation is required to determine the
extent of strength reduction

PART 2 2-104
 Figure 2.8.8(m) Soffit of a Thin Slab

Condition State: Fair to Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Medium to wide cracks with local Material defects which may affect deck
delamination and spalling of concrete over performance locally. An evaluation is
the top flanges of the floor beams and required to determine the extent of
stringers strength reduction

Figure 2.8.8(n) Asphalt Wearing Surface on Laminated Wood Deck

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying Capacity /

Pedestrian/Vehicular Hazard
Very severe breaking up of the • Some areas of deck may not support truck wheel
wearing surface with very loads. An evaluation is required to determine the
severe deterioration of the deck extent of strength reduction.
laminates in many places • Wearing surface is irregular, resulting in moderate
difficulty in maintaining vehicle control.

PART 2 2-105
2.8.9 EMBANKMENTS & STREAMS

Figure 2.8.9(a) Embankments

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: None

Many very deep, closely spaced gullies. • Minor movement has stopped.
Loss of embankment material to top of Embankment is essentially stable.
footing

Figure 2.8.9(b) Embankments

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Unstable

Embankments
Loss of 30% to 40% of material due to Embankment is unstable. Progressive
scour at the toe of slope failure of slope will continue

PART 2 2-106
 Figure 2.8.9(c) Embankments

Right Embankment

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Unstable

Embankment
Scour of 30% to 40% of embankment Embankment is unstable. Progressive
failure will continue

Left Embankment

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Unstable

Embankment
Scour of over 40% of embankment Embankment has collapsed. Stability of
approach is critically affected

PART 2 2-107
 Figure 2.8.9(d) Random Rip-Rap Slope Protection

Condition State: Excellent Performance Deficiency: None

No evidence of material deterioration

Figure 2.8.9(e) Grass Slope Protection

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: Unstable

Embankment
Loss of grass to over 20% of embankment Loss of protection to 20% of the
embankment

PART 2 2-108
 Figure 2.8.9(f) Cast-In-Place Concrete Slope Protection

Condition State: Excellent Performance Deficiency: Continuing

Settlement; Continuing Movement
No material deterioration of concrete slabs • A few areas of minor movement and
settlement.

Figure 2.8.9(g) Precast Concrete Slope Protection

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: Continuing

Settlement; Continuing Movements
Less than 20% of the slabs broken Severe settlement and movement of the
slope protection

PART 2 2-109
 Figure 2.8.9(h) Streams

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency:

Flooding/Channel Blockage
Degradation of stream bed to bottom of Maximum high water marks above soffit of
footing beams

Figure 2.8.9(i) Streams

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Undermining

of Foundation
Aggradation of right bank and erosion of Stream encroaching against wingwall and
left bank resulting in severe change in substructure with severe erosion of
stream alignment and flow at the structure embankment and scour under the
foundation

PART 2 2-110
 Figure 2.8.9(j) Streams

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency:

Flooding/Channel Blockage
Medium aggradation and siltation of stream Channel blockage reducing opening at
bed with moderate growth of vegetation structure

Figure 2.8.9(k) Streams

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency:

Flooding/Channel Blockage
Aggradation of stream bed having a severe Partial blockage of the opening at the
effect on stream flow at the structure structure

PART 2 2-111
 Figure 2.8.9(l) Streams

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency:

Flooding/Channel Blockage
Very severe deposition of debris after a Debris carried and deposited against
flood structure after a flood causing substantial
damage to piles and blocking stream flow

Figure 2.8.9(m) Streams

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency:

Flooding/Channel Blockage
Medium local aggradation of the Flooding of stream over deck occurring
streambed every year. Very severe damage to
structure by debris carried during flood

PART 2 2-112
2.8.10 FOUNDATIONS

Figure 2.8.10(a) Foundation

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: None

Localized area with spalling and No visible movement of footing, abutment
disintegration. This deterioration should be or superstructure. Loss of section not
included with the “Abutment Wall” element affecting foundation capacity

Figure 2.8.10(b) Foundation

Condition State: Not Applicable Performance Deficiency: None

Previous settlement of wingwall has
stabilized

PART 2 2-113
 Figure 2.8.10(c) Foundation

Condition State: Not Applicable Performance Deficiency: None

Movement of foundation has stabilized. It has
produced wide cracks in abutment but has not
affected the stability of the abutment

Figure 2.8.10(d) Foundation

Condition State: Not Applicable Performance Deficiency: Continuing

Movements
Continuing increasing movement of
foundation has affected stability of the pier
and the superstructure

PART 2 2-114
2.8.11 JOINTS

Figure 2.8.11(a) Finger Plate Expansion Joint

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: Jammed Expansion

Joint / Pedestrian/Vehicular Hazard
Light rust No room for further expansion, joint alignment
poses danger to traffic

Figure 2.8.11(b) Compression Seal Joint

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: None

Seal is leaking

PART 2 2-115
 Figure 2.8.11(c) Paved-Over Joint

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Rough Riding

Surface
Significant cracking of asphalt pavement. Rough ride across the joint
Joint is leaking

Figure 2.8.11(d) Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Seal

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: None

Seal is leaking

PART 2 2-116
 Figure 2.8.11(e) Multiple Seal Joint

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: None

Seal torn and joint is leaking

Figure 2.8.11(f) Rubber Cushion Joint

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: None

Joint is leaking

PART 2 2-117
 Figure 2.8.11(g) Horizontally Bolted Seal

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: Jammed

Expansion Joint
Light abrasion of the seal due to debris Deck movement severely restricted by
debris
Maintenance Needs: Bridge Cleaning
Debris should be cleared as part of general maintenance

PART 2 2-118
2.8.12 PIERS

Figure 2.8.12(a) Concrete Pier Cap

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Very severe spalling and corrosion of An evaluation is required to determine the
exposed reinforcement extent of load carrying capacity

Figure 2.8.12(b) Concrete Pier Column

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: None

Very severe delamination and spalling of Section loss will have minimal effect on
the column, with exposed reinforcement load carrying capacity

PART 2 2-119
 Figure 2.8.12(c) Steel Pier Bent Base

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Medium corrosion; 5% to 10% loss of Component capacity marginally affected
section locally by loss of section

Figure 2.8.12(d) Wood Trestle

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: None

Light decay in piles No evidence of movement. Piles satisfactorily
supporting load without distress

PART 2 2-120
 Figure 2.8.12(e) Masonry Pier

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Medium crack in stone Previous movement has stabilized

Figure 2.8.12(f) Disc Bearing

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: None

Light rusting and stainless steel sliding Movement capacity affected less than
plate is separating slightly 10%.

PART 2 2-121
2.8.13 RETAINING WALLS

Figure 2.8.13(a) Precast Concrete Retaining Wall

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Medium Cracking of Precast Units No evidence of movement. Wall
satisfactorily retaining fill

Figure 2.8.13(b) Bag Mortar Retaining Wall

Condition State: Good Performance Deficiency: Continuing

Movement
Minor loss of material at the joints A few locations of local minor movement.
Wall satisfactorily retaining fill. Vegetation
growth should be removed as part of
general maintenance

PART 2 2-122
2.8.14 TRUSSES / ARCHES

Figure 2.8.14(a) Steel Through Truss Connection

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
Severe corrosion over a plan area greater Possible loss of load carrying capacity. An
than 10%. Severe connection deficiency evaluation is required to determine the
exists extent of strength reduction

Figure 2.8.14(b) Sway Frame Connection.

Condition State: Fair Performance Deficiency: None

Medium corrosion over more than 40% of the Minimal loss of strength due to
connection. No connection deficiency since no corrosion
areas of severe corrosion exist on gusset

PART 2 2-123
 Figure 2.8.14(c) Vertical Member of Steel Through Truss

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: Load Carrying

Capacity
15% to 20% of cross section removed to Possible loss of load carrying capacity due
install guide rail to loss of section, and subsequent
buckling. An evaluation is required to
determine the extent of strength reduction

Figure 2.8.14(d) Concrete Bowstring Arch

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: None

Very severe scaling of arch rib Marginal loss of performance. Material
defects unlikely to cause reduction in load
carrying capacity

PART 2 2-124
 Figure 2.8.14(e) Concrete Spandrel Arch

Condition State: Poor Performance Deficiency: None

Very wide crack in the arch rib Crack extends about 100 mm into the rib.
Material defects unlikely to cause
reduction in load carrying capacity

PART 2 2-125
2.9 APPENDIX A – COMBINED SUMMARY OF
MATERIAL DEFECTS AND CONDITION
STATES
This appendix contains summaries for material defects and condition states by combining
the information from OSIM Part 1, Section 1.2 and Part 2, Section 2.4.

2.9.1 SUMMARY - CONCRETE

(Ref: Part 1, Sect. 1.2.2 and Part 2, Sect. 2.4.5)

CONDITION STATE
DEFECT GOOD FAIR POOR
(LIGHT) (MEDIUM) (SEVERE / VERY SEVERE)
Local flaking/loss of surface portion of concrete or mortar due to freeze-thaw
Scaling
Up to 5 mm depth 6 - 10 mm depth > 10 mm depth
Physical deterioration or breaking down of the concrete into small fragments
Disintegration
All
Deterioration of concrete brought about by water-borne sand and gravel particles
Erosion scrubbing against surfaces
All

Deterioration of reinforcement by electrolysis

Corrosion of
Reinforcement Due to drains/chairs Rust stains from Exposed reinforcement with
reinforcement rust
Discontinuity of the surface concrete which is substantially, but not completely
Delamination detached from concrete below or above it.
All

Fragments which have been detached from a larger concrete mass

Spalling
All
Linear fracture which extends partly or completely through the member.
Cracking
< 0.3 mm 0.3 - 1.0 mm wide > 1.0 mm wide

Aggregates react adversely with the alkalies in cement to produce a highly

Alkali- expansive alkali-silica gel
Aggregate
Hairline pattern cracks Narrow pattern cracks 0.1 - Medium-wide pattern cracks
Reaction
< 0.1 mm 0.3 mm wide > 0.3 mm wide

PART 2 2-126
 CONDITION STATE
DEFECT GOOD FAIR POOR
(LIGHT) (MEDIUM) (SEVERE / VERY SEVERE)
Produced due to the improper or incomplete vibration of the concrete which results
in voids being left in the concrete where the mortar failed to completely fill the
Honeycombing spaces between the coarse aggregate particles
Holes up to 25 mm Holes 25 - 50 mm Holes more than 50 mm
diameter diameter diameter
Shallow conical depressions resulting from the breaking away of small portions of
the concrete surface, due to the expansion of some aggregates due to frost action.
Pop-Outs
Holes up to 25 mm Holes 25 - 50 mm Holes more than 50 mm
diameter diameter diameter
Separation of concrete into layers prior to hardening, due to over- vibration.
Stratification
ALL
Concrete not uniform due to falling concrete (poor placement)
Segregation
ALL
Caused by hardened concrete prior to the next adjacent pour
Cold Joints
ALL
Water seeped through concrete, leaching chemicals and depositing them on the
Deposits surface - efflorescence
ALL
Wearing caused by vehicles or snow-plough blades
Abrasion
ALL
Result of dynamic and/or frictional forces generated by vehicular traffic, coupled with
Wear the abrasive influx of sand, dirt and debris
ALL
Slippery Smooth surface resulting from the polishing of the concrete deck surface by the
Concrete action of repetitive vehicular traffic
Surface ALL* include suspected
performances deficiency of
“slippery surface”

Active Wet Concrete surface is wet or damp due to salt contaminated water
2018

Areas Wet but no cracks Wet with cracks

Rev

PART 2 2-127
2.9.2 SUMMARY - STEEL / ALUMINUM
(Ref: Part 1, Sect. 1.2.3 and 1.2.6, Part 2 Sect. 2.4.15, 2.4.16, and 2.4.17)

CONDITION STATE
DEFECT GOOD (LIGHT) FAIR (MEDIUM) POOR
(SEVERE / VERY SEVERE)
Deterioration of steel by chemical/electro-chemical reaction resulting from exposure
to air, moisture, de-icing salts, industrial fumes and other chemicals/contaminants in
the environment in which it is placed
No section loss, loose < 10% section loss, small > 10% section loss,
Corrosion
rust/pitting in paint - scales or flakes - extensive rust/perforations *

Early signs of patina Flaking of patina

damage
Steel members can take the form of bending, buckling, twisting or elongation.

Corrugate Steel Pipe (CSP) culverts can exhibit cusping (abrupt change in curvature,
typically at seam), crimping (local buckling of culvert wall), global deformation
(change in original curved shape), and bolt tilting (bearing failure of bolts).

For members: ALL

Permanent
(Estimate repair area) *
Deformations
Cusping or crimping of Cusping or crimping of
culverts <10mm in height. culverts >10mm in height *
Global Deformation <10% Global Deformation >10% of
of culvert diameter culvert diameter and reverse
curvature *
Bolt Tilting
Are linear fracture in the steel extending partially or completely through the member.
They are mainly caused by fatigue, which can lead to brittle fracture (member cracks
Cracking completely) through without prior warning)
Cracks perpendicular to stress are very serious and ALL *
should have immediate action taken. (Estimate repair area)
Loose connections can occur in bolted, riveted or clamped connections. They may
be caused by corrosion of the connector, gusset plates or fasteners, excessive
vibration, overstressing, cracking, or the lack of proper tightening during construction.
Connection Based on the condition of the worst component within the connection
Deficiencies
Depends on percentage of Loose Bolts or Plan Area with severe corrosion
< 5% loose bolts or severe < 10% loose bolts or > 10% loose bolts or severe
rust severe rust or cracks rust or cracks
* - For CSP culverts, all portions in the Poor Condition State except corrosion without perforations (i.e.
cusping, crimping, deformations, cracks and corrosion with perforations) the area shall be taken to
include the entire circumference

PART 2 2-128
2.9.3 SUMMARY - WOOD
(Ref: Part 1, Sect. 1.2.4 and Part 2 Sect. 2.4.19)

CONDITION STATE
DEFECT GOOD FAIR POOR
(LIGHT) (MEDIUM) (SEVERE / VERY SEVERE)
Gradual deterioration of wood due to exposure to the actions of sun, rain, wind,
Weathering
frost and atmospheric pollutants
Checks Longitudinal tissue separations on the side grain of wood members
Splits Severe tissue separations extending from the side into the end
Tissue separations which follow the circular annual growth rings, and are visible
Shakes
on the end grain
Weathering < 5% into member 5—10% into member > 10% into member
Checks, Splits, < 5% into member 5—10% into member > 10% into member
Shakes
Biological decomposition of wood caused by micro-organisms called fungi
Slight change in Surface is discoloured and Surface is fibrous or crumbly
colour but wood solid slight hollow sound (5% - and hollow sounding or
Rot or Decay
(< 5% loss) 10% loss) surface and interior is
crumbly and wood is weak
(> 10 % loss)
Consequence of the tunnelling/boring by larvae/mature insects through the wood
resulting in loss of section
Insect Damage
Holes are present (< Holes and insects present Extensive/severe holes and
5% loss) (5% - 10% loss) insects (> 10% loss)
Deterioration of wood brought about by vehicles or snowplough blades scraping
against wood surfaces, coupled with the abrasive influence of sand, dirt or
Abrasion and Wear
debris.
< 5% loss 5% - 10% loss > 10% loss
Cracking, Physical damage which results from vehicular collision from overloading of a
Splintering, member
Crushing and < 5% loss 5% - 10% loss > 10% loss
Shattering
Fire is evidenced by charring and is usually confined to the wood surface.
Chemical damage may result from the use of non preservative chemicals on the
wood surface over a long period of time
Fire and Chemical
Slight charring or Deeper charring or softening Extensive damage with
Damage
softening with < 5% with slight loose connectors loose and severely
section loss with 5% - 10% section loss deformed connectors > 10%
section loss
Connections are loosened due to repetitive or dynamic loads, wear or decay of
Connection members connected and corrosion of the connectors
Deficiencies < 5% loose bolts or < 10% loose bolts or severe > 10% loose bolts or severe
severe rust rust rust

PART 2 2-129
2.9.4 SUMMARY - MASONRY
(Ref: Part 1 Sect. 1.2.5, Part 2 Sect. 2.4.11)

CONDITION STATE
DEFECT GOOD FAIR POOR
(LIGHT) (MEDIUM) (SEVERE / VERY SEVERE)
Incomplete separation into one or more parts with or without space between
Cracking
< 0.3 mm wide 0.3 to 1.0 mm wide > 1.0 mm wide

The opening of seams or cracks in the stone leading to the breaking of the stone
Splitting
into large fragments
Spalling The breaking or chipping away of pieces of the stone from a larger stone

Disintegration Gradual breakdown of the stone into small fragments, pieces or particles

Hairline cracking and Narrow cracking or Extensive spalling and

Splitting, Spalling minor loss of stone chipping away of stone disintegration of stone with
Disintegration surface with section with section loss 50 to 100 section loss > 100 mm
loss < 50 mm mm
Result of the destructive actions of frost, erosion, plant growth or softening by
water containing dissolved sulphates or chlorides.
Loss of Mortar or
Stone Mortar lost from joints Mortar lost from joints over Extensive mortar/stone loss
in a few places to a an extended area to a endangering the stability of
depth of 20 mm depth of 20 to 50 mm the structure

PART 2 2-130
2.9.5 SUMMARY - ASPHALT WEARING SURFACE
(Ref: Part 1 Sect. 1.2.7, Part 2 Sect. 2.4.1)
CONDITION STATE
DEFECT GOOD FAIR POOR
(LIGHT) (MEDIUM) (SEVERE / VERY SEVERE)
Pattern (e.g. Map, Linear fracture extending partially or completely through the pavement
Crack

alligator, radial,
edge) and isolated 1—5 mm wide 6—10 mm wide > 10 mm wide
Widespread loss of bond and delamination may occur between the asphalt pavement
and deck surface, between the waterproofing and the deck surface, between the
Loss of bond waterproofing and the asphalt pavement or between individual lifts of pavement
Bond Defects

< 150 mm in diameter 150—300 mm in diameter > 300 mm in diameter

The formation of transverse undulations in the pavement surface consisting of closely
spaced valleys and crests
Rippling A few noticeable bumps Several bumps producing a Numerous bumps producing
rough ride a very rough ride and
difficulty maintaining control
of vehicle
Progressive deterioration and loss of the pavement material from surface downward
Noticeable loss of Shallow disintegration of Shallow to deep
Ravelling pavement material pavement with an open disintegration of pavement
texture appearance with small/numerous
potholes, open texture and
loose surface material
Surface Defects

May result from flushing or from the polishing of the coarse surface aggregates by the
action of repetitive vehicular traffic
Slippery Surface There are no severity descriptions given for slippery surfaces as this is a serious and
potentially hazardous situation resulting in loss of riding comfort and loss of vehicle
control (indicate suspected perform deficiency of slippery surface)
The migration of asphalt upwards to the pavement surface in pavements with too
much asphalt in the mix.
Visible colouring of the Distinctive colouring of the Excessive free asphalt gives
Flushing pavement surface pavement surface with the pavement surface a “wet
occurring in localized areas excess asphalt free on the look”. Visible imprints left
pavement surface from footprints or vehicular
traffic
The formation of longitudinal depressions in the pavement at the locations of the wheel
Distortion
Surface

tracks of vehicles
Wheel track rutting
Rutting < 10 mm deep Rutting 10 to 20 mm deep Rutting > 20 mm deep

Bowl-shaped holes in the pavement caused by the penetration of water through the
Local Underlying

pavement and subsequent heaving of the pavement due to freezing of the entrapped
Potholes water and breaking up of the pavement due to traffic action
< 10 mm deep 10 to 20 mm deep > 20 mm deep
Defects

Protrusions Local delamination is visible as protrusions or bumps (often circular in shape)

(Delaminations) < 10 mm in height 10 to 20 mm in height > 20 mm in height

PART 2 2-131
2.9.6 SUMMARY - ASPHALT COVERED CONCRETE DECK
(Ref: Part 1 Sect. 1.2.7, Part 2 Sect. 2.4.6)
CONDITION STATE
DEFECT GOOD FAIR POOR
(LIGHT) (MEDIUM) (SEVERE / VERY SEVERE)
Transverse, Longitudinal – parallel to the direction of travel, and generally located at or
Wide longitudinal near the centre of the wheel track, pavement edge or centre-line of bridge
Isolated cracks Transverse – across pavement either fully or partially
Cracks
BOTTOM-UP DEFECTS

> 10 mm wide single

cracks
Potholes Bowl-shaped holes in the pavement caused by the penetration of water through
the pavement and subsequent heaving of the pavement due to freezing of the
Local entrapped water and breaking up of the pavement due to traffic action
Underlying ALL
Defects
Protrusions Local delamination is visible as protrusions or bumps (often circular in shape)
(Delaminations)
ALL

Pattern Map, edge, Incomplete separation into one or more parts with or without space between
Cracks alligator, radial
ALL
Loss of bond Widespread loss of bond and delamination may occur between the asphalt
pavement and deck surface, between the waterproofing and the deck surface,
between the waterproofing and the asphalt pavement or between individual lifts
of pavement
Bond
Defects ALL
Rippling The formation of transverse undulations in the pavement surface consisting of
closely spaced valleys and crests
ALL
Ravelling Progressive deterioration and loss of the pavement material from the surface
TOP – DOWN DEFECTS

Slippery Surface downward

ALL
May result from flushing or from the polishing of the coarse surface aggregates
Surface by the action of repetitive vehicular traffic
Defects
ALL
Flushing The migration of asphalt upwards to the pavement surface in pavements with
too much asphalt in the mix.
ALL
Wheel track The formation of longitudinal depressions in the pavement at the locations of
Surface rutting the wheel tracks of vehicles
Distortion
ALL
Isolated cracks Linear fracture extending partially or completely through the pavement
Light and
and
Medium < 10 mm
Transverse,
Isolated
longitudinal
Cracks
cracks

PART 2 2-132
2.9.7 SUMMARY - COATING
(Ref: Part 1, Section 1.2.8 & Part 2 Sect. 2.4.4)

CONDITION STATE
DEFECT GOOD FAIR POOR
(LIGHT) (MEDIUM) (SEVERE / VERY SEVERE)
Rust condition rating is a visual rating of the surface appearance and is based on ASTM
Rust Condition D610 sketches and is also shown in Part 2, Figure 2.4.1.
Rating
Rust Condition Rating 2 Rust Condition Rating 3 Rust Condition Rating 4 or more
Fine system of minute cracks in a checkerboard pattern.
Checking or Caused by weathering and exposure during curing
Crazing
ALL
Linear pattern of crack penetrated through coating.
Coating Related Defects

Cracking Results from weathering, continuing polymerization or shrinkage

ALL
Large irregular checks across surface.
Alligatoring Caused by non compatible layers of coating and hardening/shrinkage process
ALL
Coating reacting adversely with air borne chemicals or accidental spills
Chemical
Attack ALL
Powdery appearance of coating surface.
Caused by reaction of coating resins to sunlight and process of weathering.
Chalking
ALL

Spreading of corrosion under coating from a break.

Undercutting Caused by poor surface preparation
ALL
Adhesion Related Defects

Dome shaped projections of coating.

Blisters Caused by solvent or water trapped within paint film
ALL
One coat separates from another.
Intercoat Caused by contaminated surfaces or excessive curing between coats
Delamination
ALL
Separation of coating from steel due to poor adhesion
Peeling
ALL
Corrosion under the coating with the help of from a break.
Underfilm Caused by poor preparation or porous coating
Corrosion
ALL

PART 2 2-133
 CONDITION STATE
DEFECT GOOD FAIR POOR
(LIGHT) (MEDIUM) (SEVERE / VERY SEVERE)
Coating bridges across tight corner or debris forming void.
Bridging Void can trap moisture and oxygen
Application Related Defects

ALL
Coating pulls away from sharp edges and corners.
Due to insufficient application of coating at edge
Edge Defects
ALL
Coating is applied too thin in the shadow of a rivet, bolts, or other abrupt change in surface
Shadows ALL
Some paint particle outside spray pattern dry prior to full coating.
Leads to some absorbed solvent and a more porous surface
Overspray
ALL
Air bubbles trapped in coating creating voids.
Pinholing Caused by holding spray gun too close
ALL
Application Related Defects

Downward movement of paint.

Caused by over-thinning or depositing too much paint at one time
Runs
ALL
Similar to runs, the downward movement of ‘curtain’ of paint
Sags
ALL
Rusting visible at point locations.
Pinpoint Caused by insufficient coating thickness on peaks of blast cleaned substrate
Rusting
Rate based on appearance and Rust Condition Rating

PART 2 2-134
 2.9.8 DEFECT SUMMARY SHEET
2016

2.9.8.1 DEFECT SUMMARY FOR CONCRETE

2.9.8.2 DEFECT SUMMARY FOR ASPHALT

Rev

* - at gravel support

PART 2 2-135
 Ministry of
Transportation

ONTARIO
STRUCTURAL INSPECTION MANUAL

PART 3 – ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS

This page is intentionally left blank
PART 3 : ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................3-1
3.2 MATERIAL CONDITION SURVEYS ...................................................3-1
3.3 UNDERWATER INVESTIGATIONS ....................................................3-3
3.4 FATIGUE INVESTIGATIONS ..............................................................3-3
3.5 SEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS ...............................................................3-3
3.6 STRENGTH EVALUATION – LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY ............3-4
3.7 MONITORING OF DEFORMATIONS, SETTLEMENTS, MOVEMENTS
AND CRACKS ....................................................................................3-4
3.8 APPRAISAL INDICES ........................................................................3-5

PART 3 3-i
 3.1 INTRODUCTION
During the course of the inspection, the inspector may feel that more detailed information
on the structure is required. The presence of severe material defects or performance
deficiencies may necessitate additional investigations to be done. When requesting an
additional investigation, the inspector should also indicate the time frame for completion of
the investigation as described in Part 2, Section 2.7.

In addition, an Owner may undertake special studies to determine if any components of a

2008
Rev

structure are “functionally obsolete”. A component is considered to be functionally obsolete

if it were originally designed and constructed using a Standard or Code that has since
changed. This type of information is usually recorded in the form of “appraisal indices” as
described in Part 3, Section 3.3.8.

3.2 MATERIAL CONDITION SURVEYS

Condition surveys involve the detailed measurement and documentation of areas of
defects and deterioration that exist on a structure. Procedures more precise than visual
inspection techniques are usually employed. Examples of these procedures are: material
2008

testing of samples, half-cell surveys, etc. For additional information on condition surveys
for concrete elements, refer to the Structure Rehabilitation Manual. Additional information
on detailed assessment of structures affected by alkali-aggregate reaction can be found in
CSA A864-00, Guide to the Evaluation and Management of Concrete Structures Affected
Rev

by Alkali-Aggregate Reaction. Material condition surveys for wood, called detailed timber
investigations, are described in Part 4, Section 4.2. Material condition surveys for steel
include crack detection, which is usually part of a fatigue investigation and described in
Part 3, Section 3.3.4 and Part 4, Section 4.1, or a detailed corrosion investigation which is
normally carried out as part of an strength evaluation and described in Part 3, Section
3.3.6.

As a general guide, material defects in the proportions listed in Table 3.1 would trigger a
detailed condition survey to be done. It should be noted that Condition Surveys are also
carried out on structures that are programmed for rehabilitation or sometimes when an
evaluation is to be carried out.

PART 3 3-1
 Table 3.1: Material Condition Survey Triggers

Condition Survey Type Description Condition Survey Trigger References

Rev 2008

Concrete Deck Involves the testing of various core samples, 10% of deck top or soffit Structure Rehabilitation
(Asphalt or Concrete sawn samples and the delineation of element in “Poor” Condition Manual
surface) delaminated areas and areas of high State
corrosion potential (using half-cell survey)

Non-destructive Involves the delineation of delaminated areas 5% of element in “Poor” Structure Rehabilitation
Delamination Survey of using non-destructive testing techniques such Condition State Manual
Asphalt Covered Decks as Ground Penetrating Radar, Impact Echo
testing, etc
Concrete Substructure Involves the testing of various core samples, 10% of element in “Poor” Structure Rehabilitation
etc, and the delineation of delaminated areas Condition State Manual
and areas of high corrosion potential (using
half-cell survey)
Structural Steel Coating A detailed survey of the condition of the 25% of combined area in Structural Steel Coating
2003

coating to confirm the feasibility of over- “Fair” and “Poor” Condition Manual
coating. The survey involves testing coating States and the percentage
adhesion, dry film thickness, etc. If in Poor is less than 10%.
deterioration is still in the early stages
(Combined area of Fair and Poor greater than
25%, and Poor is less than 10% at the visual
inspection stage), “over-coating” of the steel
may be a viable rehabilitation option. This
involves cleaning the surface with a wire
brush and “over-coating” the entire surface. If
deterioration exceeds the above thresholds,
traditional coating techniques (sandblasting
Rev

the surface, priming, etc,) would probably

have to be used.
Timber Structure A detailed investigation of the wood 10% of element in “Poor” Part 4 of this manual
Rev 2018

Investigation components using techniques such as Condition State

probing, drilling, coring, etc.
Post-Tensioned Strand Involves exposing areas of post-tensioning 50% of “Deck End” element Structure Rehabilitation
Rev 2008

Investigation strands to determine possible corrosion and in “Poor” Condition State Manual
extent of duct grouting.

PART 3 3-2 Apr. 2008

Nov. 2003 Revision
3.3 UNDERWATER INVESTIGATIONS
Underwater inspection shall be considered for components under water where the
depth or clarity of water does not permit a satisfactory visual inspection. They are also
carried out when there is evidence of scour or undermining of the structure foundations.
For scour prone structures, underwater inspections should normally be carried out at
five year intervals, unless information is available to justify either reducing or increasing
this interval. Underwater inspections should only be carried out by qualified divers
familiar with the following CSA Standard: “Occupational Safety Code for Diving
Operations”. Additional information on Underwater Inspections is contained in Part 5 of
this manual.

3.4 FATIGUE INVESTIGATIONS

Some jurisdictions have a specific fatigue inspection program for their fatigue prone
bridges. This involves performing regular close-up inspections of steel components and
by employing Non-Destructive Testing techniques, when necessary (See Part 4 of this
manual). The prioritizing of bridges that require a fatigue type inspection is done by
carrying out a study of the steel bridge inventory. It involves reviewing details,
construction techniques, materials, etc. For fatigue prone structures, detailed fatigue
investigations should normally be carried out at five year intervals, unless information is
available to justify either reducing or increasing this interval. The ranking of bridges can
be reflected in a fatigue index as described in part 3, Section 3.3.8.

Fatigue investigations can also be triggered if fatigue cracks are identified during a
biennial inspection.

3.5 SEISMIC INVESTIGATIONS

During the course of a detailed visual inspection, the inspector may observe situations
that may place structures at risk if they are in a high seismic zone. The inspector may
notice:

• Rocker bearings that are severely inclined and may be in danger of collapse
during a seismic event
• The superstructure may be close to the edge of its bearing seats. The
bearing seat lengths may be inadequate during a seismic event.

If some of the above observations are made, the inspector can request that a detailed
seismic investigation be done. The inspector should also review the Seismic Index if a
general study has been done as described in Part 3, Section 3.3.8.

PART 3 3-3
 3.6 STRENGTH EVALUATION – LOAD
CARRYING CAPACITY
To determine the load carrying capacity of a structure, a strength evaluation should be
performed. It is extremely difficult to determine a load limit with only visual inspection
information. Bridge plans should be reviewed and a structural analysis should be
performed. If bridge plans do not exist, measurements should be taken, similar bridge
plans can be reviewed, assumptions can be made and some calculations should be
done. In addition, for steel structures, it is often necessary to accurately measure the
thickness of critical members and determine the actual section loss as it varies across
the element. This information should be used in the evaluation. For concrete
structures, section loss in reinforcing steel should also be measured and accounted for
in the evaluation.
2008

3.7 MONITORING OF DEFORMATIONS,

SETTLEMENTS, MOVEMENTS AND
CRACKS
During a detailed visual inspection, the inspector may have identified elements that
have settled, deflected, rotated or tilted. If the movement has stabilized, immediate
action is probably not required. In order to determine if movements have stabilized, a
monitoring program should be implemented, whereby various measurements are
recorded over a period of time and compared to previous measurements.

The propagation of cracks in various materials can also be monitored over a period of
Rev

time.
2018

The anticipated maximum lateral construction movement of RSS wall is:

• In the order of H/250 for rigid reinforcement and H/75 for flexible reinforcement.
• Tilting due to differential lateral movement from the bottom to the top of the wall would
be anticipated to be less than 4 mm per m (¼-inch per 5 ft) of wall height for either
system.
• Post construction horizontal movements are anticipated to be very small.
• Post construction vertical movements should be estimated from foundation settlement
analysis and measurements of actual foundation settlement during and after
construction should be made.

The instruments for monitoring of Reinforced Soil Structures (RSS) are suggested as
Rev

follow:

PART 3 3-4
2018

RSS MONITORING PARAMETERS SUGGESTED INSTRUMENTS

Horizontal movements of face Visual observation, Surveying methods,
Horizontal control stations, Tiltmeters
Vertical movements of overall structure Visual observation, Surveying methods,
Benchmarks, Tiltmeters
Local movements or deterioration of facing Visual observation, Crack gauges
elements
Horizontal movements within overall structure Surveying methods (e.g. transit),
Horizontal control, stations, Probe
extensometers, Fixed embankment
extensometers, Inclinometers, Tiltmeters
Vertical movements within overall structure Surveying methods, Benchmarks, Probe
extensometers, Horizontal inclinometers,
Liquid level gauges
Lateral earth pressure at the back of facing Earth pressure cells, Strain gauges at
elements connections, Load cells at connections
Rev

3.8 APPRAISAL INDICES

Often, an owner undertakes special studies to determine if any of the structures in the
inventory have components that are “functionally obsolete”. The studies usually consist
of specialized inspections in addition to a more rigorous review of structural details,
design parameters, current Code requirements, etc. If deficiencies are identified,
structures are prioritized using “appraisal indices” and policies are set to address the
components that are functionally obsolete. These appraisal indices should be used
together with the material defects and performance deficiencies in determining the
optimum rehabilitation or replacement option for the structure in question. Examples of
appraisal indices are:

(1) Fatigue
• Identifies fatigue prone structures and sets priorities for close-up
visual inspection
(2) Seismic
• Identifies structures with poor seismic details and sets priorities for
further seismic evaluations.
(3) Scour
• Identifies structures with poor scour details and sets priorities for
further scour investigations/inspections (e.g. Underwater
investigations).
(4) Flood
• Identifies structures that are prone to flooding and sets priorities for
further flood investigations/inspections or monitoring programs.
(5) Barrier
• Identifies structures with functionally obsolete barriers/railings by
comparing the original design with current Code requirements.

PART 3 3-5
 (6) Curb
• Identifies structures with functionally obsolete curbs/sidewalks by
comparing the original design with current Code requirements.
(7) Load Capacity
• Ranks structures that have been recently evaluated using current
Code requirements. The index gives an indication of excess or
insufficient load carrying capacity.

PART 3 3-6
 This page is intentionally left blank

PART 3 3-7
 Ministry of
Transportation

ONTARIO
STRUCTURAL INSPECTION MANUAL

PART 4 – MATERIAL CONDITION SURVEYS

This page is intentionally left blank
PART 4 : MATERIAL CONDITION SURVEYS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE

4.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL ....................................................................... 4-1

4.1.1 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS FOR DETECTION OF
DEFECTS IN STEEL COMPONENTS ..................................................... 4-1
4.1.1.1 Liquid Penetrant Testing ................................................................. 4-2
4.1.1.2 Magnetic Particle ............................................................................ 4-5
4.1.1.3 Ultrasonic Testing ........................................................................... 4-7
4.1.1.4 Eddy Current................................................................................... 4-9
4.1.1.5 Radiographic Testing .................................................................... 4-10
4.1.1.6 Comparison of Non-Destructive Methods ..................................... 4-12
4.1.2 REFERENCES FOR NDT OF STRUCTURAL STEEL .......................... 4-14
4.2 WOOD .............................................................................................. 4-15
4.2.1 METHODS FOR DETECTION OF DEFECTS IN WOOD COMPONENTS4-15
4.2.2 METHODS FOR DETECTION OF SURFACE DETERIORATION......... 4-16
4.2.2.1 Probing ......................................................................................... 4-16
4.2.2.2 Pick test ........................................................................................ 4-16
4.2.2.3 Pilodyn .......................................................................................... 4-17
4.2.3 METHODS FOR DETECTION OF INTERIOR DETERIORATION......... 4-18
4.2.3.1 General ......................................................................................... 4-18
4.2.3.2 Sounding ...................................................................................... 4-18
4.2.3.3 Moisture Meter .............................................................................. 4-19
4.2.3.4 Drilling and Coring ........................................................................ 4-21
4.2.3.5 Shell-Depth Indicator .................................................................... 4-23
4.2.3.6 Sonic Testing ................................................................................ 4-25
4.2.3.7 Ultrasonic Testing ......................................................................... 4-26
4.2.4 POST-INSPECTION PROCEDURE AND TREATMENT ....................... 4-26
4.2.5 REFERENCES FOR NDT OF WOOD ................................................... 4-27

4-i
4.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL

4.1.1 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS FOR

DETECTION OF DEFECTS IN STEEL COMPONENTS
A comprehensive non-destructive testing program of steel bridge components should be
carried out whenever the members are cleaned to bare metal for any reason. At this
time, a thorough visual examination of all exposed surfaces and connections can be
implemented along with an examination of critical areas and components. This can be
performed by the use of non-destructive techniques described herein.
Non-destructive testing is a term used to describe a process which allows materials and
structures to be examined for defects without changing or destroying their usefulness. A
wide variety of techniques have been devised among which the most commonly used, in
addition to visual inspection, are:
• Liquid penetrant or dye penetrant (LP)
• Magnetic particle (MP)
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
• Eddy Current testing (ET)
• Radiographic (RT)

Of the five methods presented, none can satisfactorily identify all defects, each has its
limitations and the accuracy that can be achieved with all the equipment under
laboratory conditions can seldom be obtained in the field due to normally unfavourable
site conditions.
A large variety of defects can be identified using non-destructive testing procedures and
these are classified in three categories;
• Primary Inherent Defects
• Secondary Fabrication Defects
• In-Service Defects
Primary inherent defects in the materials used in the manufacturing of steel structures
(plates, forgings, castings structural shapes, etc.) conform to the applicable standards.
The standards permit minor surface discontinuities and non-significant internal defects
which are smaller than the minimum allowable size. These defects, which remain in the
finished product and are smaller than the maximum allowable defect size, usually have
little effect on the strength of the member.
Secondary fabrication defects can be introduced into the material during fabrication.
Processes used to produce the final product may introduce different defects or
discontinuities to the structure. These are usually, but not always, identified through
quality control procedures and are rectified by the fabricator. However, these defects
are sometimes missed and should always be considered in subsequent inspections.
In-service defects arise from cyclic stresses or excessive loading which result in metal
fatigue. This fatigue leads to the initiation of cracks which propagate and cause

PART 4 4-1
component failure. General corrosion of a component results in section loss reducing
the ability of the component to support the design load. Pitting Corrosion combined with
cyclic stresses causes stress corrosion cracking. This results in the reduction of a
components strength and ability to carry design loads.
Defects remaining in the finished structure may, due to their shape, location and service
environment, become stress raisers. These stress raisers compromise structural
integrity.
All of the various non-destructive techniques can be applied in the field to identify and
evaluate defects although some techniques are more suitable than others. The
following sections describe each of the procedures, along with advantages and
disadvantages in field applications.

4.1.1.1 Liquid Penetrant Testing

The liquid penetrant method is commonly used in both shop and field to reveal defects
that are open to the surface. It is simple to carry out, involves little time, is inexpensive
and is easily interpreted. The process consists of the following:

• The surface of the metal is carefully cleaned with a wire brush or by water
blasting to remove all loose scale, rust, etc. followed by solvent cleaning to
remove any surface contaminants. Grinding or sanding of the surface may burr
over or otherwise obscure defects.
• A liquid penetrant, a brilliantly coloured penetrating oil, is applied to the cleaned
surface and allowed to seep into the surface defects for thirty minutes or more.
• Excess penetrant is then removed and a developer agent is sprayed onto the
surface.
• The developer dries to a white chalky coating and remains unchanged in the
absence of any defects. Where surface defects do exist, the penetrant is drawn
to the surface by capillary action and stains the developer.
The surface can then be visually examined for cracks or other surface defects which will
be revealed by brightly coloured stains on the white surface.
The dwell time of the penetrant can be varied to detect cracks of different widths, the
finer the crack the longer the dwell time. Fluorescent penetrants can be used with
ultraviolet light to detect cracks wider than about 3 microns. The sequence for liquid
penetrant application and typical images are shown in Figure 4.1.1.1a. to Figure 4.1.1.1c

PART 4 4-2
Step 1: Clean Step 2: Apply red penetrant Step 3: Wipe off excess

Step 4: Apply white developer Step 5: Inspect for red marks on white surface
Figure 4.1.1.1a Steps Required for applying liquid penetrant

Figure 4.1.1.1b Metal surface after liquid penetrant application.

PART 4 4-3
 Figure 4.1.1.1c Surface after developer has been applied. A crack was detected
by the small thin red line (bottom right of the weld ).

Advantages
• Highly portable
• Relatively inexpensive
• Can be applied to a wide variety of non-porous surfaces
• Rapid method of inspection
• Results can be recorded photographically
• No special equipment required
• Results are visually apparent

Disadvantages
• Does not indicate depth of flaw
• Surface must be accessible
• Cannot detect any sub-surface defects
• Test site must be cleaned thoroughly before inspection
• Post cleaning may be necessary
2018

References:
• See references 8-11
Rev

PART 4 4-4
4.1.1.2 Magnetic Particle
Magnetic Particle Testing is used to detect surface and near surface defects.
When a ferromagnetic material is subjected to a magnetic field, magnetic flux lines are
generated in specific directions, depending on the placement of the contact electrodes
or magnetic poles. When a defect within the field lies generally at right angles to the flux
lines, the field will be distorted and some of the magnetic flux will leak out of the steel at
the defect. Fine magnetic particles (low retentivity iron powder) distributed over the
surface are attracted by the leakage field and held magnetically to form an outline of the
defect.
The area to be examined is magnetized by two current carrying copper prods held
against the surface of the component, a short distance apart to produce a circular
magnetic field. As only defects which are perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines, can
be detected, the prods must be moved about and re-positioned to ensure that all defects
are located regardless of orientation.
Both AC and DC electric current is suitable for magnetizing steel components. Surface
defects are most readily detected with AC magnetization. DC magnetization provides
greater penetration for detection of subsurface defects.
Electromagnetic yokes produce suitable magnetic fields and are highly portable.
Figure 4.1.1.2a shows units used for producing a magnetic field and Figure 4.1.1.2b
illustrates how the yokes are used in conjunction with particle application for inspection.

Figure 4.1.1.2a Typical units used for generating magnetic fields to locate any
defects. Top: Yoke; Bottom: Prods

PART 4 4-5
 Figure 4.1.1.2b Typical magnetic particles application and field generator (yoke).

Advantages
• Portable and inexpensive;
• Can detect fine and shallow surface cracks;
• Fast and relatively simple to apply;
• Few limitations on size and shape of parts or structures;
• Surface cleanliness and cleaning methods not as important as for liquid
penetrant method.

Disadvantages
• Surfaces must be reasonably smooth to avoid non-relevant indications;
• Requires removal of surface materials which may interfere with the ability to
magnetize the area. (Generally, the area should be cleaned of debris and loose
materials. Non-conductive coatings must be removed where the prods contact
the metal.);
• Only detects surface defects with certainty, does not indicate depth of cracks
and defects.
• Some sub-surface defects are detectable but indications are diffused;
• Direction and strength of the magnetic field is critical, flux lines should be normal
to the plane of a defect;
• Prod method of magnetization can cause arc burns and possible cracks;
• Demagnetization is necessary when magnetic particles may interfere with
working metal surfaces, threads on bolts or subsequent painting operations;
• Can only be applied to accessible surfaces;
2018

References
• See references 8, 12-14
Rev

PART 4 4-6
4.1.1.3 Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing is a method in which high frequency sound waves are introduced into
a material for the detection of surface and internal defects. They pass through the
material and are reflected at interfaces or boundaries such as flaws such as cracks, slag
inclusions, porosity etc., or the back surface of the material. The reflected waves
returning to the source can be displayed as pulses or signals on the screen of a cathode
ray tube. The pulses or signals relate to the transit time of the sound. The travel time of
the returning pulses is a measure of the distance to the interface of the defect.
The ultrasonic method is used to detect cracks and various other types of planar defects
in wrought materials, to examining welds in fabricated components for cracks, slag
inclusions and porosity, and for measuring residual wall thickness of corroded
components.
The ultrasonic system is comprised of a high frequency pulse generator, transducer,
receiving amplifier and CRT screen. These components allow for detection and location
of defects. By various scanning movements in the area of a defect, orientation, size,
shape and nature can be determined through interpretation of the reflected pulses
displayed on the screen of the instrument. Ultrasonic systems can detect discontinuities
that are larger than one half of the wave length of the signal. A system operating at
5MHz will detect defects larger than about 0.5mm.
A schematic of ultrasonic testing is shown in Figure 4.1.1.3a and the application of the
instrument in Figure 4.1.1.3b and 4.1.1.3c.

Figure 4.1.1.3a Schematic of ultrasonic testing equipment

.

PART 4 4-7
Figure 4.1.1.3b Application of ultrasonic testing equipment. Component was
being inspected for voids and metal defects.

Figure 4.1.1.3c Ultrasonic testing of a bridge pin.

PART 4 4-8
 Advantages
• Detects the depth and location of cracks and planar defects;
• Very sensitive and can detect small defects such as inclusions;
• With adjustments in procedure (angle-beam method and contact pulse
reflection) can detect internal defects and fatigue cracks;
• Few restrictions on size of work piece;
• Ideal for testing wrought materials and welds;
• Requires access to one surface of the test piece;
• Highly portable;
• Equipment is relatively inexpensive;
• Can be fully automated for scanning uniform shapes.

Disadvantages
• Rough or uneven surface must be ground smooth.
• Interpretation of results dependent on skill, knowledge and experience of
operator.
• No permanent record of the observations. (Methods have been recently
developed to digitize the screen image which can then be computer enhanced
and/or printed.)
• High noise levels are produced by coarse grain structures such as cast iron
which reduce test efficiency.
2018

References
• See references 8, 15-16
Rev

4.1.1.4 Eddy Current

Eddy current testing is a method based on the principles of electromagnetic induction.
The component or part thereof to be tested is placed within or adjacent to a coil which is
excited by an alternating current.
As the induced current fluctuates, an eddy current is produced which flows in a closed
loop inside the test material. The flow of this eddy current is affected by the electrical
properties of the part and the existence of defects distorts the electromagnetic field
within the part.
When defect free material is being tested the eddy current flow remains uniform. In the
presence of a crack or other defect, the eddy current flow is impeded and changes
direction, which in turn alters the electromagnetic field. Eddy current instruments are
designed to detect and monitor these changes.

Advantages
• Can be used for rapid inspection of planar shapes;
• Ideally suited for non-ferrous materials
• Contact of coil or probe with surface not necessary but a consistent separation

PART 4 4-9
 must be maintained;
• Thin, uniform coatings do not have to be removed;
• Detects very small discontinuities;
• The size of the defect can be estimated;
• No couplants or post cleaning needed;
• Good method for sorting materials, checking heat treatment and detecting
hardness variations.

Disadvantages
• Not suitable for complex shapes;
• Shallow penetration of parts, detects surface and subsurface defects only;
• Needs reference samples for comparison purposes;
• Material must be electrically conductive;
• Surfaces must be smooth and uniform;
• Skilled and experienced technicians required to interpret the indirect test results.
2018

References
• See references 8, 17
Rev

4.1.1.5 Radiographic Testing

This method is based on the ability of ionizing radiation in the form of X-rays or Gamma
Rays to penetrate solid materials to produce an image on film or a fluorescent screen
(Figure 4.1.1.5a).
The radiation is mostly absorbed when passing through sound and thick metal while it
will pass more readily through cracks, defects and thinner material. Any differences in
density due to inclusions or gas cavities or thickness variations in the part being
examined cause differences in the absorption rates of the penetrating radiation. The
resulting images on the film appear in various shades of gray, depending upon the
amount of radiation reaching the film. Since cracks or defects absorb less of the
available radiation they create a darker image than the sound material.
The radiograph shown in Figure 4.1.1.5b illustrates a typical X-ray radiograph of a metal
arc weld with slag inclusions.

PART 4 4-10
 Figure 4.1.1.5a Schematic of typical radiographic equipment.

Under ideal field conditions, radiographic inspections can be used on most types of solid
materials to reveal defects with depths or thicknesses greater than about 2% of the
thickness of the material being examined. Cracks with depths of about 1.0mm or more
should be detected under normal conditions when the plane of the crack is parallel to
the direction of radiation.
This method is not well suited for testing in field conditions. It should, however, not be
eliminated as a test method. The use of ultrasonic testing would be a suitable test
method in place of radiographic testing.

Figure 4.1.1.5b Radiograph of a double vee groove metal arc weld in steel.
The dark contrasting spots are slag inclusions. The top image
has acceptable slag inclusion the bottom image was
considered severe.

PART 4 4-11
 Advantages
• Well suited for the detection of open cracks and internal defects particularly in
welds (inclusions and porosity);
• Detects cracks oriented approximately parallel to the axis of the rays;
• Permanent record of defects can be produced on film;
• Image is geometrically correct relative to the size, shape and location of the
defect and area examined;
• Method and equipment well known and accepted;
• Gamma ray equipment is more portable while the less portable x-ray equipment
can produce better contrast and definition of defects.

Disadvantages
• Equipment is hazardous and subject to rigid government controls. GAMMA
RADIATION CANNOT BE TURNED OFF! Radiation sources must be heavily
shielded;
• Not able to determine the depth of a defect;
• Cannot detect defects oriented perpendicular to the axis of the rays. Varying
degrees of detection capabilities for other orientations relative to the axis of the
rays;
• Both faces of test area must be accessible;
• Equipment is bulky and may be difficult to use in areas with limited space or
restricted access;
• Not well suited to the detection of fine, tight cracks.
• Testing is expensive, particularly in the field.
2018

References

•
Rev

See references 8, 18

4.1.1.6 Comparison of Non-Destructive Methods

All of the foregoing non-destructive testing techniques can be used to evaluate defects
in bridge structures but some are more readily used than others. Which method or
methods that are to be used will depend entirely upon the information to be derived.
Liquid penetrants are ideally suited in confirming the presence of a surface defect such
as a crack which has been identified by some surface anomaly during a visual
inspection. The technique will confirm a discontinuity on the surface of a component
and show its size but with no indication of the depth. It is not particularly suited for a
comprehensive testing program of welds and assemblies.
Magnetic particle testing is a simple method for quickly evaluating extensive welds and
surface areas. It too is most suited to detecting surface discontinuities although some
sub-surface defects may also be detected if they are close to the surface. As with liquid
penetrants, this method will delineate the aerial extent of a defect but will provide no

PART 4 4-12
 indication of the depth.
Ultrasonic techniques provide a means to identify and measure both surface and
subsurface discontinuities quickly and economically although specific procedures are
required that are unique to the component under test. Defects within the material
appear as anomalies on the screen and through interpretation by the testing technician,
the size of the defects can be estimated.
Eddy current testing will provide accurate detection of surface and near surface defects
but requires the surface to be quite smooth; any irregularities complicates the
interpretation of the results. This method is ideally suited to shop inspection of large
planar surfaces but as the geometry of the component under test becomes more
complex the observations become more difficult to interpret. The success of this
technique is highly dependent upon the experience and expertise of the testing
technician.
Radiography is a major non-destructive testing method which is routinely applied to the
examination of welds and assemblies during fabrication. It is ideally suited to the
detection of voids, inclusions, porosity, open cracks etc., where both faces of the
component are accessible. A photographic image of a defect is produced illustrating its
extent but not its depth. The equipment is expensive and requires special precautions
to protect against radiation hazards, as is generally not recommended for use in the
field.
Table 4.1.1.6 gives a relative comparison of each test method to assist the user in
selecting a suitable method for a particular application.

Table 4.1.1.6 Comparison of Non-Destructive Methods

Legend: Inspection Method

G - Good F - Fair/Marginal Liquid Ultra- Magnetic Eddy Radiography
P - Poor N - Not Suitable Penetrant sonic Particle Current
In-Service
Fatigue Cracks G G G G P
Stress Corrosion G G G N F
Corrosion Pits F
Surface Cracks G N N G
General
Surface Cracks F P G G N
Deep Surface Cracks G G G G F
Internal Cracks N G N N F
Internal Voids N F N N G
Welds
Slag Inclusions and Porosity N F N P G
Surface Cracks G P G G P

Internal Cracks, N G P N G
Lack of Fusion and Penetration

PART 4 4-13
 4.1.2 REFERENCES FOR NDT OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

1. American Society for Metals, Metals handbook. Non-destructive inspection and

quality control. ASM, Metals Park, OH 12
2018

2. American Welding Society, Guide for the non-destructive inspection of welds.

ANSI/AWS B.1.10, AWS, Miami, FL.
3. American Welding Society, Structural welding code steel, ANSI/AWS D1.1, AWS,
Miami, FL
4. ASTM Designation: E94 Standard guide for radiographic examination.
5. Annual book of ASTM standards, vol. 03.03, ASTM
6. ASTM Designation: E1032 Standard method of radiographic examination of
Rev

weldments.
7. FWHA Ultrasonic testing inspection, Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
DC.
2018

8. CAN/CGSB-48.9712: Certification of Non-Destructive Testing Personnel

9. CGSB 48-GP-12M: Liquid Penetrant Inspection
10. ASTM-E-165: Standard Practice for Liquid-Penetrant Inspection Method.
11. ASTM-E-1770: Standard Method for Visible-Penetrant Examinations Using the
Solvent Removable Penetrant
12. CGSB 48-GP-11M: Manual on Magnetic Particle Inspection
13. ASTM-E709: Dry Powder, Magnetic Particle Inspection
14. ASTM E709: Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle Examination
15. CGSB 48-GP-6M: Recommended Practices for Ultrasonic Examination of Structural
Welds
16. ASTM E164: Standard Recommended Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Examination
of Weldments
17. CAN/CGSB 48.14-M86: Advanced Manual for Eddy Current Test Method
Rev

18. CAN/CGSB-48.5: Manual on Industrial Radiography

PART 4 4-14
4.2 WOOD

4.2.1 METHODS FOR DETECTION OF DEFECTS IN

WOOD COMPONENTS
Wood components develop decay from many causes outlined in Part 1, Section 1.2,
Material Defects, of this manual. There is potential for decay which results from the
reaction between wood and iron giving rise to loose connections not adequately
covered.
Methods for detecting deterioration in wood described herein are separated into two
groups; namely, those which identify exterior or surface deterioration, and those which
are used to assess deterioration in the body of the wood.
There is no single tool or method that can accurately determine the extent and severity
of deterioration. Of the methods discussed, none can satisfactorily identify all defects,
and each has its limitations. Usually, the information derived by using a number of
simple tools (Figure 4.2.1) and methods together can provide a relatively accurate
assessment of the extent of defects and deterioration in wood.

Figure 4.2.1 Typical tools used for testing wood condition. Left to Right: pick,
hammer, probe, coring tool, boring tool and treated wood plugs.

PART 4 4-15
4.2.2 METHODS FOR DETECTION OF SURFACE
DETERIORATION
4.2.2.1 Probing
Probing with a pointed tool, such as a knife, awl or screw driver, can locate decay near
the surface of the wood. Decay is indicated by excessive softness and lack of
resistance to penetration of the probe. Although the actual procedure is simple,
experience is required to distinguish decay from water-softened wood which is
otherwise sound. In addition, pressure treated wood may be sound on the surface but
rotted beyond the treated layer.

Advantages
• Simple and quick procedure.
Disadvantages
• Some soft species, such as cedar, may be particularly difficult to assess using
this method;
• Interpretation of results subject to experience of investigator;
• May not detect interior decay.

4.2.2.2 Pick test

In this test, a pointed pick, screwdriver or awl is driven a short distance into the wood,
transverse to the grain, to pry out a sliver of wood from near the edge of a component.
Sound wood has a fibrous structure and pries out as long splinters, while decayed wood
breaks abruptly and crumbles into small pieces (Figure 4.2.2.2).

Figure 4.2.2.2 Pick test:

PART 4 4-16
Advantages
• Simple and quick procedure
Disadvantages
• A large sliver of wood has to be removed for each test and leaves local damage
to the treated surface. This must be repaired;
• May not detect internal decay.

4.2.2.3 Pilodyn
A pilodyn (Figure 4.2.2.3) is a spring-loaded pin device that drives a hardened steel pin
into the wood. The depth of pin penetration is used as a measure of the degree of
decay.

Figure 4.2.2.3 Typical Pilodyn used for assessing wood condition.

Advantages
• Can provide a relatively accurate calibrated/quantitative assessment of depth of
decay;
• Simple and easy to use.

Disadvantages
• Equipment has to be calibrated, and results have to be corrected for moisture
content and wood species;
• May not detect internal decay

PART 4 4-17
4.2.3 METHODS FOR DETECTION OF INTERIOR
DETERIORATION

4.2.3.1 General
Interior deterioration is more difficult to locate because there may be no visible evidence
on the surface of the component. Several methods that can be useful in identifying
probable decay are described. With each of these, the existence and extent of the
problem should be confirmed and defined with core samples.

4.2.3.2 Sounding
Sounding is a commonly used method and involves striking the surface of the
component with a hammer, or other similar object, and assessing the resulting tonal
quality. A dull or hollow sound may indicate the presence of internal voids due to decay
(Figure 4.2.3.2). However, other factors may be present which may make clear
identification difficult.

Figure 4.2.3.2 Simple use of a hammer to sound a wood timber.

Decay is indicated by a hollow sound.

PART 4 4-18
Advantages
• Quick and simple to apply;
• Can readily identify very severe deterioration.

Disadvantages
• Results are subject to interpretation by inspector;
• Cannot detect wood in incipient or intermediate stages of decay
• Cannot determine the extent of decay. Suspect decay must be verified by other
methods such as boring and coring.

4.2.3.3 Moisture Meter

A moisture meter measures the electrical resistance of the wood between two metal
pins which are driven into the surface (Figure 4.2.3.3a). The resistance measured is
then correlated to the moisture content in the wood. A centre probe between the pins
indicates the depth of penetration of the pins. The pins are removable and available in
various lengths for determining moisture contents to depths up to 75mm into the wood.
The holes left by the pins can be repaired by treating with preservative.

A measure of the moisture in wood will provide an indication of conditions that are
conducive for decay. Moisture contents in excess of about 30% indicate conditions
suitable for decay. If the measurements are carried out after a severe or prolonged
period of dry weather, then moisture levels of 20 to 25 percent may be cause for
concern.

An alternative instrument to check for moisture is a shigometer. The shigometer uses a

pulsed current to measure changes in electrical conductivity associated with wood
decay. A small hole is drilled into the wood (Figure 4.2.3.3b) and a probe is inserted
into the hole (Figure 4.2.3.3c). The probe measures zones or regions of decreased
resistance. If the readings drop 50% to 75% to that of sound wood, the region is drilled
and cored to determine the extent and nature of the decay.

Figure 4.2.3.3a Typical resistance-type moisture meter.

PART 4 4-19
Figure 4.2.3.3b Drilling of the wood beam in preparation for the shigometer
probe

Figure 4.2.3.3c Application of the shigometer probe.

PART 4 4-20
Advantages
• Highly portable and easy to use;
• Can determine areas where decay is suspect or possible.

Disadvantages

• Does not directly detect decay;

• Must be calibrated and corrected for temperature conditions;
• Suspect areas must be evaluated by core sampling.
• Small holes left by the pins, potential areas for wood decay

4.2.3.4 Drilling and Coring

Drilling and coring are the most positive means to confirm the presence of internal voids
and decay, and to determine the thickness of the remaining sound material.

In drilling, a hand drill with a 10mm to 20mm diameter bit is used to drill a hole into the
wood. Zones or pockets of decay and deterioration are noted by ease of drilling and by
examination of wood shavings. Although power drills may be faster, a hand drill is more
suitable, giving the inspector better control and feel in detecting soft pockets.

Coring with an Increment Borer produces a length of solid core from the wood which
can be directly examined for decay and tested. The equipment used for coring and
extraction of a wood core is shown in Figures 4.2.3.4a to Figure 4.2.3.4c.

Drilling and coring are generally used to confirm suspect areas of decay identified by
other methods (sounding, moisture meter etc.), and to determine the extent or limits of
decay, in terms of depth and area. Drilling is often used to establish evidence of decay
followed by coring to define the limits of decay and extraction of samples for further
laboratory analysis. Culturing provides a simple method for assessing potential risk of
decay. The presence of fungi is indicative of wood in an early stage of decay and in
need of treatment.

Drill bits and borers must be sharp. Dull tools will break, crush and splinter the wood
making interpretation of samples and results difficult.

PART 4 4-21
Figure 4.2.3.4a Equipment used for boring and coring. The piece of pressure
treated wood is used as a plug to repair damage done by
boring.

Figure 4.2.3.4b Simple application of the boring tool.

PART 4 4-22
 Figure 4.2.3.4c Wood core removed by an increment borer.

Advantages
• Relatively simple and portable tools involved;
• Drilling provides a rapid initial assessment of interior deterioration;
• Coring produces a sample which can be further analyzed in detail in the
laboratory;
• The core can be used to determine the depth and extent of existing preservative
treatment and sound wood;
• The inspection hole is useful for the insertion of a shell depth indicator, to obtain
further data.

Disadvantages
• Interpretation of shavings and cores subject to experience of inspector, or must
be sent to approved laboratory for analysis;
• The surface treatment is interrupted by the inspection hole which must be treated
and plugged.

4.2.3.5 Shell-Depth Indicator

A shell-depth indicator is a metal bar or rod which is notched or hooked at one end and
inscribed with ruled markings along its length (Figure 4.2.3.5a). The hooked end is
inserted into the inspection hole and pulled back along the side of the hole. As it is
removed, the hook will be easily pulled through voids and decayed areas but will catch
on the edges of solid sections (Figure 4.2.3.5b). The inspector can thus determine the
depth and extent of decay and remaining solid portions as read from the ruler markings.

PART 4 4-23
 Figure 4.2.3.5a Schematic of a shell-depth indicator.

Figure 4.2.3.5b Use of a shell-depth indicator. Note: The wood member has
been partially sectioned to illustrate the application of the
indicator.

Advantages
• Highly portable and easy to use;
• Can determine depth of decay
• Can be used to estimate residual strength.

Disadvantages
• Needs to be used in conjunction with drilling or coring;

PART 4 4-24
4.2.3.6 Sonic Testing
Several methods, including sonic wave velocity, acoustic emission and stress wave
analysis have been used for examining wood. These methods typically involve the use
of devices which emit and pick up sound waves as they travel over the surface and
through the depth of the wood. The variations in the travel time of the sound waves are
recorded and can be related to the residual strength of the member. No direct
indication of decay is obtained.

The basis for these methods is that the characteristics of a sonic wave are altered in
some fashion as it passes through decayed and softer areas. With further
development, these methods will offer a significant advancement in the accurate
detection of decay and deterioration.

A typical device used for sonic testing is shown in Figure 4.2.3.6

Figure 4.2.3.6 Typical sonic testing equipment.

Advantages
• Can determine the approximate location and area of deterioration through
differential application;
• Portable
• Calibrated to give the residual strength of the component.

Disadvantages
• Still developmental to some extent;

PART 4 4-25
 • Cannot be used in the saturated zone at the water line;
• Requires special training in the use of the equipment;
• Core samples must be obtained and analyzed to confirm decay or deterioration
and to determine the cause.

4.2.3.7 Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing of timber is similar to sonic testing in that the variations in travel time
of sound waves is measured and evaluated to provide an indication of the residual
strength of a member. High frequency sound waves are induced into the wood by
means of a transducer and picked up by another mounted on the opposite side.

Advantages
• Can determine the approximate location and area of deterioration;
• Can be used to evaluate the saturated zone at the water line;
• Portable

Disadvantages

• Still developmental;
• Requires special training in the use of the equipment and in the interpretation of
the observations
• Core samples must be obtained and analyzed to confirm decay or deterioration
and to determine the cause.

4.2.4 POST-INSPECTION PROCEDURE AND TREATMENT

Several of the inspection methods and tools described involve the removal or
destruction of a portion of the wood. These locations, such as at drill and probe holes,
will become entry holes for insects and decay. All the surfaces at these locations must
be thoroughly treated with an approved preservative following the inspection. Holes
should be plugged for their full length with treated wood plugs or dowels, slightly larger
in diameter than the hole.

Generally, treatment with creosote or copper naphthenate is sufficient for bridge

components.

Failure to carry out a post inspection treatment can result in development or

acceleration of decay at inspection locations.

A summary of the methods typically used for detection of defects and deterioration in
wood is given in Table 4.2.4 This table is provided for the purposes of relative
comparison of each method, and to assist the user in selecting a suitable method for a
particular application.

PART 4 4-26
 Table 4.2.4 Comparison of Methods for Detecting Deterioration in Wood

Surface Deterioration Internal Deterioration

Inspection Method Exterior Shallow Voids Insect Decay
Depth Attack
Probing G F N N N
Pick Test G F N N N
Pilodyn G G N N N
Sounding N G F P F
Moisture Meter G G N P P
Drilling & Coring N N G F G
Shell Depth Indic. N N G F G
Sonic N N F F F
Ultrasonic N N F F F
Radiation N N G F G
Legend: G - Good F - Fair/Marginal P - Poor N - Not suitable

4.2.5 REFERENCES FOR NDT OF WOOD

1. ASCE technical Committee on Wood, Evaluation, maintenance and upgrading of
wood structures, A Guide and Commentary. Prepared by the Subcommittee on
Evaluation , Maintenance and upgrading of Timber Structures under Technical
Committee on Wood, ASCE, 1982.

2. Core H.A. and Cote W.A. Wood structure identification. 2nd ed. Syracuse
University Press, Syracuse, NY, 1979

3. JANEY J.R. Guide to investigation of structural failure. Report prepared for ASCE
Research Council on Performance of Structures, ASCE, 1986.

PART 4 4-27
 Ministry of
Transportation

ONTARIO
STRUCTURAL INSPECTION MANUAL

PART 5 – UNDERWATER INSPECTIONS

This page is intentionally left blank
PART 5 : UNDERWATER INSPECTIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION PAGE

5.1 INSPECTION OF SUBMERGED COMPONENTS ............................. 5-1

5.1.1 GENERAL................................................................................................ 5-1
5.1.2 SAFETY ................................................................................................... 5-2
5.1.3 TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE ............................................................... 5-2
5.1.4 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF UNDERWATER STRUCTURES .... 5-3
5.1.4.1 Ultrasonic Testing ........................................................................... 5-3
5.1.4.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection........................................................... 5-3
5.1.4.3 Eddy Current .................................................................................. 5-5
5.1.4.4 Radiography ................................................................................... 5-5
5.1.4.5 Coring ............................................................................................. 5-5
5.1.4.6 Sounding ........................................................................................ 5-5
5.2 EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS ................................................................ 5-6
5.2.1 HAND TOOLS ......................................................................................... 5-6
5.2.2 POWER TOOLS ...................................................................................... 5-7
5.2.3 PHOTOGRAPHY ..................................................................................... 5-7
5.2.4 NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS............................................................... 5-7
5.3 FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION......................................................... 5-8
5.3.1 ROUTINE INSPECTIONS ....................................................................... 5-8
5.3.2 NON-ROUTINE INSPECTIONS .............................................................. 5-9
5.4 INSPECTION PROCEDURES .......................................................... 5-10
5.4.1 EXISTING DATA ................................................................................... 5-10
5.4.2 WADING ................................................................................................ 5-10
5.4.3 SKIN DIVING ......................................................................................... 5-11
5.4.4 DEEP DIVING........................................................................................ 5-11
5.5 LEVELS OF INSPECTION ............................................................... 5-12
5.5.1 LEVELS OF INSPECTION .................................................................... 5-12
5.5.2 LEVEL 1 – VISUAL INSPECTION ......................................................... 5-12
5.5.3 LEVEL 2 – DETAILED INSPECTION .................................................... 5-13
5.5.3.1 Detailed Inspection of Steel Structures......................................... 5-13
 5.5.3.2 Detailed Inspection of Concrete Structures .................................. 5-15
5.5.3.3 Masonry........................................................................................ 5-15
5.5.3.4 Wood ............................................................................................ 5-15
5.6 SCOUR INVESTIGATIONS .............................................................. 5-16
5.6.1 SCOUR INVESTIGATIONS ................................................................... 5-16
5.6.2 INSPECTION PROCEDURES FOR SCOUR ........................................ 5-17
5.6.2.1 Probing ......................................................................................... 5-17
5.6.2.2 Diver Inspections .......................................................................... 5-17
5.6.2.3 Sounding ...................................................................................... 5-17
5.6.2.4 Sub-Bottom Profiler ...................................................................... 5-18
5.6.2.5 Ground Penetrating Radar ........................................................... 5-18
5.6.3 CORRECTIVE ACTIONS ...................................................................... 5-18
5.1 INSPECTION OF SUBMERGED
COMPONENTS

5.1.1 GENERAL
A significant number of Ontario bridges are built over waterways with abutment or pier
foundations either partly or totally submerged. These components cannot be thoroughly
evaluated from the water surface and must be occasionally inspected below to
determine their condition and state of deterioration.
The underwater environment, in fresh water, is generally benign to all usual construction
materials. Conditions beneath the surface of the water are relatively constant
throughout the year and vary insignificantly from year to year. Material which is
continuously submerged remains saturated and there is little oxygen available to
promote deterioration. The pH of most surface water is close to neutral and
temperatures below the surface vary over a narrow range between a minimum of
approximately 0o to a maximum of about 20oC.
The rate of deterioration of construction materials continuously submerged in fresh
water in general is no greater than in the atmosphere and usually is much less. This
does not apply to portions of the structure in the wave zone that are frequently exposed
to the most severe conditions of both the water and the atmospheric environment.
Conditions encountered here are conducive to rapid deterioration (in spite of the fact
that steps are normally taken to mitigate deterioration; concrete is air entrained, steel is
painted with protective coatings and timber is pressure treated with a wood preservative)
and this area must be carefully inspected. Any deterioration occurring below the water
surface will be evident at the water line and this area should be observed during all
routine inspections.
Another critical area for all structures founded in water is at the interface with the
material underlying the foundation. Here, deterioration of the construction materials is
not a significant problem compared to the potential for erosion of the stream bed under
and around the foundation.
With respect to the personnel performing an inspection, the underwater environment is
hostile. It is cold, particularly when one is submerged for an extended period of time,
usually dark and frequently loaded with sediment to the point where no light penetrates.
A wide variety of methods have been developed for underwater inspection. Several of
these techniques are described ranging from low water wading, skin diving, and diving
with SCUBA or a surface supported air supply. Each method has particular applications
and can provide reliable information on the condition of t
he structure. The use of divers using SCUBA or a surface supply is regulated by the
Department of Labour and the "Diving Regulations", O. Reg. 634/86 of the Occupational
Health and Safety Act are rigidly enforced.
During any underwater investigation, all structural components are visually inspected,

PART 5 5-1
where visibility permits, or examined tactually. Observed conditions are recorded
through notes and taped recordings of voice communications between the diver and the
surface, underwater photography with a hand held still camera or video or with a
remotely operated robot when conditions demand its use. Remote observations can
also be made using sonar or ground penetrating radar.

5.1.2 SAFETY
Working on or near the water in any capacity involves a great degree of risk and
precautions must be taken to ensure the safety of all personnel. The inspection team
should be comprised of no less than three persons who are always in visual contact and
each must wear a DOT approved personal floatation device. Additional safety
procedures which must be followed are identified in Part 2, Section 2.1.3.
Inspection work performed by a diver, whether with SCUBA or a surface air supply, is
governed by the "Diving Regulations" under the Occupational Health and Safety Act
which require the team to be comprised of at least three persons, the diver, a stand-by
diver and a tender. One of them must be identified as the Dive Supervisor who must not
enter the water while the work is in progress. In addition, the Regulations clearly identify
the minimum equipment requirements as well as safety precautions. Under the Act, the
ultimate responsibility for the safety of the workers lies with the employer so it is
incumbent upon the owner to ensure that those employed for this work are competent
and qualified to carry it out.

5.1.3 TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE

Visibility beneath the water surface is often restricted and the entire bridge component
may not be visible. The overall condition must therefore be pieced together from a
series of observations of discrete segments. A meaningful assessment will depend
upon the inspectors ability to understand what he sees, or feels, and how it relates to the
overall structure and its integrity. The underwater inspector should be knowledgeable in
bridge design and construction details and should know where to look for specific
problems and common defects. Alternately, a diver lacking this experience must be in
direct voice contact with a knowledgeable and experienced inspector on the surface who
can direct the investigation and evaluate the observations during the course of the work.
All underwater investigations should be carried out under the direct supervision of a
Professional Engineer who can certify the completeness and correctness of the work.
When the inspection is carried out by a diver, all members of the diving team must be
fully trained in the use of all diving equipment and devices and in the performance of
underwater work.

PART 5 5-2
5.1.4 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF UNDERWATER
STRUCTURES
Non-destructive testing techniques similar to those used above water can be applied to
quantify any defects identified below the water surface but in each case the equipment
and procedures require modification. These techniques are listed again with
considerations for underwater use.

5.1.4.1 Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasound techniques can be used effectively under water. When used underwater, the
transducers must be enclosed in a waterproof housing. The method is used extensively
to determine the residual thickness of metal sections when only one surface is exposed
or when quick, accurate measurements are required of any component. Because the
water provides a sound connection of the transducer and the section being measured, a
couplant is not required.
Ultrasonic testing of concrete under ideal conditions is difficult to successfully carry out.
This is due to the unique cracking patterns that develop in the material and block the
sound waves. The problems encountered are compounded underwater and although it
can be used, the results are not always reliable.
When this technique is used for wood inspection the equipment must be calibrated for
saturated timber material. Residual strength of the timber can be determined through
the application of empirical methods and formulas which are dependent upon the wood
species. Relative measurements can be made for a single component by comparing
observations from a questionable area to those from at a known sound location within
the same member. Care and experience are required to assess the results obtained.

5.1.4.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle testing techniques are also used underwater for cracks or
discontinuities in the surface of components. The process is the same as used on the
surface except the magnetic particles are in a water suspension of fluorescent dye
(Figure 4.1.4.2). The flux leakage at the defect creates an accumulation of the coloured
particles indicating location and size. This deposit can be measured and photographed
to create a permanent record. The surface still must be cleaned with a wire brush or a
water-jet.

PART 5 5-3
 Figure 5.1.4.2 Underwater Magnetic Particle Inspection.

PART 5 5-4
5.1.4.3 Eddy Current
Eddy current techniques can be used effectively underwater to locate defects in or near
the surface of conductive components, as described in Part 5, Section 5.4.1. Ultrasonic
methods are then required to quantify the size and extent of noted defects or
deficiencies. The method requires a skilled diver who is also a highly trained testing
technician to use the equipment and interpret the results. The greatest advantage of
this system is that cleaning of the surface is not as critical as with other methods.

5.1.4.4 Radiography
Radiography is not readily adapted for underwater use and is not normally used in this
environment. When conditions require the degree of detail available through the use of
this technique, gamma radiation is most readily utilized but all water must be evacuated
between the radiating source and the object under test.

5.1.4.5 Coring
Coring of concrete is partially destructive and consideration must be given to repair of
the cavities produced where cores are removed. Cores can be tested in accordance
with approved procedures to verify and correlate data obtained by other means. They
can be obtained underwater with purposely designed drills or from the surface by drilling
vertically downward through the structure.

5.1.4.6 Sounding
Tonal qualities of sound produced in timber and concrete, underwater, by a hammer are
different than those produced above. The difference will be noted when comparing
sound wood or concrete to that harbouring significant decay. Sounding may identify the
presence of decay and can provide a rapid indication of the extent of significant
deterioration.

PART 5 5-5
5.2 EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS

5.2.1 HAND TOOLS

To effectively carry out an underwater inspection, the diver must have available an
assortment of hand tools to facilitate cleaning, chipping, sounding, measuring etc.
Many of those used in a Level 1 Inspection for identification of deterioration and
quantifying its extent are also utilized in a Level 2 Inspection to determine limits of
probable deterioration or deficiencies, and for quantifying size, location, distribution and
severity. Where samples of material are required, power tools may be needed for
cutting or coring. Extensive problems may require two or more divers in the water at the
same time who must be in direct voice contact with each other

A variety of equipment is required for underwater inspection purposes and this can
include almost all hand tools normally used during a structural inspection of any
structure above water. Those most commonly employed underwater are illustrated in
Figure 4.2.1.

Figure 5.2.1 Typical Hand Tools for Underwater Inspection

PART 5 5-6
5.2.2 POWER TOOLS
Work of any nature underwater is physically demanding and where excessive effort is
needed to achieve results, power tools should be considered. These can include high
pressure pumps where extensive cleaning is required, and pneumatic and hydraulic
power tools such as saws and drills. The latter must be purposely designed to avoid
environmental contamination.

5.2.3 PHOTOGRAPHY
In all instances where deterioration or defects are identified they should be recorded
photographically if at all possible. The diving inspector should be equipped with an
underwater camera or a land camera in a water-tight housing. To record small details
like cracks in structural members or pits due to corrosion, a close-up lens is required. A
"clear-water" prism is to be used where visibility is reduced due to sediment or
suspended solids.
Underwater video systems provide another means for recording observations. These
must be produced with a real time commentary by the diver describing what is being
recorded. In addition, a referencing system must be used to graphically identify the
location on the structure of what is being viewed on the screen.
Remotely operated vehicles equipped with a video camera provide a means for the
inspector to visually inspect the submerged portions of a structure without putting a
diver in the water. The equipment must be used with some form of grid system to
monitor the location. All observations must be interpreted immediately by the inspector
and recorded on the tape as it is produced.

5.2.4 NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS

The most practical means for recording observations made underwater by a diver is to
record voice communications during the inspection on tape. In addition, the diver
should be equipped with some means to produce sketches, while submerged, that will
illustrate the observations.

PART 5 5-7
5.3 FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION

5.3.1 ROUTINE INSPECTIONS

The inspection of the critical area at the water line is a part of the Routine Visual
Detailed Inspections which will identify the need for a more thorough underwater
inspection of the submerged portions of the structure.
Conditions at each structure vary considerably and the requirement for regularly
scheduled underwater inspections cannot be generalized. All structures with
submerged components should be inspected below the water surface at least once.
This should be undertaken as soon after original construction as possible to facilitate
early remedial action to rectify any construction defects or deficiencies.
The need for additional underwater inspections will be identified at the time of the initial
inspection if potential problems are identified, or through the routine bridge inspection
program.
Whenever an underwater inspection is warranted the minimum level of effort should be
a Level 1 Visual Inspection due to the relatively high cost of mobilizing a dive team to
the bridge site. Such an inspection of the entire structure can be carried out relatively
quickly in the presence of minimum deficiencies and will ensure that any defects are
identified and documented.
Concrete structures will experience little in the way of deterioration below the critical
zone at the water line. Once the structural element in this region has been determined
adequate it need not be inspected again until other major rehabilitation is required.
Such structures on bedrock foundations may never need another underwater
inspection.
Structures on soil foundations will require regularly scheduled underwater inspections to
evaluate the stability of the stream bed adjacent to structural components and as part of
this assessment a Level 1 Inspection of the structure can be incorporated. The timing
of these inspections will be dependent upon the foundation material and its
susceptibility to erosion. For structures in good repair, in a non-aggressive environment
and on stable foundations these inspections can be scheduled at 10 year intervals.
Where the stream bed is more prone to erosion the interval should be reduced to 5
years. Where stream bed erosion is a significant problem some other means should be
devised to monitor it.
Zebra mussel infestations are creating unusual problems for structures where they are
established. As they grow and multiply an anaerobic environment is created at the
surface of the substrate which is conducive to the development of sulphur compounds.
These result in microbial induced corrosion of steel components which can be
considerably more aggressive than normal oxidation. The impact of the resulting
sulphates on a concrete substrate is known to exist but is yet to be evaluated. Where
these creatures are established, particularly on steel components, monitoring on a

PART 5 5-8
yearly basis will be required in order to quantify the resulting deterioration. Their
complete removal should be attempted only if all exposed surfaces are to be given a
protective coating to isolate them from further infestation and to inhibit galvanic
corrosion.

5.3.2 NON-ROUTINE INSPECTIONS

Non-routine underwater inspections will be required as a result of an unusual event
such as after impact by a vessel, exceptional ice conditions or accumulations of debris
or where there is evidence of foundation movement. At locations with scour prone
stream beds, an underwater inspection should be carried out after any exceptional flood
event. This will normally be a Level 1 Inspection and will identify the need for a more
thorough assessment.

PART 5 5-9
5.4 INSPECTION PROCEDURES

5.4.1 EXISTING DATA

Before an underwater inspection is carried out, the Inspector should review the as-built
or construction drawings of the structure, details of any restoration or rehabilitation work
carried out on the submerged portions and all previous inspection reports in order to
monitor the progress of known defects or deterioration.

5.4.2 WADING
Where the water depth is relatively shallow (less than about a metre), the river bottom is
reasonably hard and there is little or no current, the submerged components can be
inspected during the regular routine inspections with the inspector wearing chest
waders and a personal floatation device. The critical area for observations is at and
immediately below the water line, and this can be readily inspected while wading. In
clear water, observation below the surface can be made with the use of a simple
viewing tube as illustrated in Figure 4.4.2 or with a conventional face mask. Where
visibility below the surface is limited, the critical area can be examined tactually. During
a wading inspection, the condition of the stream bed adjacent to the structure can also
be evaluated.

Figure 5.4.2 Underwater Viewing Tube

PART 5 5-10
5.4.3 SKIN DIVING
An underwater visual inspection in shallow, clear water may be carried out from the
surface by an inspector who is competent and comfortable when skin diving with a face
mask, swim fins and a snorkel. The critical area at the surface will be clearly visible as
should the stream bed at the base of the foundation.
Although skin diving is not regulated by the Ministry of Labour, it must be carried out in
a manner that will not jeopardise the safety of the diver. The skin diver must be
tethered to a float on the surface or to another member of the inspection team on shore
or in a boat.

5.4.4 DEEP DIVING

Where the depth is more than about a metre, particularly where there is limited visibility,
most underwater inspections will be carried out by a diver equipped with SCUBA or a
surface air supply. With this equipment there are few limitations. The diver can work at
any depth encountered at bridges in Ontario and under all conditions of flow and
visibility.
Underwater inspections can be carried out most readily using SCUBA due to its
convenience and mobility but under some circumstances a surface air supply will be
essential for a thorough examination of the submerged portions of a structure. The type
of equipment needed for the specific site must be identified through a Site
Reconnaissance Survey by the Diving Supervisor before commencing the inspection to
determine water depths, flow conditions, unusual potential hazards, underwater
visibility, special tool or inspection procedure requirements, etc.

PART 5 5-11
5.5 LEVELS OF INSPECTION

5.5.1 LEVELS OF INSPECTION

With all structures in the fresh water of Ontario, deterioration of underwater components
is generally going to occur at and just below the water surface and at the interface with
the soil. The most severe deterioration of all materials will be in the wave zone where
they are exposed to the deleterious affects of both the water and the atmospheric
environment. Erosion of the stream bed and undermining of the structure is the
greatest concern at the bottom. Between these two locations, little if any significant
problems due to deterioration will develop except possibly in acidic streams. This may
result in deterioration of all submerged components and dictate the need to assess all
exposed surfaces.
One exception is masonry structures which can experience the softening and loss of
mortar from all the joints in the exposed surfaces.
Another is structures infested with zebra mussels. These animals are found in the
continuously submerged zone below that affected by seasonal conditions such as
exposure, wave action and abrasion from ice and debris.
When an underwater inspection is to be performed the initial approach will be a visual
inspection using simple, non-destructive testing techniques. This should identify and
describe any deficiencies in sufficient detail for a structural evaluation of the problem
and form the basis for any further detailed inspection. The level of detail required will
dictate the procedures and equipment to be used.

5.5.2 LEVEL 1 – VISUAL INSPECTION

A Level 1 Inspection will provide a visual or tactile examination of the exposed
underwater surfaces of a structure in sufficient detail to detect major damage or
deterioration and to confirm the continuity of all structural elements. It will provide a
general assessment of the condition of the submerged components and will identify the
need for a more detailed inspection.
At the surface, abrasion resulting from floating ice and debris will usually provide a
clean surface for observations. Below the wave zone, representative areas at known
locations for potential problems such as welds, pile interlocks, connections and
connectors may require cleaning with a scraper and a wire brush to remove algae or
other aquatic growths in order to expose the substrate.
Concrete and timber structures can be sounded with a hammer to provide a qualitative
assessment of the materials beneath the surface. In the wave zone, timbers are to be
carefully probed for indications of internal decay.
The interface between the structure and the stream bed will be examined for indications
of active or incipient erosion. Where there is active erosion, characteristic depressions
will be observed at the upstream face of the bridge piers and abutments. Where the

PART 5 5-12
stream bed is in a state of dynamic stability, material being brought into the site over a
period of time is essentially equal to that being carried away, probing of the bottom with
a steel rod to evaluate the relative density of the stream bed material may indicate the
depth of active scour under flood flow conditions. Any observed signs of erosion are to
be noted and measured.
Structural deficiencies will be apparent in the exposed portions of the structure. The
extent of any such defects should be traced below the water surface.
Any observed defects or deficiencies are to be noted as to size and location.
Significant structural defects are to be measured and photographed in sufficient detail to
facilitate a preliminary structural assessment to evaluate their impact on the safety and
integrity of the structure. This assessment will confirm the need for a Level 2
Inspection.
Where excessive corrosion is found or suspected, macro photos of the cleaned surface
are required for evaluation and future comparisons.

5.5.3 LEVEL 2 – DETAILED INSPECTION

A Level 2 Inspection is a highly detailed inspection of critical structural elements where
extensive repairs or possible replacement is anticipated. It will be carried out in
response to the structural evaluation of deficiencies identified by a Level 1 Inspection or
to investigate obvious underwater deterioration or defects manifested in the structure
above the surface. This will usually entail extensive cleaning of the structural elements
to remove all algae and bio-fouling, obtaining detailed measurements and photographs
and possibly non-destructive testing of apparent defects or of critical components.
Sampling of materials for analysis and testing may also be required. These procedures
will be at identified defective areas or at locations which are representative of the critical
submerged portions of the structure. The specific procedures to be used will be
dependent upon the type of material and its position in the structure.

5.5.3.1 Detailed Inspection of Steel Structures

The detailed inspection of steel structures will be directed primarily toward the joints and
fasteners with particular attention being given to welds and the adjacent heat affected
zones and known stress raisers. Cleaning of the components will be carried out with a
wire brush or a water-jet to expose bare metal for a careful and thorough visual
examination. Where defects are identified or suspected the area can be further
examined using non-destructive evaluation techniques such as ultrasound, magnetic
particle or eddy current as described in Part 5, Section 5.1.4 and below.
The extent of corrosion will be noted and where it appears to be excessive, the residual
thickness of the material should be measured. Mechanical fasteners will be examined
for corrosion and tested for tightness.
Where the structure is comprised of standard rolled sections measurements of
representative elements can be obtained using conventional measuring devices once

PART 5 5-13
the exposed surfaces have been cleaned. Flanges of "H" piles can be measured using
an outside calliper, vernier calliper or a micrometer. Where it is necessary to determine
the web thickness a modified calliper as illustrated in Figure 4.5.3.1a may be used in
conjunction with a vernier calliper.
Members with only one exposed surface such as pipe piles or sheet piles can be
measured using ultrasound. Discreet pits in the surface of the component should be
measured for depth using a pit gauge, Figure 4.5.3.1b. The density of the pitting should
be recorded photographically.

Figure 5.5.3.1a Modified calliper for thickness measurements.

Figure 5.5.3.1b Pit Gauge

PART 5 5-14
5.5.3.2 Detailed Inspection of Concrete Structures
Deterioration of concrete due to exposure in fresh water is normally insignificant and a
detailed inspection will be primarily to define construction defects or physical damage.
This will entail a very careful visual examination with photographs of observed problems
and some non-destructive evaluation techniques to define the area of concern. Several
of the standard non-destructive and destructive testing procedures and equipment used
to collect data on concrete components above water can be modified for use
underwater.
Where general deterioration of the concrete surfaces is occurring due to high or low pH
of the water, the condition will be apparent near the surface where specific tests can be
carried out.

5.5.3.3 Masonry
The joint pattern in masonry structures materially limits the use of non-destructive
testing procedures. A qualitative assessment of the mortar joints can be made using a
chisel or screw driver and the masonry components can be sounded with a hammer.
To quantify any observations requires core drilling vertically downward because of the
extreme care required to recover even the best mortar in the joints.

5.5.3.4 Wood
The standard non-destructive and destructive testing procedures and equipment used
to collect data on wood components above water, as detailed in Part 5, Section 5.4.2
can be used directly or modified for use underwater.

PART 5 5-15
5.6 SCOUR INVESTIGATIONS

5.6.1 SCOUR INVESTIGATIONS

Bridge components in or adjacent to streams need to be investigated to determine if the
bridge is scour critical. A scour critical bridge is one with abutment or pier foundations
which are unstable due to scouring of the stream bed or which potentially may become
unstable due to scour. This assessment will be based on a geotechnical evaluation of the
site, the hydrology of the tributary drainage basin with respect to observed floods and
potential floods and the hydraulics of the watercourse considering the reaches upstream
and downstream of the structure as well as the water passages through it.
Each bridge should be rated on its propensity for damage due to scour based on:
• Hydraulic capacity relative to the flood potential of the tributary basin;
• Water velocity through the structure under "bank full" condition and the design
flood;
• Erodibility of the stream bed;
• Stability of the watercourse, does it have a tendency to meander;
Based on soil types and the water velocity through the bridge opening the following scour
potential ratings should be applied.

Stream bed Material Bank Full Velocity Rating

Granular and Silt < 1 m/s 5
1-2 m/s 3-4
> 2 m/s 2
Clay/Till < 2 m/s 5
2-3 m/s 4
> 3 m/s 3
Shale, Limestone or Granite > 3m/s 4
> 5 m/s 4
6

A rating of 6 indicates scour will never be a significant problem whereas a rating of 3 or

less indicates the need for further investigations and possible protective measures. In
addition to the foregoing scour rating, each structure must be rated based on the potential
for collapse or severe damage as a result of scour and its impact on the travelling public.

PART 5 5-16
5.6.2 INSPECTION PROCEDURES FOR SCOUR
5.6.2.1 Probing
Where the erosion potential of a bridge site is great (rated 3 or lower) the stream bed may
be in a state of dynamic stability with a continuous bed load moving through the site.
Under these conditions there can be very significant erosion during a flood but as the flow
diminishes the stream bed is re-established at or close to its original condition. Where this
condition is suspected, the stream bed must be carefully evaluated by probing or through
various geotechnical techniques that can produce a sub-bottom profile of undisturbed soil.

5.6.2.2 Diver Inspections

A visual examination of the stream bed by a diver will indicate if active erosion is occurring
and will identify exposed piles or the underside of spread footings. Where the stream bed
is in a state of dynamic stability and infilling of erosion features has occurred, probing of
the bottom adjacent to abutments and piers may reveal loose sediments as well as the
depth to sound material.

5.6.2.3 Sounding
The stream bed, both upstream and downstream of the structure and within the water
passages should be sounded where any potential exists for scour. Sounding is best
obtained by using a recording type echo sounder with particular attention being given
immediately adjacent to the abutments and piers. The position of all observations should
be related to the centre line of the bridge. Where the scour rating is 3 or lower, the stream
bed should be re-sounded after every spring freshet and all other significant flood events.
If the stream bed stabilizes at an elevation that does not threaten the stability of the
structure the soundings can be scheduled at five year intervals and after any major flood
event.
The area of concern should extend approximately 30m upstream and downstream from
the face of the bridge.
A narrow beam transducer (50 or less), operating at a frequency of 200kHz or more will
produce a reasonably accurate indication of the bottom profile. A wider angle will result in
more extraneous signals due to reflections off the vertical surface and will be more difficult
to interpret.
A scanning type sonar with a rotating head can also be used to trace down the face of a
pier and across the stream bed, identifying any cavities beneath the foundation.
Sonar equipment is reasonably portable and can generally be mounted in or on any type
of boat. The results are graphically recorded on a strip chart as a permanent record and
these are easily interpreted. Weed growth on the bottom will affect the accuracy of
observations and air in the water will materially affect the signal, sometimes obscuring it
completely.

PART 5 5-17
5.6.2.4 Sub-Bottom Profiler
A sub-bottom profile can frequently be obtained using sonar operating in the range of
50kHz or less. Such equipment will obtain reasonable penetration of the loose sediments
on the bottom but with some loss of detail.
The equipment is similar in every respect to conventional sonar although some expertise
is required for interpretation of the data.

5.6.2.5 Ground Penetrating Radar

Ground penetrating radar is a relatively new procedure for geotechnical investigations and
its applications are being rapidly expanded. It is well suited to sub-bottom profiling from a
boat, or from surface ice. Its greatest advantage over sonar is that the signal is not
affected by entrained air.

The equipment is considerably more bulky than sonar and considerable expertise is
required for computer enhancement of the recorded data and for the interpretation of the
results.

5.6.3 CORRECTIVE ACTIONS

If the scour investigations and assessment indicate that the stability of a structure is
jeopardised, then appropriate actions should be taken to mitigate the problem. This will
usually be in the form of armour stone or rip-rap placed on the stream bed in close
proximity to the bridge components.rust condition
Any proposed method of control will require a hydraulic analysis of the watercourse
downstream of the structure and through the bridge openings to determine its impact on
the capacity of the water passages and on the stability of the stream bed beyond the
protection.

PART 5 5-18