THE COMPLETE 5000-WORD STUDY OF
LIGHT (PHYSICS)
A Full Study Guide for Middle–Upper Secondary Physics
CHAPTER 1 — INTRODUCTION TO LIGHT
Light is one of the most fundamental aspects of physics. It is the bridge between the physical
world and human perception. Without light, colour would not exist, vision would be impossible,
and all biological life on Earth would struggle to survive. Plants depend on sunlight for
photosynthesis, humans rely on it for vision, and technology uses it for communication and
imaging.
1.1 What is Light?
Light is a form of energy that travels in waves. It is part of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum,
which includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma
rays. All of these are forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Light travels without needing a medium. This makes it different from sound, which requires air or
water. Because light does not need a medium, it can travel through the vacuum of space.
1.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The spectrum is arranged by wavelength:
● Radio – longest wavelength
● Microwaves
● Infrared
● Visible Light
● Ultraviolet
● X-rays
● Gamma Rays – shortest wavelength
Visible light is only a tiny slice of this spectrum, with wavelengths from 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm
(red).
1.3 Light as Energy
Light carries energy in small packets called photons. A photon has no mass but has
momentum and energy.
● Higher frequency = higher energy
● Lower frequency = lower energy
This becomes important in modern physics and quantum mechanics.
1.4 Speed of Light
Light travels at the fastest speed possible in the universe.
[
c = 3 \times 10^8 , \text{m/s}
]
Nothing with mass can exceed this speed.
CHAPTER 2 — THE DUAL NATURE OF
LIGHT
One of the most amazing discoveries in physics is that light behaves as both:
A wave
and
A particle
This is known as wave–particle duality.
2.1 Light as a Wave
Light shows wave behaviour through:
a. Interference
Two beams of light overlap and create bright and dark bands.
b. Diffraction
Light bends around small openings.
c. Polarization
Light waves can be filtered based on their direction of vibration.
All of these prove that light has wave properties.
2.2 Properties of Light Waves
Light waves have:
● Wavelength (λ)
● Frequency (f)
● Amplitude
● Speed (c)
The main formula is:
[
c = f\lambda
]
Where:
c = speed of light
f = frequency
λ = wavelength
2.3 Light as a Particle (Photon Theory)
The particle nature of light was proven by the photoelectric effect, where light knocks electrons
out of metal.
Key idea:
● Light is made of particles called photons.
● Each photon has energy based on frequency:
[
E = hf
]
Where h is Planck’s constant.
CHAPTER 3 — SOURCES AND
BEHAVIOUR OF LIGHT
3.1 Luminous vs Non-Luminous Objects
Luminous objects produce their own light:
● Sun
● Bulbs
● Candles
● Stars
Non-luminous objects reflect light:
● Moon
● Books
● Humans
● Walls
3.2 Transparent, Translucent & Opaque Materials
Light interacts with materials differently:
• Transparent
Light passes through completely.
Example: glass, clear water.
• Translucent
Light scatters; cannot see clearly.
Example: frosted glass.
• Opaque
Light cannot pass; shadows form.
Example: wood, metal.
CHAPTER 4 — RECTILINEAR
PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
Light travels in straight lines unless something causes it to bend (refraction) or reflect.
Evidence:
● Shadows
● Pinhole camera
● Laser beams
4.1 The Pinhole Camera
A simple pinhole camera demonstrates light traveling in straight lines.
Key observations:
● Forms a real and inverted image
● Smaller hole = sharper image
● Larger hole = brighter but blurry image
This proves that rays do not curve on their own.
CHAPTER 5 — SHADOWS
A shadow forms when an object blocks light.
Two parts of a shadow:
A. Umbra
● Completely dark region
● No light reaches here
B. Penumbra
● Partial shadow
● Formed by larger or multiple light sources
CHAPTER 6 — REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection is when light bounces off a surface.
6.1 Laws of Reflection
1. Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
2. Incident ray, normal, reflected ray lie in the same plane
These apply to all surfaces—even rough ones.
6.2 Types of Reflection
1. Regular / Specular Reflection
● From smooth surfaces like mirrors
● Produces sharp images
2. Diffuse Reflection
● From rough surfaces
● Scattered light, no image created
CHAPTER 7 — MIRRORS
There are three main types of mirrors:
1. Plane mirror
2. Concave mirror
3. Convex mirror
7.1 Plane Mirrors
Characteristics:
● Image is the same size
● Virtual image
● Upright
● Laterally inverted
● Same distance behind mirror
Example: If you stand 2 m away, image is 2 m behind.
7.2 Curved Mirrors
Concave (Converging) Mirror
Curves inward.
Uses:
● Telescope
● Dentist mirror
● Shaving mirror
● Solar cooker
Convex (Diverging) Mirror
Curves outward.
Uses:
● Car side mirrors
● Security mirrors
7.3 Image Formation in Concave Mirrors
Position of object → type of image formed:
1. Beyond C
● Real
● Inverted
● Smaller
2. At C
● Real
● Inverted
● Same size
3. Between C and F
● Real
● Inverted
● Enlarged
4. At F
● Image at infinity
5. Between F and mirror
● Virtual
● Upright
● Enlarged
CHAPTER 8 — REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction is the bending of light when it moves between media with different densities.
Examples:
● Pencil in water appears bent
● Swimming pools look shallower
● Light rays bend towards the normal when entering denser media
8.1 Laws of Refraction
1. Incident ray, normal, and refracted ray lie in the same plane
2. Snell’s Law:
[
n = \frac{\sin i}{\sin r}
]
8.2 Refractive Index
Different materials slow light by different amounts.
Common refractive indices:
● Air = 1.00
● Water = 1.33
● Glass = 1.50
● Diamond = 2.42
Higher refractive index = more bending.
CHAPTER 9 — TOTAL INTERNAL
REFLECTION (TIR)
TIR occurs when:
1. Light travels from denser → rarer medium
2. Angle of incidence > critical angle
3. All light is reflected, none refracted
Applications:
● Optical fibers
● Periscopes
● Binoculars
CHAPTER 10 — LENSES
There are two types:
1. Convex (converging)
2. Concave (diverging)
10.1 Convex Lens
Bulges outward.
Focuses rays to a point.
Uses:
● Eye
● Camera
● Magnifying glass
● Projector
Image formation depends on distance:
• Beyond 2F: real, inverted, small
• At 2F: real, same size
• Between F & 2F: real, large
• At F: no image
• Inside F: virtual, upright, magnified
10.2 Concave Lens
Curves inward.
Always forms:
● Virtual
● Upright
● Smaller images
Uses:
● Door peepholes
● Glasses for myopia
CHAPTER 11 — HUMAN EYE AND VISION
Main parts
● Cornea
● Iris
● Lens
● Retina
● Optic nerve
11.1 Common Eye Defects
Myopia (Short-sightedness)
Far objects unclear.
Corrected with concave lens.
Hyperopia (Long-sightedness)
Near objects unclear.
Corrected with convex lens.
CHAPTER 12 — COLOUR
White light contains seven colours:
Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
This was discovered by Isaac Newton using a prism.
12.1 Why objects have colour
Objects absorb some colours and reflect others.
Example:
A red object reflects red light and absorbs others.
CHAPTER 13 — PRISMS & DISPERSION
A prism splits white light into a spectrum.
This happens because different colours refract by different amounts.
● Red bends least
● Violet bends most
CHAPTER 14 — RAINBOWS
Rainbows form due to:
1. Refraction of sunlight in raindrops
2. Internal reflection
3. Refraction out of the droplet
Each droplet sends only one colour to your eye.
CHAPTER 15 — OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Microscope
Uses convex lenses to magnify very small objects.
Telescope
Uses mirrors/lenses to view distant objects in space.
Camera
Convex lens focuses image on screen/film.
CHAPTER 16 — LASERS
LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Properties:
● Monochromatic (one colour)
● Coherent (waves in step)
● Powerful and focused
Uses:
● Surgery
● CD/DVD reading
● Barcode scanners
CHAPTER 17 — FIBRE OPTICS
Uses TIR to transmit light through thin glass fibres.
Applications:
● Internet cables
● Medical endoscopes
● Telephone networks
Advantages:
● Fast
● Secure
● Little signal loss
CHAPTER 18 — EXPERIMENTS WITH
LIGHT
18.1 Measuring the refractive index of glass
Equipment:
● Glass block
● Pins
● Paper
● Protractor
Procedure:
● Draw incident and emergent rays
● Measure i and r
● Use Snell’s Law
18.2 Pinhole camera experiment
Shows:
● Straight-line travel
● Image inversion
CHAPTER 19 — WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 1: Using Snell’s Law
A ray enters glass at 30°.
Refractive index = 1.5.
Find r.
[
1.5 = \frac{\sin 30}{\sin r}
]
[
\sin r = \frac{\sin 30}{1.5} = \frac{0.5}{1.5} = 0.333
]
[
r = 19.5^\circ
]
Example 2: Image from a concave mirror
Object at 30 cm
Focal length = 15 cm
[
\frac{1}{f}=\frac{1}{v}+\frac{1}{u}
]
[
\frac{1}{15}=\frac{1}{v}+\frac{1}{30}
]
[
\frac{1}{v}=\frac{1}{15}-\frac{1}{30}=\frac{1}{30}
]
[
v = 30 \text{ cm}
]
Image is real, inverted, same size.
CHAPTER 20 — PAST-PAPER STYLE
QUESTIONS
Section A — Multiple Choice
1. Which best describes a virtual image?
2. What is TIR?
3. Which lens corrects myopia?
4. Red light has the ______ wavelength.
5. Which mirror gives the widest field of view?
Section B — Short Answers
1. Explain why a pencil appears bent in water.
2. State two uses of convex lenses.
3. Draw a ray diagram for concave mirror image formation.
Section C — Structured Questions
Q1. A ray of light enters water at angle 45°.
● Draw ray diagram
● Calculate angle of refraction
● Explain why light bends towards the normal
Q2. Explain how a rainbow forms in detail.
CHAPTER 21 — SUMMARY
Light is:
● An electromagnetic wave
● A collection of photons
● Fastest moving entity in universe
● Capable of reflection, refraction, dispersion
● Essential in mirrors, lenses, cameras, eyes, fibre optics, lasers
Understanding light connects classical physics, modern physics, biology, and technology.
