THEORETICAL BASES FOR THE USE OF ICT IN TEACHING

5.4 Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning &

Cognitive Load Theory
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning focuses on understanding how it works.
mentoring the process of meaningful learning in a multimedia environment (RUDOLPH,
2017). The multimedia environment presents words (in sound format or printed on a
screen) and figures (in static or dynamic format) placed in an environment conducive to nurturing the
learning (MAYER, 2017).
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (SORDEN, 2012) emerged in 1989
as a 'model for meaningful learning'. This theory is constantly evolving.
This movement is perceived even in the denominations attributed to the theory itself. In
1990 was termed 'cognitive conditions for effective illustrations'; in 1991 it received the
denomination of 'dual codification model'; in 1995 it was called 'generative theory';
in 1996 of "cognitive theory of multimedia learning"; in 1997 of "generative theory of
multimedia learning; in 1998 it was called 'dual processing model of learning
multimedia discourse.” From the year 2000 onwards, however, the term “cognitive theory of learning-
Multimedia gem has consolidated itself as the standard name for this theory (SORDEN, 2012).

The theory is divided into three main branches: learning science, science of
instruction and science of evaluation. Research and development, in each of these three
branches require a foundation associated with the multimedia approach, supported by
evidências empíricas replicáveis. Desse modo, a teoria cognitiva da aprendizagem multimídia
matures, grows, and adjusts over time (SORDEN, 2012). In this section, we address
the science of learning and instruction as elements of theory. Before we proceed,
we need to point out the bases of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning.
In the mid-1976, Australian psychologist John Sweller began a research
experimental with the aim of understanding how the execution of complex tasks affected the
learning. Thus emerged the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT). This theory analyzes the so-called
working memory, a constituent type of short-term memory.
Learning occurs when a new relevant information is selected and organized.
from (transformed into a scheme) within short-term memory and later incorporated
to long-term memory (where our knowledge is stored). In this dual model, which has its
origin in the Information Processing Theory35, short-term memories exist for
approximately 18 to 30 seconds, while in long-term memory knowledge of-
training may remain indefinitely.
According to Souza (2010, p. 16), "Sweller, when conducting an experiment with his students uni-
students, realized that the learning problems he had observed were caused
due to limitations in working memory." In the Cognitive Load Theory, the central idea is that of
limitation of working memory and how this memory relates to vast memory
in the long term.

35 The information processing theory states that the information provided by the environment is pro-
cessation through a series of systems (attention, perception, short-term memory, and long-term memory).
This theory initiated a large number of investigative studies regarding the cognitive processes involved.
in problem-solving.

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In this perspective, for the instructional procedures to have the effect of learning-
Thus, learners need to accumulate critical information in long-term memory. This
the result depends on the individual's ability to process information with the support of memory
work. In this perspective, it is considered that new information is presented during
the teaching practices, in order to consider the limits of working memory. The amount of
information exposed throughout instructions, for example, must be guided by the limitations that
we have to retain information at first. From this perspective, therefore, the emphasis
in the amount of content exposed during classes, training sessions, or any other situation of
teaching and learning should be weighed and calculated so as not to overload the learners.
says (SWELLER, 2019, p. 263).
According to Sweller (2011), learning is optimized when the information process
and the human cognitive process are in perfect alignment, that is, when the volume of
information to be assimilated by the learner compatible with the natural capacity of
human understanding.
According to this approach, as has been stated repeatedly, "[...] the
working memory is characterized as the most important, as it holds the in-
formations in consciousness for the necessary time and makes the link with long-term memory
(FARIA, 2019, p. 32). The storage of information first passes through the filter of attention,
considering that for there to be information retention, interest and attention operate as
crucial factors. However, it is important to have the formation of mental schemes, as
observed above. In the words of Faria (2019, p. 33): "information is only stored permanently
specifically in long-term memory if schemes are created, associating memory of
work on other information in an automation process.
John Sweller et al. (2019, p. 270) cites four advancements in cognitive load theory among
the years 1998 and 2018. The first refers to the strengthening of its theoretical framework through
establishment of the so-called architecture of cognition within the scope of developmental psychology36; o
second refers to the development of instructional design focusing on the conception
of longer-duration educational programs (courses or complete curricula); the third association-
is subject to the consideration of a series of new cognitive loads, materialized by the so-called
compound effects, responsible for changing the characteristics of other effects linked to the
simple cognitive loads; and, finally, the fourth is associated with the implementation of new
instruments developed for measuring different types of cognitive load.

5.4.1 Understanding Cognitive Load Theory

According to Sweller et al. (2019), total cognitive load can be divided into three categories:
intrinsic, extrinsic and germane. The intrinsic load refers to the complexity of
information and knowledge of those who process it. We are using an adapted version of
example used by Sweller et al. (2019) to define intrinsic cognitive load:

36 Developmental Psychology - is a theoretical approach, initiated by anthropologist John Tooby and his wife.
psychologist Leda Cosmides, who addresses, in the social and natural sciences, the psychological structure based on a
modern evolutionary perspective, that is, aims to identify what the human psychological traits are resulting
as well as the evolutionary adaptations.

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For the readers of this chapter, the Portuguese word 'características' and its
Roman letters are processed easily and unconsciously as a single unit.
element recovered from long-term memory, imposing a cognitive load
minimum. For someone who is learning to read in Portuguese, the written word
it must be processed in working memory as multiple elements inter-
agents, because the written word has not yet been stored as a single
element in long-term memory, potentially constituting a task
capable of mastering the use of working memory. The complexity or interactivity
the life of the element depends on a combination of the nature of the information and
of the knowledge of the person who processes it. (SWELLER et al., 2019, p. 264).

Extraneous cognitive load is determined by the way in which the

information is presented. According to Rudolph (2017), extrinsic cognitive load associates
to the external elements to the learned content. Refers to the presentation methods
or to the dynamics of activities that mobilizes learners' attention to multiple aspects of
one piece of information. As an example of materials articulated with extrinsic cognitive load,
background music, animations seen on device screens, text on the screen with a
narration. The mentioned author emphasizes the importance of instructional designers and content mul-
timidly avoid irrelevant processing, considering the importance of having savings
from the energy of those who learn, so that cognition is employed in an objective manner, with
focus on the most relevant elements for learning.
Germane cognitive load, in turn, can be defined as the load
cognitive necessary for someone to learn information. Refers to memory resources
of work that is dedicated to dealing only with intrinsic cognitive load (SWELLER et al.,
2019). This load is defined as "[...] the mental effort that students dedicate to learning
you solve a problem" (CHAGAS, 2019, p. 31). The cognitive load is shown to be fun-
fundamental for the processing of the information to be learned through construction of
schemes and automations to be stored in long-term memory. (KIRSCHNER,
2002; SWELLER et al., 2019). The germane cognitive load is also necessary for redistribution
resources of working memory from extrinsic activities to intrinsic activities that
be relevant to learning. Therefore, the increase in the German load is fundamental-
such for the storage of new knowledge.
The intrinsic and extrinsic cognitive loads jointly contribute to the load.
total cognitive load attributed to a learning task (SWELLER, 2011). The greater
the amount of resources allocated in relation to extrinsic cognitive load, lower than the available
ability to handle intrinsic cognitive load. If the total cognitive load exceeds the
limited capacity of working memory, learning will be impaired, as will the
possibility of constructing schemes and automation (SWELLER et al., 2019).
The consideration of the intrinsic and extrinsic dimensions of cognitive load suggests that the
methodological procedures of teaching-learning reduce the complexity of the element
interactivity, in order to achieve effectiveness.

If a certain area of study or material has high interactivity between

its elements, reducing extrinsic cognitive load becomes very important
On the other spectrum, if a certain material or area of study has
little interaction of elements, therefore low intrinsic cognitive load, reduce

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extraneous cognitive load is not crucial once working memory

should not overflow. (CHAGAS, 2019, p. 30).

Therefore, based on this analysis, we can affirm that intrinsic cognitive load only
can be changed by altering what needs to be learned or changing the student's experience. Not
it is possible to change the intrinsic cognitive load by changing instructional procedures, that is,
the way information is taught (SWELLER et al., 2019).

5.4.2. The science of learning

The understanding of the foundations of the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning suggests
understanding of the concept of sensory memory, in addition to definitions and considerations
about working memory and long-term memory. Sensory memory represents the structure
cognitive that allows us to perceive new information and preserve an exact sensory copy
from what was presented to us for less than 0.25 seconds (SWELLER, 2005; MAYER,
Working memory, in turn, represents the cognitive structure capable of selecting
and process information coming from sensory memory consciously, integrating it
with long-term memory (SWELLER, 2005; MAYER, 2010). Working memory
lasts less than 30 seconds and has limited capacity. Thus, this memory processes a
small amount of information at a time (MAYER, 2010). Long-term memory, of
different way, stores all the knowledge stock of an individual for an indefinite time
finished, a fact that makes us aware of its information only at the moment when
are transferred to working memory (SORDEN, 2012).
The cognitive theory of multimedia learning is based on three hypotheses, the
saber: princípio do duplo canal; princípio da capacidade limitada; princípio do processamento
active (MAYER, 2005). The dual channel principle assumes that people have channels
separated for the processing of visual and auditory information (PAIVIO, 1986). The principle of
limited capacity, derived from cognitive load theory, supports the hypothesis that people
can process only a small amount of elements in your working memory
every time, in every channel (SWELLER, 1998; BADDELEY, 1999). The principle of processing
Active learning assumes that meaningful learning occurs when people pay attention to the
content, selecting relevant information from the presented material, organizing it
in a coherent mental structure, and integrating them with previous knowledge (MAYER, 2017).
Learning is a continuous process that spans the entire life of the individual. In
In general, new knowledge is built upon old knowledge. The result of learning
dizagem is personal and represents an internal process that occurs in the learner:

According to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, knowledge-

cement is contained in schemes that are cognitive constructions capable of
organize information for long-term memory storage. The
schemes organize simpler elements that can then act as
elements in higher-order schemes. As learning occurs,
increasingly sophisticated schemes are developed and the procedures
learned behaviors are transferred from controlled processing to automatic.
A automação libera capacidade na memória de trabalho para outras funções.
(SORDEN, 2012, p. 4).

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In this same perspective, Mayer (2009, p. 59) defines learning as 'a change in
knowledge attributable to experience. Learning, understood in this way, is personal.
and cannot be directly observed because it occurs in the cognitive system of the learner. It
is associated with likely changes in the behavior of those who learn, as can be observed
when someone performs a task or test (SORDEN, 2012, p. 6).
According to Mayer (2010), learning from a multimedia environment, in order to be
significant, must involve the learner's engagement in the following cognitive processes:
(a) selection of relevant words and images for processing in working memory; (b)
organization of words and selected images in verbal and pictorial models; and (c) integrates
tion of verbal and pictorial representations between themselves and with cognitive schemes (knowledge
previous). These processes define which information will be selected from memory.
sensory, and processed by working memory. Similarly, they establish information to
will be retrieved, by long-term memory, and integrated with the new information for the cons-
introduction of new knowledge. Finally, it indicates which elements of the new knowledge will be
transferred to long-term memory (SORDEN, 2012).
The cognitive theory of multimedia learning can be graphically exemplified (see
Figure 2). In this figure there are two lines and five columns represented by boxes containing
two rectangles each, except for the last box that contains only one rectangle. These re-
triangles, inside the boxes, are connected by arrows to the rectangles of the previous boxes, with
exception of the rectangles in the first box. The two lines represent the two separate channels
para o processamento de informações visual e auditiva (princípio do duplo canal). As cinco
columns, presented here and represented by means of boxes, symbolize the five forms of
representation of narrated words and visual figures during data processing
for the memory.

Figure 2: Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Source: MAYER (2017)

As shown in the figure, the multimedia content presents words in the form of
narrated or written text, and images that constitute the physical representation of information. The
narrated words and written words and images are captured by the ears and eyes of the learner
teeth and converted into sensory representation of information in sensory memory. The learning-
tooth, through a process of selective attention to the essential content, selects the sounds and
images that will begin to be represented in working memory, constituting the third form
of information representation. In a process of cognitive organization, words are con-
translated into verbal models and the images into pictorial models, still in working memory,

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constituting the fourth form of representation of information. Finally, the learner integrates the
selected knowledge with cognitive schemes (prior knowledge) in memory
in the long term, constituting the fifth form of information representation. (MAYER, 2017).
Significant learning is defined here as an active cognitive process where the
the learner builds knowledge applicable to new situations (MAYER, 2009). Mayer (2008)
identified two common types of transfer in learning processes: (a) transfer
of learning and (b) transfer for problem solving. In the transfer of learning-
saying, the new learning is influenced by previous learning and this impacts on
the individual's ability to recall what has been learned. In the transfer to problem solving
problemas, a habilidade para resolver novos problemas é influenciada pela aprendizagem anterior
and this impacts the understanding of what is presented as data for teaching and learning.

5.4.3. The science of instruction

Considering the three hypotheses raised by the Cognitive Theory of Learning
In multimedia education, we can affirm that the main objective of multimedia instruction is to
enhance the process outlined and illustrated by the figure presented earlier (MAYER,
2009). This objective can be achieved through (a) reduction of irrelevant processing
(b) essential processing management; and (c) generative processing nutrition
(DELEEUW and MAYER, 2008).
The three types of cognitive processing mentioned are strongly based on the Theory
of Cognitive Load (SWELLER et al., 1998). Irrelevant processing refers to the process-
cognitive framework of content with no direct relation to the instructional objective (extrinsic load
it reduces the chances of transferring learning. The essential processing
it refers to the cognitive processing aimed at the mental representation of the content to be
learned (intrinsic load). Generative processing, finally, refers to processing
cognitive aimed at producing meanings in relation to presented content, achieved by
activity of organization and integration of information within working memory (load
German) (SORDEN, 2012).
In order to enhance the process shown in Figure 1, Mayer (2009) proposed the
twelve principles of multimedia learning to be followed by instructional designers
involved with multimedia content production (Table n.°1). These principles were
proposed based on a hundred scientific studies conducted between the 1990s and
2010 (SORDEN, 2012).

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Figure 1: Principles of Multimedia Learning

Principles of Multimedia Learning

1. Multimedia principle: people understand better when the multimedia environment makes use of
words and figures compared to the use of only words.
2. Principle of spatial contiguity: people benefit more from the multimedia environment when
Figures and words used to describe and refer to them are close to each other.
3. Principle of modality: people benefit more from the multimedia environment when the
the content to be learned is presented in the form of graphics and narration compared to
presentation of the same content in the form of graphs and printed text on a page.
4. Principle of temporal contiguity: people benefit more from the multimedia environment when
the words that describe a certain figure and the respective figure are presented to
at the same time instead of one after the other.

5. Principle of segmentation: the understanding of the content presented in an instructional piece

multimedia can be enhanced by fragmenting exposed content instead of presenting it
the content as a whole as if it were a continuous unit.
6. Principle of coherence: the understanding of the presented content can be enhanced.
through the elimination of irrelevant elements from the multimedia piece, such as, for example, by
through the suppression of explosion sounds or flying birds in the presentation material.
A multimedia piece should not contain different concepts in the same frame or slide. This
principle comes in the sense of avoiding the cognitive overload of the learner with elements and/or
unnecessary content.
7. Principle of redundancy: a graph and narration should not be inserted in the same slide or board.
the printed text. This way of producing multimedia data harms processes of
learning by promoting unnecessary increase in cognitive load of working memory.
The ideal is that only graphics and narration are on the same slide or frame.
8. Signaling principle: the use of cues to highlight key aspects of information in a
multimedia instructional material facilitates the learning process. From this perspective, they use-
arrows, colored rectangles, among other elements.
9. Pre-training principle: people learn more deeply from a piece
instructional multimedia when receiving pre-training on objectives and concepts
key to what is presented as a learning object.
10. Principle of individual differences (personalization principle): formal style of conversation.
should be avoided. The conversational style should prevail throughout the presentations
multimedia.
11. Voice principle: the use of human voice in multimedia presentations increases engagement
of the learner when compared to the use of computer-generated voice.
12. Principle of the image: the image of the presenter on the screen does not make learning more
profound or significant.

Source: Prepared by the authors.

In addition to the principles listed above, there is a considerable number of other principles.
present in specialized literature. It is very likely that the number of principles considers
slowly increase over the next few years, based on the highlighted theory
on the advancement of scientific research on the subject.

Finally, it is important to emphasize that the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning places
the learner at the center of learning processes, instead of prioritizing technology. From this

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