Renewable Energy
Chapter Two
Solar Thermal Systems
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to
1. explain low-temperature solar thermal energy systems: unglazed, flat plate, and evacuated tube water
heaters
2. describe high-temperature solar thermal energy systems, their types and components
3. identify different types of high-temperature solar thermal energy systems and their components
4. explain solar thermal power plants with a central receiver and their components, including heliostats,
arrangement of heliostat fields, and central receiver
5. explain solar thermal power plants with distributed or dispersed collectors and their components,
including line-focus and point focus collectors
2.1 Introduction
Solar energy can be converted to (1) thermal (2) electrical (3) chemical processes. Photovoltaic cells
convert solar energy into electricity. Thermal collectors convert the solar energy to thermal energy that is
used for space heating and cooling, domestic water heating, power generation and distillation. In this
chapter, we will deal with the thermal solar energy.
2.2 Solar Thermal Collectors
Thermal solar collectors are classified into two types: Thermal Solar Flat Collectors and Thermal
Solar Concentrating Collectors.
Figure 2.1 Categorization of solar thermal technologies according to temperature
Table 2.1 representative solar thermal collector operating parameters
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2.2.1 Solar Thermal Flat Collectors
This type of collector, which is as air and water solar collector, consist of, as shown in:
1. Glass: one or more sheets of glass or radiation-transmitting material to pass solar radiation through
it, meanwhile losing as little heat as possible to the atmosphere.
2. Passages, fins, tubes: fluid passes through the collector to remove heat from the inlet to the outlet
of the collector.
3. Black absorber plate: flat, corrugated, grooved plates, finned plates. The fluid passes over them to
absorb heat and convert it to thermal energy.
4. Insulation: to minimise the thermal losses from the back and sides of the collector.
5. Container or casing: to surround the collector and protect it from dust, moisture and bad weather
conditions.
The principle of physical work of solar collector
Solar energy collectors are special kinds of heat exchangers that transform solar radiation energy to internal
energy of the transport medium. The major component of any solar system is the solar collector. This is a
device that absorbs the incoming solar radiation, converts it into heat, and transfers the heat to a fluid
(usually air, water, or oil) flowing through the collector.
The basic parameter to consider is the collector thermal efficiency. This is defined as the ratio of the useful
energy delivered to the energy incident on the collector aperture. The incident solar flux consists of direct
and diffuse radiation. While flat-plate collectors can collect both, concentrating collectors can utilise direct
radiation only.
The performance of the solar thermal collector depends on the following criteria:
1. Area of the solar collector
2. Total amount of solar radiation incident on the collector
3. The positioning of the collector’s tilt and the collector’s orientation.
4. Heat gain.
5. The conversion factor.
6. Heat loss through conduction and convection.
Low-temperature solar collector models operate at high efficiency levels when the temperature difference
is between 5 and 30°C and medium-temperature models operate when the temperature difference is
between 15 and 200°C.
Tubular Solar Energy Collectors
Tubular collectors have several advantages. They may be used to get small concentration ratio (1.5-2.0) by
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forming a mirror from part of the internal concave surface of a glass tube. This reflector can focus radiation
on to the absorber inside the tube. Performance may also be improved by filling the envelope with high-
molecular-weight noble gases. External concentrators of radiation are generally used in an evacuated
receiver for improvement of its performance.
Fig. 3.3:Schematic diagram of concentric-tube collector optics
Efficiency and Operation of Solar Water Heaters
The efficiency of SWHs is defined as the ratio of the annual thermal energy supplied by the system to the
annual solar radiation intercepted by the collec tor. Another parameter that is used to express the
performance of SWHs with regards to the building they serve is called the solar fraction. It is defined as
the ratio of the thermal energy supplied by the solar thermal energy system to the total corresponding
thermal energy needs of the building.
Solar thermal energy systems are almost universally stationary (with no sun tracking system). Therefore,
similar to other fixed solar energy systems, they can operate most efficiently facing true south in the
northern hemi sphere. Based on own computations collector tilt can be taken:
• For Winter performance (November-February), the collector tilt can be latitude plus 15o of the
place (L+15o )
• For summer performance (March-October), the collector tilt can be latitude of the place minus 5
degrees (L-5o)
• While the tilt angle for a year-round operating system (for optimum annual output) should be
equal to the latitude of the site (L)
Example 2.1: In a building, a solar air heater provides 8000 kWh of thermal energy needed for space heating
and a natural gas burning furnace provides the remaining 2500 kWh. Determine the solar fraction of the
system.
Solution
Thermal energysupplied by solar water heater
Solar fraction =
Total annual thermal energy consumption
8000
= = 0.762
8000 + 2500
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Solar thermal storage
Akey advantage of solar thermalc ompared to photovoltaics is the capability of integrating thermal
energy storage (TES) within a CSP plant. Not only can such a TES system allow the plant to continue
generating electricity during brief periods of sun light loss(i.e., cloudiness),more importantly,electricity
production can be continued after sunset and into the evening, which generally corresponds to a peak
utility load period. Similarly, solar thermal plants can incorporate auxiliary burners to produce heat at
night and during inclement weather. In the near term, TES is expected to provide capacity factors
approaching 40%, and in the long term up to 70%.5 Figure 10.3 illustrates how a solar thermal power
plant can attain base load generation by diverting thermal energy to storage during the mid-day hours
while alsodirectlysupplyingelectricpower tothegrid. Intheearlyeveninghours, the stored thermal energy
is withdrawn and converted [Link] the stored energy isdepleted, auxiliary burner sutilizing
biomass, hydrogenor fossil fuels could be employed to produce electricity during off-peak [Link] this
manner CSP facilities can accomplish grid dispatchable power generation, that is,firm power delivery.
Figure 3.4 Storage and withdrawal of solar thermal energy
Solar Thermal Power Generation
Solar thermal power generation uses power cycles which are broadly classified as
(i) Low temperature cycle : Low temperature cycles usually can be used up to 100 oC and use flat plate
collectors. For these purposes, flat plate collectors are used:
(a) Water heating (such as solar water heaters) Domestic, (b) Space heating, (c) Space cooling, (d) Drying
certain articles for agricultural products. For power generation purposes, fluids like Freon, ammonia are
vapourised in the boiler by the water heated in the collector. The high pressure from vapour runs the turbine.
The freon is then condensed and circulated in the system. Such systems are used upto 100 kW power
generation for agricultural water pumping systems. This is shown in Fig. 3.3. In this system the working
substance may be butane vapours.
Figure. 3.5 Low temperature system for power generation.
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(ii) Medium temperature cycle: medium temperature cycles are used for temperatures between 150 to 300
o
C . ). For these applications, cylindrical parabolic solar collectors are used. Applications in this range of
temperatures are as follows: (a) Process heating (Industrial process), (b) Cooking, (c) Refrigeration and (for
preservation food products), (d) Vapour engines and turbines (low boiling temperatures organic vapours)
(iii) High temperature cycle : high temperature cycles are used for temperatures above 300 oC. ): For these
applications, Parabolloid mirror arrays are used. Applications in this range of temperatures are as: (a)
Thermoelectric generator , (b) Steam engines and turbines and (c) Stirling engine.
Concentrating or Focussing Collectors
A circular or rectangular parabolic mirror can collect the radiation and focus it on to a small area, and for
this a mechanism for moving the collector to follow the sun being necessary, such devices are used for
metallurgical research where high purity and high temperatures are essential, an example being a 55 m
diameter collector giving about 1 MW (th). Smaller units having a 20 m diameter reflector can give
temperatures of 300°C over an area of about 50 m2. The collecting efficiency is about 50 percent. On a
smaller scale, units about 1 m diameter giving temperatures of about 300°C have been used for cooling and
other developing countries
Figure 2.6 (a) Focussing solar collector. (b) Concentrating flat plate collector.
Focussing of sunlight is usually achieved by brightly polished reflectors in the form of cylindrical parabola or
paraboloid. In the first type, the energy receiving surface may be the blackened outside of a pipe, placed along the
focal line of reflectors. If placed with the axis in east–west direction, their reflectors need not be continuously moved
to follow the sun, but must be turned atleast once a week to have the central linear target receiver strip always in
focus. They are quite effective upto 150°C.
A solar concentrator usually consists of (i) an optical device to focus solar radiation (ii) a blackened metaliic
absorber provided with a transparent cover, and (iii) a tracking device for continuously following the sun.
Temperatures as high as 3000C can be achieved. Solar concentrator consists of:
1. A focusing device
2. An absorber/receiver
3. Tracking device for continuously following the sun.
Concentrating Collectors systems can be divided to two categories which are line focus technologies and point
focusing technologies. The below shows some of the systems belonging to each category.
Concentrated Solar Power:
1. Line Focus: Line focus concentrators have cylindrical symmetry and are generally used when
intermediate concentration is required to meet the demand of a desired task. Temperatures in the range
of 100-350C can be generated using line focus concentrators. These systems can be utilised for solar
thermal power generation as well as for industrial process heat applications. It classified into :i) Parabolic
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Trough Solar Collectors, ii) Linear Fresnel Reflector
2. Point Focus: Point focusing concentrators have circular symmetry and are generally used when high
concentration is required. These systems requiring two axis tracking can generate temperature in the
range 800-3000C. Point focusing concentrators are being used for solar thermal power generation
purposes. It classified into: i) Dish Solar Collector, ii) Solar Power Tower
Schematic diagrams of different solar concentrators (a) Flat absorber with flat reflectors, (b)
Parabolic cencentrator, (c) Compound parabolic concentrator, (d) Fresnel lens, e) Cylindrical
parabolic concentrator
Figure 2.8 Three primary solar concentrating systems.
Parabolic Solar collector (PSC)
Parabolic trough collectors are made by bending a sheet of reflective material into a parabolic shape.
A black metal tube, covered with a glass tube to reduce heat losses, is placed along the focal line of the
receiver. The space between the glass envelope and the tube is evacuated for reducing heat losses as
well. Parabolic trough collectors are the most mature solar technology to generate heat at temperatures
up to 400°C for solar thermal electricity generation. It can be integrated with solar thermal power plants
by, heating up a heat transfer fluid in the solar field, and then use it in a heat exchanger to generate
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steam that drives the steam turbine.
Figure 2.9 shows such a concave solar energy collector focussing sun’s rays on boiler at focal point
Solar thermal power plant
On the solar field side, a heat transfer fluid (HTF) is heated by PTSCs and then pumped to a steam generator
(heat exchanger) where steam is generated and piped back to the PTSCs. On the power generation side, the
steam transferred to the turbine producing mechanical power that drives an electric generator. The steam
leaving the turbine is cooled by a condenser and pumped again to the heat exchanger.
Figure 2.10 Flow diagram For a typical solar ther mal power plant
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Figure 2.11 Trough type CSP plant with thermal storage
HIGH TEMPERATURE SYSTEMS
For high temperature systems (temperatures greater than 200°C), paraboloid mirror-arrays are
used. For such an assembly of reflecting mirrors, a central receiver system is used. Heliostats are
the movable mirrors to which sun’s rays hit and the rays are reflected to a single point in space
(the receiver). The receiver is that element of the system where the radiation is absorbed and
converted to some other energy form (generally heat energy). Receiver includes the absorber, its
associated covers and insulation. The facets of the reflector can also be individually mounted and
adjusted in position as shown in Fig. 27.8. Large arrays of heliostats of this type, with receivers
mounted on a tower (solar tower), are the basis of designs of central-receiver collectors heat
exchanger.
Figure 2.12 Solar tower power plant with heliostat Figure 2.13 the back-side of the heliostat
I. Linear Fresnel Reflector
The linear Fresnel reflector technology receives its name from the Fresnel lens, which was
developed by the French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel for lighthouses in the 18th century.
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In the Fresnel system the individual mirrors rotate to track the sun. There is no mechanical
connection between the mirrors and the collector. The mirrors focus the sun onto a receiver
which contains the heat transfer medium which could be water, oil or even molten salt in some
designs. The heat transfer medium used will depend on the operating temperature of the system.
The main difference between the two systems lies in the way that the sun’s rays are tracked,
and this is what gives rise to the cheaper cost of Fresnel.
II. Dish Solar Collectors (DSCs)
A parabolic dish reflector (PDR), is a point-focus collector that tracks the sun in two axes,
concentrating solar energy onto a receiver located at the focal point of the dish. The dish
structure must fully track the sun to reflect the beam into the thermal receiver. For this purpose,
tracking mechanisms employed in double, so the collector is tracked in two axes.
The receiver absorbs the radiant solar energy, converting it into thermal energy in a circulating
fluid. The thermal energy can then be either converted into electricity using an engine-generator
coupled directly to the receiver or transported through pipes to a central power conversion
system.
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Other Applications of Solar Thermal Energy
Solar desalination
Water desalination requires large amounts of energy. 230 million tons of oil per day has been
estimated to be used to desalinate 25 million m3/day of salty water. The solar still is one of the
oldest and by far the simplest water desalination method. A solar still consists of a structural
element called a basin covered with a transparent material to allow the incident solar radiation
to pass through to the basin saline water for thermal absorption and evaporation.
Typically, the basin is colored in dark or black to enhance solar flux absorption. The water is
heated by the solar rays absorbed by the basin, which increases the water vapor pressure until
some portion of the saline water evaporates. The water vapor moves upward and typically
condenses on the cool glass cover and run downs through a guiding channel to the collection
reservoir.
Solar Cooking
A solar cooker uses the energy of direct sunlight to heat, cook, bake or pasteurize food or drink.
It only works when the sun shines, so solar cooking can never be a stand-alone [Link]
of the best solar cookers types is parabolic solar collectors. Parabolic cookers can be made from
aluminium sheets, iron, or even concrete coated with aluminium foil. Through their parabolic
shape, they focus radiation from the sun onto the bottom of the pot. They generally have a
higher energy output than box cookers and can reach temperatures of up to 250 °C. These high
temperatures enable users to do cooking, stir-frying and baking. Aluminium parabolic cookers
are lightweight and can easily be
transported.
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Solar Swimming Pool Heating
Heating a swimming pool can consume a lot of energy and add up to high heating bills. You
can improve your swimming pool's heating and energy efficiency by installing an energy
efficient pool heater and by taking steps to reduce pool heating costs. Here’s how it works:
First, the water pumps through the filter. Then the water enters the solar collector, where it is
heated and pumped back into the pool.
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Dr. Muhammed Ali Muqbel 11
