Letter Meaning Explanation

M Movement Move by themselves

(animals move fast; plants
move
slowly—upwards/downward
s).

R Respiration Chemical process in cells

that releases energy from
food:

Glucose + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

+ Energy (ATP)

S Sensitivity Respond to changes in

surroundings (light, heat,
temperature).

G Growth Increase in size, shape,

ability.

R Reproduction Producing offspring (sexual

& asexual).

E Excretion Removing waste (urine,

feces, plant waste through
leaves).

Why Viruses Are “Almost Alive” (But Not Quite)

Viruses Appear Alive Because…

1.​ They can reproduce (but only inside a host cell).​

2.​ They evolve and mutate.​

Viruses Are Considered Non-Living Because…

1.​ They cannot reproduce on their own (need a host).​

2.​ They do not perform respiration, excretion, or nutrition independently.​

3.​ They are not made of cells.​

Evaluation statement:​
“Viruses are living because they reproduce.”​
→ Disagree. Reproduction only happens inside host cells and they lack other MRS GREN
characteristics.

Cell Theory Timeline

🔬 Early Scientists
Robert Hooke (1665)

●​ Observed cork under microscope​

●​ Named “cells” because they looked like tiny rooms​

●​ Did not know cell’s true function​

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1670s)

●​ Improved microscope lenses​

●​ First to observe bacteria, protozoa, and red blood cells​

🌿🔬 Cell Theory Founders

Matthias Schleiden (1838)

●​ All plants are made of cells​

●​ Cells are basic building blocks​

●​ Highlighted importance of nucleus​

Theodor Schwann (1839)

●​ All animals are made of cells​

 ●​ Worked with Schleiden → Created modern cell theory​

Rudolf Virchow

●​ Added third part of cell theory:​

All cells come from pre-existing cells.

Feature Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Nucleus ❌ None ✅ Present

Organelles ❌ None ✅ Membrane-bound
Size Small Larger

Complexity Simple Complex

Examples Bacteria, archaea Plants, animals, fungi

What Is a Cell?
●​ Basic and fundamental unit of life​

●​ Has an organized structure​

●​ Performs vital functions such as energy use, protein synthesis, and reproduction​

Multicellular vs Unicellular
Unicellular

●​ One cell performs all life functions​

●​ Examples: amoeba, bacteria, euglena​

Multicellular

●​ Made of many specialized cells​

●​ Different cells perform different functions​

●​ Examples: plants, animals, fungi

 Organelle Function

Cell membrane Controls movement of substances

Nucleus Stores DNA, controls cell

Cytoplasm Site of reactions, supports organelles

Ribosomes Build proteins

Rough ER Modifies proteins

Smooth ER Makes lipids, detoxifies

Golgi apparatus Packages & ships proteins

Mitochondria Produces ATP energy

Lysosome Breaks down waste

Centrosome/Centriole Cell division & structure

Chloroplast (plant) Photosynthesis

Cell wall (plant & fungi) Protection & support

Vacuole (plant large) Storage of water & nutrients

What Is a Microscope?
A microscope is an instrument used to magnify and observe objects too small to be seen
by the naked eye.

Parts of a Compound Light Microscope

& Their Functions

Part Function

Eyepiece (ocular lens) Lens you look through; usually ×10

magnification

Objective lenses Main magnifying lenses (low, medium, high

power)

Revolving nosepiece Rotates to change lenses

Stage Platform where the specimen slide is placed

Stage clips Hold the slide in place

Diaphragm Controls amount of light passing through

the specimen

Light source / mirror Illuminates the slide

Coarse adjustment wheel Brings the specimen into general focus (low
power only)

Fine adjustment wheel Sharpens the image (medium/high power)

Inclination joint, base, pillar, draw tube Support and connect microscope parts
How to Use a Microscope (Step-by-Step)
Step 1

Place the slide/specimen on the stage.

Step 2

Secure with stage clips.

Step 3

Look through the eyepiece and use the coarse adjustment wheel to find the image.

Step 4
Use the fine adjustment wheel to sharpen the image.

Step 5

Move the slide slowly with your thumb for better view.

Step 6

Switch to medium or high power objective lens for greater detail.​

Use fine adjustment only at high power to avoid breaking the slide.
Levels of Biological Hierarchy (Simplest
→ Most Complex)
1.​ Cell​

2.​ Tissue​

3.​ Organ​

4.​ Organ system​

5.​ Organism

Cells
●​ Smallest unit of life​

●​ All living organisms are made of cells​

Examples

Animals: nerve cell, muscle cell, sperm cell, egg cell​

Plants: root hair cell, xylem cell, phloem cell

Tissues
A tissue is a group of cells with the same structure and function.

A. Tissues in Animals & Their Functions

1.​ Epithelial tissue​

○​ Protects body, lines organs​

○​ Barrier (skin, stomach lining)​

2.​ Muscle tissue​

 ○​ Allows movement​

○​ Heart, limbs, internal organs​

3.​ Connective tissue​

○​ Supports, binds, protects organs​

○​ Bones, blood, cartilage​

4.​ Nervous tissue​

○​ Sends and receives electrical signals​

○​ Brain, spinal cord, nerves​

B. Tissues in Plants & Their Functions

1.​ Epidermal tissue​

○​ Protection, prevents water loss​

2.​ Xylem tissue​

○​ Transports water and minerals (roots → leaves)​

3.​ Phloem tissue​

○​ Transports sugars (food) around plant​

4.​ Ground (Parenchyma) tissue​

○​ Photosynthesis, storage, support​

5.​ Meristematic tissue​

○​ Responsible for plant growth (at root & shoot tips)

Organs
An organ is made of two or more tissues working together for a specific job.

A. Organs in Animals

Organ Function

Heart Pumps blood carrying oxygen &

nutrients

Lungs Gas exchange (O₂ in, CO₂ out)

Stomach Digests food

Brain Controls body activities

Kidneys Filter blood, remove waste

Skin Protection, temperature regulation

B. Organs in Plants

Organ Function

Root Anchors plant, absorbs water & minerals

Stem Supports plant, transports substances

Leaf Performs photosynthesis

Flower Reproduction (pollination & fertilization)

Fruit Protects seeds & aids dispersal

Organ Systems
Organ systems are groups of organs working together to perform major functions.

A. Organ Systems in Animals

System Function

Circulatory Transport of oxygen, nutrients,

hormones

Respiratory Gas exchange

Digestive Breaks down food for energy

Nervous Controls and coordinates responses

Excretory Removes waste, maintains water

balance

Muscular & Skeletal Movement, structure, protection

Reproductive Produces offspring

B. Organ Systems in Plants

Plants have two main organ systems:

1. Root System

●​ Absorbs water & minerals​

●​ Anchors plant​

●​ Stores food​

2. Shoot System

●​ Includes stem, leaves, flowers, fruits​

●​ Photosynthesis​

●​ Transport of nutrients​

●​ Reproduction & seed dispersal​

Organism
An organism is a complete living being that can carry out all life processes.

Examples

Animals: humans, dogs, elephants​

Plants: mango tree, rose, fern