Introduction to Cement

By Prof. Madhuraj Naik

“LET US LEARN THIS SUBJECT TO BE A PART OF NATION BUILDING

TEAM”- M.S. SHETTY
HISTORY OF CEMENT

• Earlier lime from burnt limestone was used to prepare mortar.

• Romans discovered that burnt lime mixed with volcanic ash hardened
under water.
• Romans developed "opus caementitium", a type of concrete made of lime
with aggregates of sand and crushed rock. This was mostly used between
masonry stones or bricks, serving as formwork.
• Other cements used crushed brick, tiles and ceramic pottery as aggregates.
• Modern-day cement was created in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin, a British
bricklayer and builder, who experimented with heating limestone and clay
until the mixture calcined, grinding it and then mixing it with water.
CEMENT PRODUCTION BY COUNTRY
CEMENT MANUFACTURING
The manufacturing process of ordinary Portland Cement involves the use of raw materials
that include Limestone, clay, shale, iron ore, and Gypsum. These raw materials are
carefully selected and extracted from quarries. They are then crushed into smaller pieces
and blended in precise proportions to create a raw meal, which is the starting point for
Cement production. The major raw materials used in Cement Manufacturing Process
include:
• Limestone: provides the necessary calcium oxide (lime) that reacts with other materials
during the Cement manufacturing process. Notably, the Limestone used in Cement
should not contain free Silica.
• Clay and shale: contain Silica, alumina, and iron oxide, which are necessary for cement
production.
• Iron ore: provides the iron oxide component required for the production of cement. It
helps in controlling the color and strength of the final Cement product.
• Gypsum: consists of Calcium Sulphate to regulate the setting time of Cement. It slows
down the initial setting, allowing enough time for proper placement of Cement and
finishing of the concrete. Gypsum is added to the Clinker in small quantities (upto 5% by
weight).
WET PROCESS
WET PROCESS
• Mixing and Grinding: Raw meal is mixed with water in a grinding mill to form a
slurry. The water-to-raw material ratio is carefully controlled to achieve the
desired consistency.
• Blending and Homogenization: The slurry is then transferred to storage tanks
where additional materials, such as sand or shale, may be added to adjust the
chemical composition. The mixture is thoroughly blended to ensure uniformity.
Finer control is obtained by drawing material from two or more batches
containing raw mixes of slightly different composition. The slurry, which contains
35 to 45 percent water, is sometimes filtered, reducing the water content to 20
to 30 percent, and the filter cake is then fed to the kiln. This reduces the fuel
consumption for burning.
• Preheating and Pre-calcining: The slurry is pumped into a preheater, which uses
the hot gases from the kiln to remove moisture and preheat the mixture. It then
enters the pre-calciner, where a partial calcination process takes place.
WET PROCESS
• Burning and Cooling: These kilns—up to 200 metres (660 feet) long and six metres in diameter
in wet process plants consist of a steel, cylindrical shell lined with refractory materials. They
rotate slowly on an axis that is inclined a few degrees to the horizontal. The raw material feed,
introduced at the upper end, moves slowly down the kiln to the lower, or firing, end. The fuel
for firing may be pulverized coal, oil, or natural gas injected through a pipe. The temperature at
the firing end ranges from about 1,350 to 1,550 °C (2,460 to 2,820 °F), depending on the raw
materials being burned. Some form of heat exchanger is commonly incorporated at the back
end of the kiln to increase heat transfer to the incoming raw materials and so reduce the heat
lost in the waste gases. The burned product emerges from the kiln as small nodules of clinker.
These pass into coolers, where the heat is transferred to incoming air and the product cooled.
• Dust emission from cement kilns can be a serious nuisance. In populated areas it is usual and
often compulsory to fit cyclone arrestors, bag-filter systems, or electrostatic dust precipitators
between the kiln exit and the chimney stack. More than 50 percent of the emissions from
cement production are intrinsically linked to the production of clinker and are a by-product of
the chemical reaction that drives the current process. There is potential to blend clinker with
alternative materials to reduce the need for clinker itself and thus help reduce the climate
impacts of the cement-making process.
• Modern cement plants are equipped with elaborate instrumentation for control of the burning
process. Raw materials in some plants are sampled automatically, and a computer calculates
and controls the raw mix composition. The largest rotary kilns have outputs exceeding 5,000
tons per day.
WET PROCESS
• Grinding: The clinker and the required amount of gypsum are ground to a fine
powder in horizontal mills similar to those used for grinding the raw materials.
The material may pass straight through the mill (open-circuit grinding), or coarser
material may be separated from the ground product and returned to the mill for
further grinding (closed-circuit grinding). Sometimes a small amount of a grinding
aid is added to the feed material. For air-entraining cements the addition of an
air-entraining agent is similarly made. Finished cement is pumped pneumatically
to storage silos from which it is drawn for packing in paper bags or for dispatch in
bulk containers.
DRY PROCESS
DRY PROCESS
DRY PROCESS
• Quarrying and Crushing: The raw materials, such as Limestone, clay, shale, iron
ore, and sometimes sand or bauxite, are extracted from quarries and then
crushed into smaller pieces using crushers.
• Drying and Grinding: The crushed raw materials are dried to reduce their
moisture content. They are then finely ground in a grinding mill to form a fine
powder known as a raw meal.
• Blending and Homogenization: The raw meal is carefully blended and
homogenized to ensure a consistent chemical composition. This process may
involve the use of blending silos or other equipment to achieve uniformity.
• Preheating: The raw meal is preheated in a preheater tower using the hot gases
from the kiln. The preheating process removes moisture and starts the
decomposition of certain compounds in the raw materials.
DRY PROCESS
• Burning and Clinkerization: The preheated raw meal is introduced into a rotary
kiln, which is heated to high temperatures. Inside the kiln, chemical reactions
occur, resulting in the formation of Clinker, a nodular material.
• Cooling: The Clinker is cooled using air or water in a rotary cooler. Rapid cooling
helps to maintain the desired crystal structure and minimize the formation of
undesirable phases.
• Grinding: The cooled Clinker is finely ground with Gypsum and other additives,
such as fly ash or slag, in a Cement mill. This grinding process produces Cement
powder.
• Storage and Packaging: The Cement powder is stored in silos before being
packed into bags or delivered in bulk to construction sites for use in various
applications.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT
FUNCTION OF MAJOR OXIDES
BOGUES COMPOUNDS
FUNCTIONS OF BOGUES COMPOUNDS
CEMENT HYDRATION
• Cement hydration is a series of chemical reactions that occur when
water combines with cement particles.
• Primary products formed during this reaction are calcium silicate
hydrate (C-S-H) gel, calcium hydroxide (CH), and ettringite.
• Process is time-sensitive, and its progression is influenced by factors
such as temperature, water-to-cement ratio, and the presence of
supplementary cementitious materials.
CSH GEL
• This gel is the primary product of cement hydration and is responsible
for the binding properties of concrete.
• C-S-H gel fills the gaps between cement particles and aggregates,
forming a dense matrix that provides strength and durability to the
concrete.
CALCIUM HYDROXIDE (CH)
• CH, also known as portlandite, forms during cement hydration.
• While it contributes to early strength development, its long-term
contribution to concrete strength is limited compared to C-S-H gel.

ETTRINGITE
• It is formed particularly in cement mixes containing supplementary
cementitious materials like slag or fly ash.
• It helps in delaying the stiffening of the cement or concrete in the
plastic stage.
PHASES OF CEMENT HYDRATION
PHASES OF CEMENT HYDRATION

Strength Speed Steady

Initial mixing Dormancy
acceleration reduction development
PHASES OF CEMENT HYDRATION
• Phase 1: The aluminate (C3A) reacts with H2O (Calcium and sulfate
ions) to form ettringite (aluminate hydrate). The release of the energy
from these reactions causes the initial peak.
• Phase 2: Surface coating of the cement particles keeps on increasing,
but also slows down the reaction (hydration) due to reduced access
to H2O. Hydrated concrete keeps increasing on a steady level while
the surface of the concrete keeps fluid. This is why this phase is used
for transporting and pouring the concrete, as the concrete stays on a
fluid level. The length of this period depends on each individual
concrete mix and can, therefore, be optimized depending on the
application like winter concreting, length of transport, etc. This phase
ends with an initial set of the concrete.
PHASES OF CEMENT HYDRATION
• Phase 3: A heat increase happens due to the reaction between calcium
silicate (C3S and C2S) which creates the silicate hydrate CSH. The creation
of CSH also has a major impact on the concrete strength during this phase.
In the case of for example mass concrete application, it can be very
important to monitor the internal temperature variances, as the concrete
temperature during this phase can increase rapidly to reach internal
temperatures like 70-80C (in some cases even higher). It is normally not
recommended to exceed temperatures at around 70C.
• Phase 4: A maximum temperature has now been reached and the
availability of free particles is now reduced and therefore slows down the
temperature increase. This phase often ends with the desired strength and
the formwork around the concrete can now be removed. Monitoring of
concrete maturity and temperature and therefore enable the user with the
exact time where this is possible.
PHASES OF CEMENT HYDRATION
• Phase 5: The hydration process is now slowed down and will continue
slowly to finish the remaining available cement and water particles.
The formwork is now often removed and the concrete will now over
time (can take a long time) finish the hydration process and reach
final strengths (can take weeks or months).
TYPES OF CEMENT
• Ordinary Portland Cement: This is the most commonly used cement in construction
projects worldwide. It's a versatile cement that can be used in a variety of applications,
from general construction to precast concrete products. OPC is known for its strength,
durability, and workability, making it suitable for a variety of construction applications. It's
commonly used in the construction of buildings, bridges, roads, and other structures. OPC
is versatile and can be used in combination with other materials, such as aggregates, to
create different types of concrete mixes.
• Portland Pozzolana Cement: Portland Pozzolana cement (PPC) is a type of hydraulic
cement that's made by blending Portland cement with pozzolanic materials, such as fly
ash or silica fume. The pozzolanic materials improve the workability and durability of the
cement, making it suitable for a variety of construction applications. PPC is commonly
used in home building construction and mass concrete structures, such as dams and
bridges, where durability is a critical factor.
• Rapid Hardening cement: Rapid-hardening cement is a type of hydraulic cement that's
specially designed to gain strength quickly. Rapid-hardening cement is used in situations
where fast-setting concrete is required, such as in the construction of pavements, precast
concrete products, and repair work. It has a higher early strength compared to OPC,
allowing structures to be put into service faster.
TYPES OF CEMENT
• Extra Rapid Hardening Cement: Extra Rapid Hardening Cement is a type of hydraulic
cement that's similar to rapid-hardening cement, but it gains strength even faster. It's
made by grinding Ordinary Portland cement clinker with a higher amount of calcium
chloride. This combination accelerates the setting time and early strength gain of the
cement. Extra rapid-hardening cement is used in situations where fast-setting concrete
with high early strength is required, such as in cold weather conditions or emergency
repair work. It's commonly used in the construction of airport runways, industrial floors,
and precast concrete products.
• Quick Setting Cement: Quick-setting cement is a type of hydraulic cement that's designed
to set and harden quickly. It aids time-sensitive projects such as the repair of water pipes,
sewers, and tunnels. Its combination of materials accelerates the setting time of the
cement, allowing it to reach its initial set in just a few minutes, similar to that of fast
setting concrete.
• Low Heat Cement: Low heat cement is a type of hydraulic cement that's specially
designed to produce less heat during the hydration process. It's made by reducing the
amount of tricalcium aluminate by 6%. This results in slower strength gain and lower heat
of hydration, making it ideal for use in large concrete structures that are prone to cracking
due to heat buildup. Low-heat cement is commonly used in the construction of dams,
nuclear power plants, and large-mass concrete structures.
TYPES OF CEMENT
• Sulphate Resisting Cement: Sulphate-resisting cement is a type of hydraulic cement that's
designed to resist the damaging effects of sulphate salts present in soil and groundwater.
Sulphate-resistant cement is commonly used in construction projects where the soil or
groundwater has a high sulphate content, such as in coastal areas, mines, and canal
linings, retaining walls.
• Blast Furnace Slag Cement: Blast furnace slag cement, also known as slag cement, is a
type of hydraulic cement made by mixing Portland cement clinker with granulated blast
furnace slag. The slag is a byproduct of the iron-making process and is ground into a fine
powder, which is then mixed with Portland cement. This combination results in a cement
with lower heat of hydration, better workability, and improved durability. Blast furnace
slag cement is commonly used in mass concrete projects, such as dams and bridges, as
well as in the construction of high-rise buildings and industrial structures.
• High Alumina Cement: High Alumina cement is a type of hydraulic cement that's made by
melting and grinding bauxite and lime together. The resulting cement has an excellent
level of strength and durability. High alumina cement is commonly used in the
construction of refractory concrete, which can withstand high temperatures and harsh
chemical environments. It's also used in the construction of chemical plants, furnaces, and
kilns, where its resistance to high temperatures and corrosive chemicals makes it an ideal
choice.
TYPES OF CEMENT
• White cement: White cement as its name suggests has a high degree of
whiteness. White cement is used primarily for decorative purposes, such as in the
construction of architectural elements, precast concrete products, and terrazzo
flooring. It can also be used in combination with pigments to produce a wide
range of coloured concrete finishes.
• Coloured Cement: Coloured cement, also known as pigmented cement, is a type
of hydraulic cement that's mixed with pigments (5 to 10% pigment) to achieve a
range of colours. The pigments used in coloured cement can be synthetic or
natural and are available in a variety of shades. Coloured cement is used primarily
for decorative purposes, such as in the construction of concrete countertops,
flooring, and [Link] use of coloured cement can enhance the aesthetic
appeal of a project and give it a unique look.
• Air entraining Cement: Air entraining cement is a hydraulic cement that contains
air-entraining agents, such as resins, glues and sodium salts, to create microscopic
air bubbles within the concrete mix. Air-entraining cement requires less water to
achieve a specific consistency than ordinary Portland cement and other types of
cement. It's commonly used in construction projects that require frost resistance,
such as concrete pavements, bridges, and buildings located in cold climates.
TYPES OF CEMENT
• Expansive cement: Expansive cement is a type of hydraulic cement that's designed to
expand slightly after setting. Expansive cement is commonly used in construction projects
where a tight fit is required, such as precast concrete units and bridge bearings. It's also
used in grouting and shotcrete applications, where the expansion can help fill voids and
gaps. Expansive cement can also be used to compensate for the shrinkage in concrete due
to temperature changes or drying.
• Hydrographic cement: Hydrographic cement is a specialised type of Portland
cement that's designed to set and harden underwater. It's made by blending
Portland cement clinker with special additives that help it hydrate and set even in
the presence of water. Hydrographic cement is commonly used in marine and
underwater construction projects, such as building dams, bridges, and underwater
tunnels. It's also used in the construction of swimming pools, water storage tanks,
and sewage treatment plants.
• Portland Limestone cement: Portland limestone cement (PLC) is a type of blended
cement that's made by inter-grinding Portland cement clinker and 5 to 15% limestone.
PLC has similar properties to OPC, but it typically has a lower carbon footprint and
generates less heat during the hydration process. PLC is commonly used in construction
projects where sustainability is a concern, such as green buildings and infrastructure. It's
also suitable for use in general-purpose concrete applications, such as pavements,
foundations, and precast units.
GRADES OF CEMENT
• 33 Grade Cement: 33 grade cement is commonly used for general construction
work and plastering. It has a compressive strength of 33 N/mm² after 28 days of
curing. This type of cement is suitable for use in construction projects where the
requirement for high strength is not critical. It is not suitable for concrete mix
above M20.
• 43 Grade cement: 43 grade cement is the most commonly used grade of cement
in India. It has a compressive strength of 43 N/mm² after 28 days of curing. It's
suitable for use in construction projects where moderate to high strength is
required, such as plain concrete or plastering works. It is also used to make
precast items such as tiles, blocks, pipes, etc. It has a higher compressive strength
than 33-grade cement and is suitable for medium-scale construction projects. It is
suitable for concrete mix up to M30.
• 53 Grade Cement: 53 grade cement is the highest grade of cement available in
India. It has a compressive strength of 53 N/mm² after 28 days of curing. This type
of cement is suitable for use in construction projects where high strength is
required, such as in the construction of high-rise buildings, dams, and heavy-duty
industrial structures. It has a higher compressive strength than both 33 and
43-grade cement, making it more durable and long-lasting. Suitable for concrete
mix above M25.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
• Fineness
• Soundness
• Consistency
• Setting time
• Initial
• Final
• Compressive strength

[Link]
FINENESS
• Measure of the particle size of • More fineness means high
cement. concrete workability and thus
• The finer the cement, greater is increases the setting time.
the rate of a chemical reaction. • Very fine cement is also
This results in a greater rate of undesirable. It generates greater
strength development. heat which results in cracks in
• Finer cement can easily blend mortar or concrete. It can also
with other ingredients. lead to a premature setting.
• Bleeding can be reduced.
FINENESS MEASUREMENT
• The test should be conducted as
per IS code 4031 Part 1, and the
test sample should be collected as
per IS code 3535.
• Fineness of cement = (W2/W1) x
100
• The fineness ratio will differ based
on the types of cement.
Ordinary Portland cement – 10%
Low heat cement – 5%
Rapid hardening cement – 3 to 5%
FINENESS MEASUREMENT
• Put a filter paper into the cell then
weight 2.84g of cement sample into it.
• Put another filter paper on it and
compress with the plunger.
• Attach the cell on top of the U-tube
manometer.
• Evacuate the air in the manometer
through the side tube using the aspirator
bulb until the oil reaches level 1.
• Close the side valve and monitor the oil
as it start to fall.
• Using a stop watch, measure the time
taken for the oil to fall from level 2 to
level 3.
• Blaine =k√t, where k is 523.0547
SOUNDNESS
• The soundness of cement refers to
its ability to retain its structure
once it has set and hardened.
• It measures the resistance of
cement to volume changes like • Le Chatelier Test
shrinkage and expansion that can This method, done by using Le Chatelier
occur because of delayed hydration Apparatus, tests the expansion of
or unstable chemical compounds. cement due to lime. Cement paste
• Some unstable chemical (normal consistency) is taken between
compounds include excess lime or glass slides and submerged in water for
magnesia that can react with water 24 hours at 20+1°C. It is taken out to
over time causing expansion. measure the distance between the
indicators and then returned
• refer IS : 4031 (Part 4)-1988 underwater, brought to boil in 25-30
mins and boiled for an hour. After
cooling the device, the distance
between indicator points is measured
again. In a good quality cement, the
distance should not exceed 10 mm.
SOUNDNESS
• Autoclave Test
Cement paste (of normal consistency) is
placed in an autoclave (high-pressure
steam vessel) and slowly brought to
2.03 MPa, and then kept there for 3
hours. The change in length of the
specimen (after gradually bringing the
autoclave to room temperature and
pressure) is measured and expressed in
percentage. The requirement for good
quality cement is a maximum of 0.80%
autoclave expansion.
Standard autoclave test: AASHTO T 107
and ASTM C 151: Autoclave Expansion
of Portland Cement.
CONSISTENCY
• The Standard Consistency or
Normal Consistency of a cement
paste is defined as that
consistency or percentage of
water to be present in the
cement paste which will permit
a Vicat plunger having 10mm
diameter and 50 mm length to
penetrate to a depth of 33-35
mm from the top of the mould.
• Percentage of water is denoted Source
as P : [Link]
ard-consistency-of-cement-paste/
INITIAL SETTING TIME
• Initial setting time is that time
period between the time water
is added to cement and time
at which 1 mm square section
needle fails to penetrate the
cement paste, placed in the
Vicat’s mould 5 mm to 7 mm
from the bottom of the mould.
• Take 300 g of cement and
prepare a neat cement paste
with 0.85P of water by weight Source
of cement. : [Link]
ard-consistency-of-cement-paste/
FINAL SETTING TIME
• Final setting time is that time period
between the time water is added to
cement and the time at which 1 mm
needle makes an impression on the
paste in the mould but 5 mm
attachment does not make any
impression.
• For determining the final setting time,
replace the needle of the Vicat’s
apparatus by the needle with an
annular attachment.
• The cement is considered finally set
when upon applying the final setting
needle gently to the surface of the test
block; the needle makes an impression
thereon, while the attachment fails to Source
do so. : [Link]
ard-consistency-of-cement-paste/
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CEMENT IS
4031 (Part 6) 1988.
• The material for each cube shall be
mixed separately not more than 4
minutes and the quantity of
cement, standard sand and water
shall be as follows:
• Cement 200 g and Standard Sand
600 g. Water ((P/4)+3.0) percent of
combined mass of cement and
sand
• The period of vibration shall be two
minutes at the specified speed of
12000 ± 400 vibration per minute.
[Link]
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