Point of View

FRP
Strengthening
What designers need to know

by Scott F. Arnold and Heath Carr

W hen designers started using fiber-reinforced polymers

(FRP) for structural retrofits over 20 years ago, they
had only full-scale structural testing to justify their designs.
Figure 1 contrasts the stress‐strain behavior of Grade 60
(420) steel to the behaviors of various precured laminates
of FRP materials. As the data indicate, a precured, carbon
As codes and guidelines have become more widely fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminate has an elastic
available, however, we’ve observed that designers have modulus of about 20,000 ksi (138,000 MPa). It’s important
become more reliant on the use of empirical equations to note, however, that most CFRP wet layup materials
and less reliant on basic mechanics and structural proof have a modulus of about 10,000 ksi (69,000 MPa), much
testing. Because empirical equations may not be less than the modulus values for precured laminates or
appropriate for a specific application, however, designs carbon fibers alone (a typical modulus for dry carbon
based on these equations may not achieve the desired fiber is about 33,000 ksi [228,000 MPa]). The tensile
performance targets. strength and modulus values must be determined using
We’ve also noted that designers may not be aware of the actual thickness and area of the cured laminate.
some of the critical issues necessary for proper The flexural capacity of a member strengthened using
installation of FRP systems. These systems can’t be FRPs may be governed by rupture of the FRP system,
installed successfully without careful attention to existing detachment of the FRP system from the concrete, or
conditions, service requirements, material properties,
and application details.

What is strength?
To properly apply FRP systems, the designer must
understand the actual material properties of composite
systems. Unfortunately, there has been a trend to market
these materials with a focus on their ultimate tensile
strength. Descriptions such as “three to ten times the
strength of steel” can cause considerable confusion.
Strength is important, but all failure modes must be
considered.

This point of view article is presented for reader interest by the editors. Fig. 1: Carbon fiber-, aramid fiber-, and glass fiber-reinforced
However, the opinions expressed are not necessarily those of the polymers (CFRP, AFRP, and GFRP) exhibit markedly different
American Concrete Institute. Reader comment is invited. responses than Grade 60 (420) steel to tensile loads (1 MPa =
145 psi)

46 april 2010 / Concrete international

concrete compressive failure product, designers focus on the type The mechanical properties of some
(crushing).1 At concrete crushing, an of fiber (generally, carbon or glass) FRP systems can degrade over time
FRP laminate on a strengthened and the fabric architecture (generally, when exposed to such conditions as
beam could be well below its rupture unidirectional or bidirectional), but alkalinity, salt water, chemicals, or
strain, even if the conventional steel they must also be sure to specify the UV light. Further information and
reinforcing within the beam has polymer as part of a tested FRP system. references are available in ACI
yielded. This can be illustrated with a
simple example: A steel reinforcing
bar will reach a stress of about 60 ksi
(410 MPa) at a tensile strain of about
0.002 in./in. A nearby CFRP laminate
could have about the same tensile
strain. Yet, because the CFRP laminate
has an elastic modulus of only about
10,000 ksi (69,000 MPa), it will reach
a stress of only 20 ksi (138 MPa). So,
in this example, the stress in the
steel is actually three times the
stress in the CFRP.
It’s also important to keep in mind
that FRP materials are linear‐elastic to
failure. There is no yield strength—
there is only an ultimate tensile
strength. The ultimate tensile strength,
however, should not govern when
designing a repair or retrofit. Design
engineers must carefully select the
material, and they must know the
design modulus that can be used
when assuming a 50- to 100-year
service life. Based on the geometry
and loading requirements for their
project, they must determine an
operating strain (using, for example,
strain compatibility for flexural
reinforcement). They must also verify
the design modulus using prepared
samples of the cured composite.
Appropriate test methods are
described in ACI 440.3R,2 ASTM D3039,3
ASTM D7290,4 and ICC-ES AC178.5

Selection of materials
The stress‐strain behavior of the
constituent materials in an advanced
composite material is illustrated in
Fig. 2. While the fibers are the main
load-carrying component,6 that doesn’t
mean the matrix is unimportant. The
matrix material plays a major role in
the system’s overall durability,
bonding the fibers to adjacent fibers
and bonding the laminate to the
substrate. When choosing a particular CIRCLE READER CARD #12

Concrete international / april 2010 47

 Stress

σFu Fiber

σfu FRP

σm Matrix

εfu εm Strain

Fig: 2: An FRP and its constituents exhibit these typical responses

to tensile loads. The respective tensile strength values for the
fiber, the matrix, and the composite are σFu, σfu, σm

440.2R.6 The designer should select a system that has

demonstrated durability in testing consistent with the
environment where it is to be used.
In the U.S., requirements for FRP materials used in
buildings are detailed in ICC-ES AC125.7 This standard
designates the method for establishing tensile strength
Fig. 3: This GFRP system was poorly installed around the barrier
and modulus values, defines a series of durability tests cables; it was subsequently removed and replaced
required for a system, and provides minimum acceptable
design criteria. Per AC125,7 strength and modulus values
are established using ASTM D3039,3 and ASTM D72904 designers enforce strict specifications relative to the
provides a statistical method for finding conservative specialty contractors who will perform the work.
values for material properties. For materials to be used in
civil infrastructure, additional environmental durability Critical Application issues
tests should be run. Further details on environmental Surface preparation and finish requirements are critical
exposure testing and references can be found in ACI 440.2R.6 issues for FRP applications. If not properly considered,
both can potentially disrupt the schedule and budget for
Installer qualifications a project. Careful consideration must be given to the
The performance of an FRP system is highly dependent proper surface preparation, the existing conditions
on the quality of the installation. Figures 3 and 4 provide properly documented, and a detailed specification must
only a few examples of the work of inexperienced installers. be prepared.
Project specifications must clearly define tested and For bond‐critical applications such as walls, slabs, and
accepted FRP systems, but they must also define the beams, existing nonstructural coatings must be removed.
requirements for the specialty contractors who perform When a coating is found to be a hazardous material (for
the work. The personnel installing FRP systems must be example, a lead-based paint), additional costs will be
experienced, and they should be certified by the system incurred. Even for contact‐critical applications such as
manufacturer to ensure that they have been properly columns, surface preparation is important. Sharp corners
trained. Specifications must call for documented experience, can have a large cost impact because they must be
references, and trained crew members. ACI 440.2R6 removed by grinding. Cracks or spalls will also add to the
indicates that competence can be demonstrated by project cost, as they must be repaired before FRP repairs
“providing evidence of training and documentation of can be applied.
related work” completed previously and/or by sample The polymers used to wet out the fabric generally
work on portions of the structure. We suggest that consist of a resin and a hardener. The resin-to-hardener

48 april 2010 / Concrete international

 clear procedural notes, a tested and proven FRP system,
and properly trained and certified applicators, however,
FRP strengthening can provide a great value to owners.

References
1. Arduini, M., and Nanni, A., “Behavior of Precracked RC Beams
Strengthened with Carbon FRP Sheets,” Journal of Composites for
Construction, V. 1, No. 2, 1997, pp. 63-70.
2. ACI Committee 440, “Guide for the Design and Construction of
Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete
Structures (ACI 440.3R-04),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, MI, 2004, 40 pp.
3. ASTM D3039/D3039M, “Standard Test Method for Tensile
(a) Properties of Polymer Matrix Composite Materials,” ASTM International,
West Conshohocken, PA, 2008, 13 pp.
4. ASTM D7290, “Standard Practice for Evaluating Material
Property Characteristic Values for Polymeric Composites for Civil
Engineering Structural Applications,” ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2006, 4 pp.
5. “Interim Criteria for Inspection and Verification of Concrete
and Reinforced and Unreinforced Masonry Strengthening Using
Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composite Systems,” AC178, ICC
Evaluation Service, Inc., Whittier, CA, 2003, 7 pp.
6. ACI Committee 440, “Guide for the Design and Construction of
Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete
Structures (ACI 440.2R-08),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, MI, 2008, 76 pp.
7. “Acceptance Criteria for Concrete and Reinforced and
Unreinforced Masonry Strengthening Using Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
(b)
(FRP) Composite Systems,” AC125, ICC Evaluation Service, Inc.,
Fig. 4: Signs of poor installation techniques: (a) bubbles and Whittier, CA, 2007, 11 pp.
sagging fibers; and (b) large voids
Selected for reader interest by the editors.

ratio is critical and should be checked prior to mixing.

When wetting out the relatively thick fabrics used for
retrofits, simple “painting” or roller application of the
resin to the fabric may starve the system of polymer, so
we recommend the use of a saturation machine to prewet
the fiber before installation. When completed, the
installed material should be inspected for any delaminations Scott F. Arnold is Vice President/Technical Manager of Fyfe
or discontinuities. ICC AC1785 and ACI 440.2R6 provide Company. A licensed civil engineer in California, he specializes in
additional information on inspection and testing. commercial, residential, and infrastructure projects. He received
If a fire-resistant finish is required, the design engineer a BS in structural engineering from the University of California-San
must account for the added cost and logistics related to Diego, and has been working with the Fyfe Company on the design
installing and protecting the fire protection system. Fire and development of FRP systems since 1994.
ratings are the primary issue, but designers must
account for aggressive exposure conditions and special ACI member Heath Carr is CEO of the Fyfe Group and has played a
aesthetic requirements. key role in the worldwide development of the fiber-reinforced
There is no doubt that demand for FRP materials will polymer repair and retrofit industry. He is a member of the
continue to grow. Even as more designers have become International Concrete Repair Institute and is a member of ACI
more comfortable with using FRP materials, designers Committee 440, Fiber Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement. He
and contractors must be aware that this is still a relatively received his BS in mechanical engineering technology from OC
new technology—without the proper attention to detail, Southwestern University and is currently studying civil engineering
there can be major issues. Given a detailed specification, at the University of North Dakota.

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