184

Vegetative Propagation
Tara Luna and Diane L. Haase 10

Numerous desirable and ecologically important tropical plant species

They can be difficult to propagate from seeds or it takes quite a long time to do so.
Thus, nursery growers may want to investigate how to propagate these species.
It is achieved through vegetative propagation, which is accomplished by combining classical techniques.
of horticultural propagation with knowledge about ecological characteristics and
reproductive of the species. The plants that inhabit tropical ecosystems often
it reproduces vegetatively (that is, asexually without seeds or spores).
Vegetative propagation is commonly used in species with life seeds.
short, feasibility decreased complex latency. All new daughter plants that
They come from vegetative propagation and are genetically identical to the mother plant.
(donor) and these resulting individuals are known as "clones" (figure 10.1).

Opposite page: Vegetative propagation is the production of daughter plants from stems, leaves, roots, or other parts.
parts of a single mother plant (donor). Photo by Ronald Overton.

185
Comparison Between • Build a planter to make holes in the substrate
Vegetative Propagation and with of rooting.
Seeds
The following situations favor the propagation.
vegetation on seed propagation:
• Seed propagation is difficult or requires
a long time
• Viable seeds are produced with little
frequency or in small quantities.
• A larger nursery stock is needed in
a short period of time.
• It is necessary to propagate a single individual plant.
• It is necessary to reduce the flowering time
for seed production.
• A uniform stock type is needed.
• Specific genotypes are desired.
• Nursery stock without diseases is needed.
Disadvantages of using vegetative propagation—
• Production costs higher than in the
propagation by seeds, usually due to the
increase in the workforce.
• Reduced genetic diversity.
• Structures may be necessary
specialized propagation, based on the season
of the year and to the species that will be propagated.

Depending on the plant species, vegetative propagation

It can be done with pieces of stems, leaves,
roots, bulbs, corms, tubers, and rhizomes. The species,
the type of plant material used, the time of year in
how the material is collected, how it is handled and manipulated
to induce rooting and the proper application of
The correct environmental conditions affect the spread.
vegetative.
Because vegetative propagation is more expensive
that the cultivation of seedlings, the production system must
to be efficient. A general rule is that it should be obtained by
less than 50% rooting to produce cuttings in a deformed way
affordable. However, if rare species are spread or
individual plants, the costs may be less
important.
Consider the following methods to reduce costs
of production:
• Develop a smooth production line, from the
collection of the material until the final product.
• Train the nursery staff on how to
collect, process, plant, and cultivate the material.

186 ManualofTropicalNurseries
 cuttings and the subsequent success in rooting.
Planting (striking) is the process of placing the cutting.
in the soil or in a rooting substrate. Often, the
propagators will say that the cuttings have been 'planted' to
indicate that the cuttings have been placed in the substrate of
rooting.

Figure 10.1 —The propagation of plumeria by

cuttings produce genetically identical plants. Photo
of Tara Luna.

• Keep a good record to improve

the results and document the costs of
production.

Cuttings
A cutting is the part of a plant that
collect, treat, and plant so that it develops
forming a new intact complete plant with
stems, leaves, and roots. The cuttings can be
collect from mother plants in the wild or
they can cultivate special donor plants in
the nursery. The selection of the mother plants is
it must be done with great care; it is so important
as well as the origin of the seeds for
ensure that the nursery stock is good
adapted to the outdoor transplant environment. The
the collection of cuttings must follow the same
ethical guidelines for seed collection
to create an appropriate genetic diversity and
for the sustainability of populations
wild (see Chapter 8, Collection,
Processing and Storage of Seeds.
In addition, the rooting capacity of the
Cuttings often specifically refer to the clone, for which
it is important to record the origin of the
Vegetative Propagation 187
 Figure 10.2—Woody cuttings are obtained during the dry season or when the leaves of tropical species fall off.
deciduous oaks. Photo by Thomas D. Landis.

Stem Cuttings and Shoots

the dry season until the early start of the season
The cuttings of shoots, also called cuttings of they are vigorous and are transplanted outdoors when the cutting is not
stems, are the most common type of cuttings and generally It has leaves and the soil at the transplant site outside is
they can be classified into three categories depending on the moist. Usually, the live stakes and the cuttings
growth stage at which they are when harvested. branched are inserted into the ground with a mallet and should be
Wood cuttings are obtained from mature wood of plant it deep enough to reach the
trees and shrubs from the previous year and generally they moisture in the soil profile with only three to four knots
they are collected during the dry season in the tropics, (yolks) on the ground. The posts are much longer and
when the leaves of deciduous species fall off they are also introduced deep enough to
(figure 10.2). Semi-hardwood cuttings (wood that may be in contact with the aquifer, no
green) are collected towards the end of the growth period however, the stem above the ground is much longer.
active when the tissues of the stems have hardened and they woody cuttings of Erythrina, Gliricidia, and others
they have transformed the apical buds or just after they Species are commonly used this way as
has produced a growth spurt and the wood is cutting edges, living fences, and for restoration projects.
partially mature. The cuttings are collected
If woody cuttings are planted in the nursery, they can
when the stems and leaves are actively growing.
be straight, of heel or mallet (figure 10.3). The straight cuttings
they are made of straight hardwood stems and are the most common type
Woody Cuttings of Deciduous Species
common for easy rooting species. Heel cuttings
Woody stem cuttings of tropical species they are made of lateral sprouts that are 2 years old.
Deciduous foliage is the easiest and least expensive type of cutting. To make a heel cutting, pull the side shoot away from
because they are easy to prepare, they are not as perishable as the tip so that a section of older wood
the semi-hard or semi-soft cuttings can be stored in stay at the base of the cutting. The cuttings of the bundle
coolers or transport if necessary and require little they include a cross section of older stem at the base
or no special equipment during rooting. Sometimes, they of the lateral sprout.
they are planted directly on the transplant site outdoors or
All woody stem cuttings have a polarity.
they are taken back to the nursery to cultivate them bare-rooted or
inherent and will produce sprouts at the distal end (closest
as a stock of containers.
to the yolk) and roots at the proximal end (closest to the
If deciduous woody cuttings are planted main stem or root system). If planted upside down,
directly at the external transplant site, these can the cutting will not take root. When using straight deciduous cuttings or of
to be live stakes (length of 12 to 16 inches [30 to 40 cm]), living stake, a distinction must be made between the upper part and
posts (length of 12 to 16 feet [3.6 to 4.9 m]) or cuttings lower part of the branches. The absence of leaves can make
ramifications (length of 2 to 6 feet [0.6 to 1.8 m]). These difficult to discern the upper part from the lower part, because it is
cuttings are collected during
188 ManualofTropicalNurseries
cut the lower part diagonally and the part
superior in a straight form. The

Vegetative Propagation 189

Figure 10.3—From left to right: straight cutting, heel cutting and Figure 10.4 —The leaves of some evergreen cuttings
from a stick. Straight cuttings are used in easy species leafy vegetables are usually cut in half to reduce the
rooting, while the mazo and heel cuttings are used in amount of water loss during rooting. Photo of
species that are harder to root. Photo by Tara Luna. Thomas D. Landis.

diagonal cut maximizes the water absorption area in the Tender Cuttings
base and the straight cut minimizes the area of water loss in
Prepared from the new growth of species
the top.
deciduous or evergreen, usually, the cuttings
they take root more easily than other types of cuttings, do they not?
Woody Cuttings of Evergreen Species However, they need a special rooting environment.
Woody cuttings of coniferous and evergreen species require more attention to prevent desiccation. The best mate-
tropical broadleaf plants are usually harvested during the sea- it has a certain degree of flexibility, but it is
dry advice or just after a new blow of sufficiently mature to break when it
growth during the growing season. Unlike it suddenly doubles (figure 10.5). The sprouts we...
Deciduous woody cuttings, evergreen cuttings grow extremely fast and are not desirable.
They should be planted in a special rooting environment. The herbaceous stem cuttings are tender cuttings.
(see Chapter 5, Propagation Environments) as soon as collected from non-tree plants. These are handled from
it is possible because they cannot be stored during any the same way we do (figure 10.6).
time period. The perennials root better in Many cuttings of tropical succulent plants, including-
special environments for rooting after being Some cacti, they propagate easily this way;
wounded or treated with a rooting hormone It should be allowed for the cuttings to form calluses during a
(described in the following sections). Generally, the week before inserting the cutting into the rooting substrate
cuttings have a length of 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 cm), with I lie. Succulent cuttings root easily without
all the leaves removed from the lower half. It also need for sprinkler irrigation or high humidity.
they must remove the green tips and the lateral shoots. The leaves
great tropical broadleaf evergreen plants
They are usually cut in half to reduce waste.
water during rooting (figure 10.4). The cuttings
recto, of hammer and heel are also used with the species
perennial leaves (figure 10.3).

Semi-hardwood cuttings
Semi-woody stem cuttings are made from
latest sprouts of broadleaf evergreen plants
broadleaf and deciduous species. The cuttings are
they gather just before the start of the dry season, towards
the end of the active growing season when the
The stems have hardened or just after a
growth trace when the wood is partially Figure 10.5—A cutting of talloternotene with a certain degree
mature. In many cases, the apical bud has formed. The of flexibility, but it is mature enough to
semi-woody cuttings propagate in the same way as break when bent sharply. Photo by Tara Luna.
the evergreen woody cuttings.

190 ManualofTropicalNurseries
Figure 10.6—Various tropical herbaceous species, such as the optimal for
āwikiwiki (species Canavallia) can easily root from
from cuttings using the application of a hormone of
rooting and a water spraying environment or a
closed polypromoter. Photo by Tara Luna.

Root Cuttings
Although they are not used as much as other types of
cuttings, root cuttings can be obtained by dividing
the roots in individual segments that contain buds
of latent sprouts capable of developing into new
Root cuttings are commonly used.
Species that cannot root well from cuttings
from stem. The breadfruit tree (species Artocarpus) and noni
(Morinda citrifolia) is usually propagated from
root cuttings (figure 10.7). The sections of the root are
obtained at any time of the year in the tropics.
Root cuttings are planted horizontally in beds of
cultivation or containers with the buds of dormant leaves towards
the upper side. Some root cuttings are also planted
vertically, however, it is important to maintain the
straight polarity. Generally, root cuttings do not
they need a special rooting environment at least
that the shoots be cut from the root piece and treated as
a stem cutting.

Selection of Cuttings
of Mother Plants
A variety of factors such as the seasonal moment,
juvenile phase, plagiotropism, the species, and the size and
the quality of the cutting can greatly influence the
success in the rooting of cuttings. The gatherers
they must be aware of these factors and, with experience,
they will be able to discern the appropriate cutting material for
collect
Some species can easily spread from
cuttings collected in any season of the year, while
What other ones have very specific seasonal trends in
those that will form roots. For any given species, they are
necessary small experiments to determine the time
Vegetative Propagation 191
Figure 10.7—The root cuttings, such as those planted here
originating from the breadfruit tree (species Artocarpus), they can be
use when stem cuttings do not root well. Photo
of Thomas D. Landis.

collecting cuttings, which is related to the condition

physiology of the donor plant at the time of the
collection and not on any given calendar date. It is
It is important to keep a record to improve the results.
of rooting from one year to another.
All plants progress from a juvenile phase (unable
deproduce flowers) to a mature or flowering phase
adult. However, different parts of the plant may be
at different stages of maturity at the same time. Sometimes the
the juvenile stage can be distinguished from the adult stage by
differences in the shape or color of the leaves or by habit
general of the plant. Some broadleaf species, such as the
eucalyptus, have distinctive juvenile leaves that differ from the
adult leaves. In conifers, usually the wood
Juvenile is found at the bottom of the tree crown.
and the adult wood that has cones is located in the crown
superior. In broadleaf trees, juvenile wood is
find near the base of the stem or the crown of the root and
one can discern how the long shoots are without flowering
(cuttings). Cuttings collected from this region of the plant
they root more easily than those of mature wood more
antigua. In some cases, many species are difficult to
they will only root from stems collected from
young seedlings. Lateral pruning or cutting back is the practice
to regularly cut donor plants to maintain the
youth wood and it is an efficient method to generate several
long and straight cuttings from a limited number of plants. They
you can select donor plants in natural stands
for lateral pruning with annual frequency if they are going to be collected
cut the cuttings from the area for several years. Otherwise,
You can keep mother plants in the nursery and use them.
as a source of cuttings as described in the following
section.
Plagiotropism is the habit of a cutting to follow
growing in the direction in which it was growing in the
plant donor. Plagiotropism can be strong or weak
depending

192 ManualofTropicalNurseries
 Figure 10.9—Micro-cuttings are stem cuttings
small ones with one or two knots. Photo by Tara Luna.

deep shadow. A

Figure 10.8—Plagiotropism is the effect of position

he plants the habit of growth in the offspring. The sprout
terminal in the juniper cutting on the right was collected from
a lateral branch and still shows a trend towards growth
lateral. Photo by Thomas D. Landis.

of the species and of the original position of the cutting in the

Plant donor. Plumeria is an example of a genus.
tropical latifoliated with a strong plagiotropism. Often,
the plants produced from cuttings of lateral shoots
they will maintain a lateral habitat, while the plants
produced from terminal buds will grow
vertically. This trend can create problems in the
growth habit of the nursery stock and it is more
concerning with the conifer species than with the broadleaf species
(Landis et al. 1999) (figure 10.8).
The sizes of the cuttings vary from species to species and
complies with cutting height and seasonal moment. The
plants that root easily can be collected as
long posts to root or convert them into micro cuttings
small ones. The micro-cuttings consist of a bud and a
small section of the stem internode and generally have a
length of less than 2 inches (5 cm) (figure 10.9). The cuttings
woody ones vary in length from 4 to 30 inches (10 to 76 cm). In the
the cutting should include at least two nodes. The basal cut is
just below a knot and the upper cut is made over
a node. If more than one cutting is being made from a
stem, ensure that the nursery workers maintain the
correct polarity. The portions of the tip of the bud, which
they are usually low in carbohydrates, generally they
discarded. Usually, the central and basal portions of
Stems are the best cuttings, but there are exceptions. One
good wood for cutting has some carbohydrates
stored that supply the cutting with food reserves
until the roots form. The very thin shoots or
elongated ones are not desirable. If the cuttings are collected from
natural stands, harvesting them from individuals that are
growing in full sun or partial shade and avoid those in
Vegetative Propagation 193
 slightly, the ability of a cutting to produce
new roots change from the base of the cutting to the
tip. The cuttings of tender stems are
generally straight, with a length of 3 to 6
pulg (7.5 to 15 cm) and with two or more knots. In
In general, the underground roots take better root.
from the terminal buds. The cuttings
semi-woody plants usually measure from 3 to 6 inches (7.5
a 15 cm) and keep the leaves in the middle
superior. Generally, the semi-hardwood cuttings
they root better from the lateral shoots.
Several species of tropical plants are
dioecious, which means that the flowers
masculine and feminine flowers bloom in plants
separated (table 10.1). For example, Hawaii
has the highest degree of dioeciousness in its flora
natva that anywhere in the world. In such
in some cases, the collectors might not realize
they have collected cuttings of only one sex. The
external transplantation of single-sex plants in
the restoration site could compromise the
project objectives because the production of
long-term seeds will be impossible. Therefore,
make sure to collect cutting material
both masculine and feminine (see Landis and
other 2003).

Placement of
Mother Plants in the
Nursery
Some administrators of nurseries
it is advantageous to maintain stock plants
of donors in the nursery as a source
continuation of cutting material in one place
convenient

Table 10.1 —Tropical dioecious species.

Scientific name Common name

Aleurites moluccana Kukui nut
Broussaisia arguta Kanawao
Cycad species Tiger
Mulberry species Mulberry
Pandanus tectorius Podocarpus
Piper methysticum Kava
Pitosporum hosmeri Ho`awa
Zanthoxylum flavum and Z. thomasianum Yellow sapote

194 ManualofTropicalNurseries
Most species of broadleaf trees will sprout. • Spray bottles filled with disinfectant (1 part of
(regenerate the stems of the cut stumps), which can bleach [sodium hypochlorite at 5.25%] in 10 parts
provide new cuttings year after year. Keep plants of of water) to disinfect the pruning shears.
stock in the nursery can be more efficient than harvesting
wild populations, especially if the same will be used • Permanent labels and markers to note the origin
from the collection.
ecotopes for a long-term restoration project. The
A disadvantage of using mother plants grown in the nursery is that • Large white plastic bags with ties for collection
They require space in the nursery and must be managed. large volume actions.
intensely. • Spray bottles filled with water to keep the
Usually, mother plants are planted in beds of wet cuttings in the plastic bags after the
cultivation in the nursery or, in some cases, they are kept in collection.
large containers. These areas are known as • Portable coolers with insulation for transport
"bunching beds" or "living hedges." The mother plants back to the nursery.
must be clearly labeled with the species and the
• Newspaper, moss or other materials for moistening
origin. If the mother plants are in the growing beds, they
wrap them around the cuttings.
must maintain an exact map. Mother plants must
prune annually to maintain the youth of the wood, When collecting and handling cuttings, it is important—
dissuade thick shoots or dominant leaders and encourage the • Collect only from healthy donor plants.
production of numerous direct shoots for use as
cutting material. When performing lateral pruning, it is • Keep the cuttings cool to prevent them from wilting or
it is important to leave enough leaves to keep the desequilibrium.
root system. A moderate shade will promote it • Handle the cuttings carefully to avoid injury.
elongation of the shoots, resulting in internodes lostejidos.
longer and cuttings that root more easily • Make sure there are some buds or leaves present.
Mother plants also need watering and in the stem cuttings.
periodic nutrients and must be kept weed-free
• Collect from non-flowering shoots. In general, cuttings
through mulching with organic materials or others It is better to transplant before or after flowering.
media.
• Place the cuttings in the same direction when grouping.
to avoid confusion regarding polarity.
Collection, Transport and
Cutting Storage The cuttings should be collected on cold days and
cloudy very early in the morning. All the cuttings
Some basic equipment and supplies are needed for they must be handled with care. The cuttings must be
collect cuttings effectively and ensure their health until keep cool and in the shade during harvesting and
to be planted (figure 10.10). The following are recommended the transport back to the nursery to avoid loss of
articles: water and physical damage. Wrap the cuttings in such a way
• High-quality sharp pruning shears and pruners loose with damp newspaper (or other material
long range for tree collection. moistened to protect them from drying out), place them in
white plastic bags, spray water through spraying
finish and label them with information about the origin and the
date. When collecting from the mother plants, make a cut
suitable to facilitate the healing of the mother plant. Take
the cutting just above a node, ensuring that
do not leave a stump. Then, trim the base of the cutting.
just below the knot where it is most likely to happen
produce the rooting. Among the collection sites,
disinfect pruning shears with bleach solution
to prevent the spread of diseases.
Deciduous woody cuttings can be wrapped in
peat moss or damp burlap and store in a
dry and shaded environment with periodic humidity for
Figure 10.10—The equipment used to collect cuttings prevent desiccation. The cuttings can be stored
includes sharp tools, a cleaning product for the for several days, but generally not more than 4
tools and a cooler to prevent the cuttings from drying out at 8 weeks. Inspect the stored cuttings with
during transport. Photo by Tara Luna.
Vegetative Propagation 195
 A B C

Figure 10.11—Adventitious roots of a cutting (A), callus and roots forming at the base of a cutting (B), root formation
adventures during a period of 6 weeks (C). Photos of Tara Luna.

sequence to ensure that the tissues are slightly 10.12). See Chapter
moist and free from fungal diseases. The cuttings
woody and perennial foliage, the deciduous cuttings
Cuttings and semi-woody cuttings should be planted in beds.
of propagation the same day of collection and never is
they must be stored for more than 1 day.

Types of Rooting
The development of new roots in a shoot is known as
as "formation of adventitious roots" (figure 10.11A). Two
Types of roots occur depending on whether buds are present.
capable of producing new roots. Several tropical species
the present buds and the resulting roots are called
"preformed" or "latent." In the nursery, the cuttings of these
species are frequently planted directly in
containers because they do not need a special environment
rooting. This method is the easiest and most economical
of producing these species because no is needed
additional transplant.
If there are no buds present, the roots are called
"induced by wounds" and new roots only form in
response to the wound caused in the preparation of the cutting.
The species that need to make wounds can
vary significantly in their ability to form roots
new. After a cutting is injured, a callus tissue forms.
shape at the base, mainly from the vascular tissue
(figure 10.11B). In species that root easily, the
The formation of calluses and the formation of roots are processes.
independent events that occur at the same time due to
similar environmental triggers (figures 10.11B,
In difficult-to-root species, the adventitious roots
they arise from the mass of the callus. In some cases, the excess of
callus can hinder rooting and signal that it should
use a lower concentration of the hormone of
rooting. Often, it is necessary to scrape off the excess calluses and
replace the cutting in the rooting environment.
In general, all species with induced roots by
they must first take root in an environment of
special propagation with strictly controlled air and
average temperatures, high relative humidity, light levels
reduced and a 'wet but not soaked' substrate (figure
196 ManualofTropicalNurseries
5, Propagation Environments, for more details
about the propagation environments. The
species that are easy to root often
they are planted directly in containers filled with
a regular substrate and, after rooting in the
special propagation environment, they move to
regular nursery. The difficult-to-root species
they are usually planted in trays or beds that
they contain a special substrate of
rooting and, after the form of roots,
they are transplanted into containers to continue their
growth.

Preparation of the Cuttings

During the preparation of the cuttings, it is
it's important to keep the area clean
work. Use knives and scissors for cutting
sharp and well preserved for making cuts
clean. Disinfect these tools with
frequency to reduce a possible
disease spread. The preparation
from the cuttings, it standardizes its size and shape,
promotes lateral shoots and eliminates the
tips of the buds that often

Figure 10.12 —In a shadow house of the

agro-forestry facilities of the University of
the Virgin Islands, the semi-woody cuttings are
They are planted in trays of 100% perlite and are sprayed.
sprinkling water every hour to ensure that not
there is stagnant water, but the cuttings always
They are damp. The shade mesh around the
PVC basting provides a somber atmosphere.
light breeze and high humidity for the
cuttings while they produce roots. The cuttings
rooted later they are transferred to pots
small ones in the house shade for 2 to 3 weeks and
they are transferred to full sun in the afternoon. Photo of
Brian F. Daley.

Vegetative Propagation 197

 shots that often wither. It is important to preserve Photo of Tara Luna.
the polarity during this process, especially for
deciduous woody cuttings. To the cuttings that will need
the hormone treatment to promote the
rooting, like the evergreen woody cuttings of
narrow leaves or any softwood or semi-hardwood cuttings, are given
it should remove between a third and half of the leaves and shoots
to reduce the amount of water loss from the cutting.
Any floral button should also be removed. However,
it is important to keep some buds or leaves in the
Cutting so that the cutting produces food during the
rooting.

Making Cuts on the Cuttings

The wounds, used in species that are difficult to
take root, rooting percentages increase and improve
the quantity and quality of the roots produced. The
wounds expose more cells to rooting hormone,
They promote the formation of calluses and, in some cases, eliminate
the thick tree tissue that can be a barrier
for root formation. Commonly, the cuttings are
manually stripping the stems and lower leaves
small ones to create wound areas along the basal part
from the cutting, scraping the base of the stem with a sharp knife
small or potato peeler (figure 10.13) or chopping
one or two long and shallow slices (0.75 to 1.25 inches [2
a 3.2 cm long) of the tissue at the base of the stem,
ensuring to penetrate the cambium layer of the stem. The
chopping requires precision and experience so that the
cuttings do not get excessively damaged.

Rooting Hormones
Auxins are natural plant hormones that promote
both the formation of roots in cuttings and are available from
natural and synthetic sources. In practice, auxins
they are commonly known as hormones of
rooting. Most cuttings are treated with
synthetic hormones that are available in powder and in
liquid form, and some preparations may contain
chemical fungicides (figure 10.14). Synthetic hormones are
they can buy lists to be used or they can mix them
cultivators to obtain specific concentrations using
ingredients acquired from horticultural suppliers. The acid
indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) are
the most commonly used synthetic auxins.
broth, the mixtures of AIB and ANA

Figure 10.13—Wounding the lower end of a cutting

increases rooting in difficult-to-root species.
198 ManualofTropicalNurseries
Figure 10.14—The advantages of rooting hormones
increase in rooting percentages if
applied correctly in an effective concentration, (2)
faster root formation, (3) increase in quantity
total and the quality of the roots, and (4) rooting more
uniform. Photo of Tara Luna.

they are more effective than any of the components alone.

The effect of rooting hormones varies
widely among the species and, in some cases, among the
genotpos. In general, hormone powders of
rooting is expressed as a percentage, while
that liquid solutions are expressed as parts per
million (ppm).
Generalmente, es másfácil comprarfórmulas listas
to use. It is important to remember that all hormones
root causes have a limited useful life from 18 to 24
months. Therefore, when buying or mixing hormones—
• Register the purchase date on the package.
• Buy only what is thought to be used in a period of 18 to
24 months. Buy smaller quantities with more
frequency to ensure that the hormone of
rooting remains effective.
• Keep the containers sealed and refrigerated when
they are not used to preserve the activity of the
rooting hormone.
Various cultivators prefer powders because there are
many commercial products available with various
powers, are easy to use and can be treated quickly
large quantities of cuttings. The powder should be applied uni-
shapes in all the cuttings; variable amounts of
rooting powder adheres to the base of a cutting, it
what can affect the results of rooting (figure
10.15). It is necessary to pay attention to the following pre-
Precautions and special techniques when using powders:
• Use gloves during application.
• Transfer the sufficient amount of hormone to a container.
my smallest from the main stock container
for your use; never transfer the unused hormone from
return to the main stock container.

Vegetative Propagation 199

 A B

Figure 10.15—Several growers prefer hormones in

powder to liquid hormones (A). Apply the powdered hormones
uniformly and consistently (B). Photo A by Thomas D.
Landisy photo B by George Hernández.

• Ensure that the base of the cutting is moist and the powder.
it adheres; a useful technique is to press lightly the
cuttings on a wet sponge.
• Apply the hormone evenly. Make sure that
the cuttings are submerged in the powder to a depth Figure 10.16—Several growers prefer to use the method of
of quick immersion in the liquid hormone because it can
0.2 to 0.4 inches (5 to 10 mm). Ensure that the surfaces are... treat a set of cuttings at the same time and performing
cuts and other wounds are also covered with the the application evenly. Photo by Tara Luna.
rooting hormone.
• Remove excess dust by lightly tapping the • Ensure that the treatment time is constant
cuttings against the side of the plate. for a uniform application rate and to avoid damage
Liquid products are formulated with alcohol and a in plant tissue.
broths must be diluted with great care to achieve the • Ensure that the basal ends are uniform.
desired power. Some of the advantages of using solu- to achieve a depth of immersion in the solution
the availability of a wide range of prepares uniform if sets of cuttings are submerged.
commercial actions, in the nursery the can formulate concen-
• Let the alcohol evaporate from the cutting stem first
specific traits, and these can be stored for
of planting the cuttings in the propagation bed, a
longer periods under the right conditions. Algu-
process that usually only takes a couple of minutes.
Our growers consider that liquid solutions are
more precise than the powders regarding the quantity of • Properly dispose of any remaining solution, as
rooting hormone that enters the stem tissue. that is contaminated with plant material.
The most common procedure for treating cuttings with pro- The optimal auxin index for cuttings varies according to
liquid ducts is the rapid immersion method in which the species of plants. A good initial index is 0.25 -
the base of the cutting is submerged in the solution for 3 to 0.5% (2,500 - 5,000 ppm). With trial and error, this index
10 seconds. It is possible to treat a whole set of cuttings. It can increase or decrease until rooting occurs.
at the same time (figure 10.16). An alternative method is to soak optimal for a particular species. Longman (1993) indicates
the cuttings during more time in a hormonal solution AIB indices for the following tropical species:
more diluted. When rooting hormones are used • 0.2% paraTriplochiton scleroxylon, Tripvochysia hon-
liquids, it is important— durensisy various other species of tropical trees.
• Use gloves during mixing, preparation, and application. • Ranging from 0.05% to 0.4% for Albizia guachapele.
• Make sure that the solution has been diluted with • 0.4% paraCordia alliodora.
precision to the correct concentration.
• 1.0% Khaya ivorensis.
• Place the solution in a clean jar.

200 ManualofTropicalNurseries
Planting, Monitoring and
Cutting Cultivation
Direct planting in containers is more efficient and,
therefore, more economical than planting in a
special rooting environment because the cuttings only
they are manipulated once and costly transplantation is avoided. The
woody cuttings easy to root, like many species of
Erythrina, Gliricidia sepium (locally known as
"mother of cocoa" or "quick stick" in much of the world) and
mangrove propagules should always be planted
directly (figure 10.17). Often, a planter of the same
diameter that the cutting stem is a useful tool for
make holes in the substrate in which to plant the
cuttings. To plant several small cuttings, you can
create a template for the holes by introducing nails to Figure 10.18—The environment must be carefully maintained.
propagation entity to ensure that the sprinkler system,
through a piece of plywood with the spacer-
timers that control the frequency of the spraying and
correct lying and depth. If hormones are used other teams function correctly. Preserve the environment of
powder embedding, this practice of creating holes with rooting as clean as possible during rooting
Anticipation will help prevent the hormone from detaching. it is crucial to produce healthy plants. Photo by Tara Luna.
It is necessary to promote the following practices when planting
cuttings
• Wear gloves if the cuttings were treated with hormone- • Try to plant the cuttings within a period of 1 to
rooting nasal. 2 days for all the plants to have the same level
• Maintain the polarity (keep the end facing up) of root development so that they can harden
correct of the cutting). appropriately before harvesting.
• When using stem cuttings, make sure that when • Place labels before the first cutting and after the
less than two nodes are below the surface of the last cutting of a particular clone or batch of
rooting substrate. cuttings.
• If the cuttings were injured, make sure that the tissue After planting the cuttings, maintain an environment
the injured should be properly covered with the hormone of clean rooting (figure 10.18); inspect the
rooting and that it is below the surface of the cuttings in the usual way to check the temperature, the
rooting substrate. humidity and the appropriate levels of moistening and
modify as necessary. Check that everything
• Firmly plant the cuttings in the rooting substrate.
equipment (including underfloor heating) works
lie. Make sure to avoid air pockets around the
correctly.
base of the stem.

A B

Figure 10.17 - Easy-to-root woody cuttings (A) or mangrove propagules (B) can be planted directly in
Containers for rooting are the cheapest way to produce cuttings. Photo A by Tara Luna and photo B by Thomas D. Landis.
Vegetative Propagation 201
Environmental Conditions for Cuttings air at the same time as providing enough light. The
Planted Directly Shade nets also serve to reduce the effect of rain
In general, woody cuttings are easy to root plant- to propagate outdoors. The optimal air temperature for
two directly in containers can be treated the same the cuttings that are rooting is from 68 to 80 °F (20 to 28 °C),
so that the seedlings. control with the shade so that the air temperature does not
exceed 91 °F (33 °C) at most. The temperatures of
Environmental Conditions in Environments optimal rooting substrates should be
Rooting Specials approximately 5 °F colder [63 to 75 °F (17 to 24 °C)] than
the optimal air temperatures.
To achieve successful rooting, attention must be paid to
sanitation, relative humidity, temperature,
light, the rooting substrate, and sometimes the mycorrhizae and theRooting Substrate
diluted fertilization. See Chapter 5, Environments of A good rooting substrate provides aeration.
Propagation, for more information about the equipment and humidity, physically supports the cuttings and promotes the
necessary to regulate humidity, temperature, and light. development of fibrous root systems. A pH of 5.5 to 6.5
it is optimal for most plants, but the plants to the
Sanitation those who like acids prefer 4.0 to 5.0. In general,
some of the common components of the substrates of
The propagation environment should always be maintained.
rooting includes a combination of two or more of the
as clean as possible. Plant the cuttings in a substrate of
perlita in a large degree, pumice, moss
sterilized rooting. Inspect in the usual manner,
of sphagnum, sawdust, sand, bonote, sand grains or shavings
and remove, dead leaves or cuttings that could be a
of cuttings. The ideal rooting substrate drains
source of infectious diseases.
freely and not drowned due to the spraying of water.
they use different components for the substrate of
Humidity
rooting depending on the species being propagated. The
Until the root system is formed, it should be maintained. selection of rooting substrate components
a high relative humidity in the propagation environment influences the rooting percentages and the quality of
to slow down the water loss of the cutting. the roots produced. The use of very fine grade sand or
Concurrence, is the placement of the cuttings effective under a very thick degree tends to discourage the development of
an automatic spraying or misting system. Another secondary roots. The roots that do form tend to
The method is to place the cuttings inside a frame. to be brittle and break during the transplant. See the
covered with clear or white polyethylene sheets with a Chapter 6, Substrates, for more details on the preparation of
water reserve beneath a rooting substrate a good substrate.
humid (Longman 1993). The cuttings lose within this
"polypropagator" should also be watered with water. Mycorrhizal Fungi
a sprayer at the end of the afternoon and at the beginning of
Some growers inoculate the rooting substrate
mañana, especialmente cuando el clima es cálido y seco. Si
mycorrhizal fungi or other symbiotic organisms
If possible, the water temperature should not be
because it has improved the rooting results with
significantly colder or hotter than the temperature-
some species (Scagel et al. 2003). See Chapter 13:
Layer of rooting substrate to avoid damaging the roots
Beneficial Microorganisms, for more information about
young people due to sudden temperature changes. Achieve
the mycorrhizae.
an optimal humidity and moisturizing of the substrate can be
one of the most challenging aspects of successful propagation
Nutrient Spraying
with cuttings. Too much humidity can promote the pató-
fungal and decomposition, while very little Some difficult cuttings to root may remain
Humidity can result in lethal desiccation. It is important in a special rooting environment for a long
daily monitoring. time period. Over time, nutrients can be
leachates from the leaves due to prolonged exposure to the
Light and Temperature fine mist from elevated sprinklers, resulting in the
leaf wilting or leaf or needle drop. In
It is necessary to provide light for photosynthesis so that
in these cases, the application of a complete foliar fertilizer
the cuttings can continue to produce food during the
diluted through the dispersion line can improve the
rooting, however, too much sunlight can
vigor of the cuttings and help with rooting. Because
cause high temperatures. The shade nets with a
some species respond favorably to spraying
shade covers of 30% to 50% are more effective for
nutrients while others are negatively affected,
reduce the temperature of the
202 ManualofTropicalNurseries
preliminary tests must be carried out first
to treat all the cuttings. In addition, to have on
account

Vegetative Propagation 203

 that excess nutrients can promote the growth of • Examine each cutting to ensure that it has a
undesired mosses and algae on the surface of the substrate. root system capable of supporting the cutting after the
transplant. The cuttings with only a few roots of-
Cutting Transplant from Ambien nodes or very short roots must remain in the bed
Special Rooting Tea of propagation to continue with root development
A few weeks after planting the cuttings in the (figure 10.20A).
rooting environment, they must be inspected for • Transplant only on cold, cloudy days or during the
observe the root development. Using a transplanting tool, early hours of the morning to avoid the
carefully dig under the lower end of the cutting transplant shock.
and excavate it to examine the rooting. When the • Transplant the cuttings in a protected area of the nursery
cuttings have developed adequate root systems, of the wind and sunlight.
these must be hardened before transplanting them outside
rooting environment. See Chapter 15, • Prepare the containers, the substrates, the labels and the
Hardening, for more information. The objective is outdoor transplant tools before transplanting
to condition the tissues of the stems and leaves, and promote take the cuttings.
the development of secondary roots before transplanting. Continue • Moisten the substrate before transplanting to avoid
these guidelines to harden the cuttings: let the roots dry out.
• Gradually reduce the spraying frequency • Remove the cuttings from the rooting substrate with
during a period of 3 to 4 weeks. be careful and remove only a few at a time so that the
• Increase the frequency and duration of ventilation raíces no se sequen. Envolver holgadamente una hoja de
in closed propagation systems. wet paper towel around the root systems
until they are transplanted.
• Do not let the rooting substrate dry out by
complete.
After the cuttings have hardened, transplant A
to put them in containers and transfer them to the nursery for their cre-
additional rooting (figure 10.19). Because the cuttings
they are more expensive to produce than seedlings, it is important
handle them carefully at this stage. It is essential to avoid the
damage to the root following these guidelines:

Figure 10.20—The cuttings must have developed sufficiently

roots that can support the cutting after it
raise and be transplanted outside of the spraying chamber or the
polipropa-gador (A). The cuttings with roots must be left.
underdeveloped in the propagation bed for a longer time
Figure 10.19—The cuttings can be transplanted in to develop an appropriate root mass (B). Photos of Tara
containers and transfer them to the nursery for hardening. Moon.
Photo of Tara Luna.
204 ManualofTropicalNurseries
 • Handle the cuttings carefully holding the cutting.
through the stem and leaving any rooting substrate
still attached to the mass of the root. Do not shake the
substrate for root system separation.
• Partially fill the container with moistened substrate.
remove before inserting the cutting. Then, add substrate
A
additional moistened and gently press the substrate
with fingers without breaking the roots (figure 10.20B).
• Do not transplant the cuttings too deep or
too shallow.
After transplanting the cuttings, they should be placed
in a house shaded or protected from the full sun and the
wind for at least 2 weeks. When the cuttings
they seem to be well rooted, gradually increase the
level of sunlight moving them to a different area of the nursery or
changing the shade mesh for one with a more open weave.
After a couple of weeks, move the species that
they need sun towards the full sun. The cuttings should
B
monitor closely to detect any sign of
stress. Adequate sunlight is needed for growth
of new shoots and the proper accumulation of carbohydrates
before the outdoor transplant.

Other Methods of Propagation to

Vegetative Figure 10.21—In the simple layering, the stem of a plant
mother holds on and covers herself with earth or an organic blanket
In addition to the stems and roots, other parts of the plants New plants can be cut after there has been
Mother can be used to propagate new ones vegetatively. sufficient sprouts or root development (B). Graphic courtesy of
daughter plants and the stems can be used in other ways Bruce McDonald and Timber Press, Inc.
different from traditional rooted cuttings.
Acodo in Trench
Acodo
The trench elbow is similar to the simple elbow, but
The layering is a technique by which adventitious roots are formed. use a single long branch that is held with pegs in the
You cut a stem while it is still attached to the plant. surface of the soil (figure 10.22A). After a period
However, the grafting occurs naturally without the help of a detempo, se retran las clavijas y la rama se deposita en una
propagator. It is mainly used in those species trench and bury it up to the tips of the shoots with earth
that cannot root from stem or root cuttings. In well-ventilated and sawdust or blanket (figure 10.22B). After
The tropical vibrators commonly use four types of from repeated burials, each sprout along the stem
acodo: acodo simple, acodo en trinchera, acodo aéreo y acodo for planting roots for the second year (figure 10.22C) and
in a mound. Additionally, the buried and the stacked are two other it can be separated from the mother plant (figure 10.22D).
techniques of layering that could be used.
Aerial Acro
Simple Elbow
The air layering is useful for producing some plants of
The simple bend is used in species that produce several. a relatively large size. An advantage of layering
annual shoots. The long and flexible shoots that grow in air root because the rooted acodo will be physiologically of
the bottom part is anchored to the ground from 6 to 9 inches (15 to 23age similar to the parent plant and therefore will bloom
cm) from the tip of the shoot, forming a "U" (figure and will bear fruit sooner than a seedling or cutting. The layering
10.21A). The bottom of the U-shaped stem tightens with a airborne is mainly used in fruit species
sharp knife and is covered with earth, sawdust or some other tropical, such as lychee, and to propagate tropical species
organic mantle, leaving the tip exposed. After rare and endangered. For optimal rooting,
for a sufficient root system to form, the new plant air layers are made on shoots produced during the
it can be separated from the donor plant (figure 10.21B). previous season, or during the intermediate or final phase of the
active growth season in

Vegetative Propagation 205

 A C

B D

Figure 10.22—The trench layering consists of holding a long branch on the surface of the ground with pegs and allowing it to
develop new shoots (A). After a period of time, the branch is buried in a deeper trench to encourage
the development of roots in each new shoot (B). The repeated undergroundings (C) produce sufficient root development
to be able to separate the plants from the mother plant (D). Graphic courtesy of Bruce McDonald and Timber Press, Inc.

growth shoots of the current season (figure 10.23).

• With a sharp knife, make two cuts parallel to one
For woody plants, the best are the stems with a
distance of approximately 1 inch (2.5 cm) around
diameter the size of a pencil or larger. A is chosen a
from the stem and through the bark and the cambium layer.
area directly below a knot, usually at
approximately 1 foot (30 cm) from the tip. They are retracted the • Connect the two parallel cuts with a long cut.
leaves and the twigs of the stem from 3 to 4 inches (7 to 10 cm) by • Remove the ring from the bark, leaving the woody tissue.
above and below this point. The techniques of layering exposed interior.
aerial slightly differ depending on whether the species is a • Scrape the newly exposed ring to extract the cam tissue.
monocot or dicot. bail to prevent the formation of a bridge of callous tissue.
The following steps describe the air layering of the • Sometimes, the application of a substance is beneficial.
monocots: promote the roots in the exposed wound.
• Make an upward cut from 1.0 to 1.5 inches (2 to 4) • Wrap and cover using the same procedure
cm) crossing a third of the stem. described for the monocotyledons.
• Keep the cut open with a toothpick or matchstick. Both for monocotyledons and for dicotyledons
wood. tiledones, the stem is cut below the substrate afterwards
• Wrap the wound with unground Sphagnum moss that the rooting substrate is filled with roots
(approximately a handful) dampened that has been (figure 10.23D). Then, the cutting is planted in a pot and
soaked in water and squeezed to remove excess They must be kept in the shade with the appropriate humidity.
dehumedad. until the root system develops more.
• Wrap the moss with plastic and secure it in place with
plastic sheets or electrical tape. The moss should not be spread. Bend in Hillock
beyond the extremes of plastic. The elbow in mound or cut and backfilling involves the selection
• Securely fasten each end of the plastic to retain the creation of a young stock plant (figures 10.24A, 10.24B)
humidity and prevent water from entering. If it will be exposed to and cut their shoots to 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) above the
sun, the plastic must be kept in the shade. ground level (figure 10.24C). Numerous sprouts are
The following steps describe the air layering of the they develop in consecutive growth seasons and
dicotyledons they are covered up to half their height with earth, sawdust or
another organic mantle (figure 10.24D). This procedure
it repeats three
206 ManualofTropicalNurseries
 A C

B D

Figure 10.23—After injuring the stem, a layer of air is created surrounding the area with sphagnum moss (A), then this is surrounded
area of the stem with a plastic wrap (B) and the ends are sealed (C). After the air layer has rooted (D), it can be
Separate from the stem and plant in a pot. Photos by Thomas D. Landis.

times as the buds grow so that, by the end of treatment between the blocks (figure 10.25A). After several
the second or third season of growth, the shoots months, the roots of the mother plant will have grown towards
deeply rooted are unearthed and are ready to be down and colonized the cavities in the lower blocks.
planted as individuals (figures 10.24E, 10.24F). Pass a sharp knife between the Styrofoam™ containers.
to cut the roots, then these will form new shoots
Buried Bend (figure 10.25B). After a few months, the new plants
The buried layering (drop layering) is very similar to that of They can be transplanted to larger pots. It is possible.
mound. This involves planting well-containerized plants put another set of Styrofoam™ containers underneath
deeply entrenched in the ground with only the tips of from the block with the mother plant to start another cycle of
the exposed branches. New shoots are formed from propagation.
the exposed tips of the branches, but the buried parts
Roots form along the stems. Tuberous Roots, Tubers, Rhizomes
and Division of the Crown
Stacked Joint Tuberous roots, tubers, and rhizomes are
Stacked layering is a new method specialized plant structures that function in the
vegetative propagation for rhizomatous species food storage, nutrients, and water. Many
(Landis et al. 2006). This technique takes advantage of the growth tropical species that are culturally important, which are not
fast and extensive roots of the seedlings and the fact that easy to cultivate from seeds, have these structures
that the cut roots will form new shoots. In the prima- journey.
Vera, a stack of Styrofoam™ containers is created with a Tuberous roots are swollen secondary roots.
1-gallon pot containing a seedling inserted in the Separate each tuberous root that has a section of the
upper block. The Styrofoam™ containers from the part the crown of a bud produces new plants.
the bottoms are filled with substrate with a thin layer of their- Cassava, yam, and sweet potatoes, which are extensively cultivated
Throughout Polynesia, they produce tuberous roots.

Vegetative Propagation 207

 A B C

D E F

Figure 10.24—The mound or cutting and restarting layering involves selecting a young stock plant (A, B) and cutting its shoots.
(C). After new shoots develop, they are covered up to half of their height with soil, sawdust, or another organic mulch; this
the procedure is repeated three times (D), encouraging the development of roots in the new shoots (E). After 2 or 3 seasons of
growth, the well-rooted sprouts are ready to be planted as individuals (F). Chart courtesy of Bruce McDonald and Timber
Press, Inc.

A B C

Figure 10.25 —The roots of the mother plant grow downward through the cavities of the Styrofoam™ containers.
call-twice (A). Then the roots are cut (B) and after that, they develop new shoots (C). Adapted from Landis and others (2006).

208 ManualofTropicalNurseries
 Tubers are swollen modified stems that serve-
they serve as underground storage organs.
The well-known common tuber is the white potato.
"Eyes" of white potatoes are actually buds that
they contain yolks. The propagation by tubers involves
plant the entire tuber or divide it into sections that
contain at least one eye or bud. The pia, the taro, the
wapato and the elephant ear are examples of species
tropicales that produce tubers.
Rhizomes are specialized stems in which the axis
the main plant grows horizontally or vertically in or
beneath the surface of the ground. Several tropical species
native cales, like native begonias, reproduce
through rhizomes and propagate easily in large can-
based on a few nursery plants through
of the divisions. The rhizomes vary in length and size
according to the species. The rhizomes are cut into sections, each
one containing at least one bud or a sprout
active; some roots are attached to the bottom of
the rhizomes and are planted in individual containers.
Rhizomes can also be planted in nursery beds and
to be used as a stock source from bare root for the plant-
action or for cultural uses such as basket weaving.
The division of the crown is an important method for
propagate many native herbaceous perennial plants that
they produce multiple offshoots from the crown. Usual-
Mind, the division of the crown takes place just before the cre-
active growth and flowering. The plants are uprooted and
they are cut into sections with a sharp knife, each one with
a substantial portion of the root system, and is transplanted Figure 10.26—Bananas and plantains are often propagated
individually. with suckers. Photo by Ronald Overton.

Stolons, Creeping Shoots and Offshoots from the mother plant after they have developed their
The stolons, creeping shoots, and offshoots are specific root systems. The unrooted offshoots of
specialized structures of the plant that facilitate the propa- Some species can be photographed and placed in a substrate.
Propagation by layering. The runners are modified stems that root. Some of these offshoots need to be cut.
they grow horizontally above the ground line and while others can simply be lifted from the
that produce a mass of stems. The creeping shoots are progenitor stem.
specialized stems that arise from the crown of the plant and
they grow horizontally along the ground and produce Grafting and Budding
a seedling in one of the nodes. The elevated beds plan-
Grafting is the art of connecting two pieces of tissue.
species with stolons or creeping shoots can living vegetables, the thorns and the rootstock, together in such a way
to be an endless source of propaganda material, and
that will unite and grow as one plant. The grafting
Plants can be dug up and planted in individual pots.
it is mainly used in the tropics for the mango, the
Currently transplanting stock to bare roots.
citrus, other tropical fruits and in seed orchards
Often, rosette plants reproduce forest trees. In Hawaii, grafting has been used to
I send new shoots, called offsets, at the base of the stem. propagate the species Kokia cookei, highly endangered
main or in the axillary leaves. The suckers are cut close (figure 10.27). It is also used for repair or grafting over
from the main stem of the plant with a sharp knife. If it is existing trees to change varieties, as well as for
well-rooted, a sucker can be planted in a pot produce new plants.
individual deformity. The plantain and the banana often pro-
The thorn is a short piece of sprout that includes several
pagan with suckers (figure 10.26). Separate the new shoots
shoot buds, which when joined with the rootstock forms the
upper part of the plant. The rootstock is the lower part

Vegetative Propagation 209

of the graft and it

210 ManualofTropicalNurseries
convert into the root system. If the grafting is done in perform a grafting with a clone. Grafting between clones
At the top of the tree, the rootstock includes the roots, the trunk within a species is generally successful. Grafting
rootstock and the scaffold branches. The rootstock can be Between species in a genus is sometimes successful and is seen more clearly.
a seedling, a rooted cutting or an older tree. frequency in the Citrus genus. Grafting between genera
Budding is a grafting technique using a bud with a inside a family of plants, very few are carried out
single yolk stuck to a piece of bark. It may or may not include times and the possibilities of success are scarce. The grafting
a thin slice of wood beneath the bark. The Between families of plants, it is impossible for woody plants.
grafting is the most commonly used technique for propagating plants
In addition to compatibility, there are several factors that
new, but it is also used for grafting trees contribute to a successful union by grafting or budding. They
existing for a new variety. must place and hold in intimate contact the vascular cambium
The rootstock and the scion must be compatible for it to circular of the graft with the vascular cambium of the rootstock. The
grafting is successful. Compatibility is never a problem grafting operation should be carried out at a specific time
the in which both the rootstock and the scion are in the stage
correct physiological. Immediately after the grafting-
action, all surfaces must be protected from desiccation
cut strings. The break of the union between the pick and the...
The grafting failure will generally manifest in failed grafts.
Grafts can fail because the rootstock and the scion
they are not compatible, the rootstock and the scion are not connected
correctly, the rootstock or the scion are not in the state
appropriate physiological, or the grafted tissues dried out
before they can grow together.
Some grafted species exhibit excessive flow of
bleeding (bleeding) at certain times of the year. Usually, the
excessive bleeding from the graft holder causes the failure of the graft.
It is essential to maintain the freshly performed grafts at a
temperature of 90 °F (32 °C) or less with high humidity.
The union of the graft should also be protected against the
excessive drying or winds. In general, the more
experience of the person performing the grafting,
The success rate will be better.

Tools for Grafting

The necessary tools for grafting are
sharp knives, sharpening stones, pruning shears and sirs-
ras. These tools must be kept very clean and ut-
to be used only for grafting. The knives must be
very sharp to minimize injuries to the tip or
rootstock. The dull knives peel and tear the wood,
leaving cuts that do not heal properly. The materials
like paraffin wax, rubber bands and tape for
grafts can protect the grafted tissues and seal the
cut surfaces of the graft. In drier climates, they are used
aluminum foil wraps and plastic bags with
plastic wraps to protect the graft and provide a little
of additional humidity around the graft during the
union.

Collection of Material for Spurs

Figure 10.27—Grafting has been used for propagation Usually, budding is the grafting method.
highly endangered species in Hawaii. In the figure shows preferred. To be successful, it is important to collect mate-
scion of Kokia cookei grafted onto a rootstock of Kokia stem for spikes with leaf buds and not floral buttons. A
drynarioides. Photo by Tara Luna. small branch that contains several buds suitable for the

Vegetative Propagation 211

grafting is known as a rod carrying buds. It horizontal cut. In the place where the cor-
you must collect the bud-bearing rods when the Yes, use the knife with great care to open gently.
trees have well-developed buds. If the buds have bark flaps mind. On the spike, separate the leaf below
started to swell or grow, the wood cannot be from the bud, but retain some of the petioles. Carry out
successfully use. Select parent trees of the var- the first cut approximately 0.5 inches (12 mm) below
desired trait of not having diseases. Choose varieties from the yolk and pull the knife upwards just below
the carriers of straight and smooth buds coming from a the crust to a point at approximately 0.25 inches (6
wood that is 1 year old and has a diameter mm) on the bud. Hold the petiole and make a second
entre 0.25 a 0.50 pulg (6 a 13 mm) y que contengan por horizontal cut along the rod supporting the buds
at least three buds or knots. Generally, the best ones so that it intersects with the first cut. The bud and its
carrier buds come from the covering wood used as supporting structure for lodging, referred to as frame-
seal inside the tree. Seal approximately 6 mm of it is inserted under the 'flaps' in the rootstock and is
tip of each bud-bearing rod with wax scroll down to ensure that the spike has a con-
remove the sealing paste for grafts. When sealing intimate contact with the rootstock. Use rubber bands to
dry out, tie the supporting sticks with buds forming hold the stem, the flaps, and the small shield firmly together.
packages and wrap each package with paper towel sheets Do not cover the yolk.
wet sawdust or wet wood shavings to prevent the diss-
Label each package. The packages and the material of Completion of the Graft
wrapping can be kept inside plastic bags.
Keep the packages as fresh as possible and do not allow The grafted surfaces must be held firmly.
let them dry. instead using rubber bands or tape for injection-
tar. This wrapping must disintegrate due to wear (such as
Types of Budding it happens with rubber bands) or it should retract from 2 to 3
weeks after the union heals. If the material does not
The budding of tongue works well and can be it disintegrates and does not retract, it will adhere to the rootstock. After
always be made whenever there are ripe yolks available. that being said, the union should be cut and the part of the
Tongue grafting is widely used for propagation. to cover the graft to force the bud of the
from citrus. The cuts on the scion and the rootstock must be sharp bud. Remove unwanted sprouts as soon as possible
exactly the same. The first cut in the spike and the one below as they become visible. Unwanted sprouts can be
from a yolk and continues downwards at a 45-degree angle rub and easily retract with the fingers.
degrees at a depth of approximately 0.12 inches
(3 mm). The second cut begins approximately at the Micropropagation
same distance over the tip and the knife is pushed towards
down to reach the first cut. If the tip of the nail Micropropagation is a process used for
it turns out to be narrower than the graft hole, alin- propagate plants using tissue culture techniques very
hold one side of the tip firmly against the cut specialized. The cultivation of tissues is a procedure
on the rootstock. The exact distances above and below to maintain and develop plant tissues and organs
Under the tip of the plectrum will depend on the species. Everything in a sterile culture where it is strictly controlled
the graft should be wrapped with polyethylene tape environment, nutrients, and hormone levels. A
very thin parent (2 mils) to avoid desiccation. If small piece of plant material called explant
If transparent tape was not available, the graft can be use to create a new, whole plant. Native species
wrap with rubber bands and keep in a place rare tropical species or highly threatened have been
fresh and shaded with high humidity. The key is not to micropropagated to increase the number of individuals
let the yolk dry. for restoration projects when other methods of
propagation has been limiting or has failed. The
Usually, the budding of the shield occurs during
micropropagation has also been used as a method
active growth. Just like with budding of
tongue, there must be mature buds on the plectrum and the wood
to offer plants in the nursery industry for the purpose of
to protect them from illegal harvesting and the eventual
It must have a crust that 'slides.' A crust that 'slides.'
extraction of wild populations (figure 10.28). The
it will peel off easily in an even layer, without tearing,
micropropagation works well for some species and
from the underlying wood. The right moment to
Carrying out this step depends on the species and the local climate. bad for others. For some native plants, such as the
orchids, it is one of the only options for a
The first cut on the rootstock is horizontal. The second
successful propagation. Most plant nurseries
cut, approximately twice as long as the prim-
natvas notenen complex installations for the cult
it is vertical, originating near the midpoint of the
fabrics due to the high cost, however, it can be done
a small-scale micropropagation with equipment
212 TropicalNurseryManual
minimum in a clean room.

Vegetative Propagation 213

 References
Landis, T.D.; Dreesen, D.R.; Dumroese, R.K. 2003. Sex and the
singleSalix: considerations for riparian restoration. Native Plants
Journal. 4: 111–117.

Landis, T.D.; Dreesen, D.R.; Pinto, J.R.; Dumroese, R.K. 2006.

Propagating native Salicaceae for riparian restoration on the Hopi
Reservation in Arizona. Native Plants Journal. 7: 52–60.

Landis, T.D.; Tinus, R.W.; Barnet, J.P. 1999. The container tree
nursery manual: volume 6, seedling propagation. Agriculture
Handbook 674. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service. 167 p.

Longman, K.A. 1993. Rooting cuttings of tropical trees: propagation

Figure 10.28 - Species such as taro have been micropropagated ton and planting manuals, volume 1. London, United Kingdom:
days to perpetuate certain clones and supply the stocks of Commonwealth Science Council. 137 p.
disease-free nurseries. Photo by Tara Luna.
Scagel, C.F.; Reddy, K.; Armstrong, J.M. 2003. Mycorrhizal
fungi in rootng substrate influences the quantity and quality of
roots on stem cuttings of hick's yew. HortTechnology. 13: 62–66.

214 ManualofTropicalNurseries