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I. INTRODUCTION

In engineering problems, it is not always possible to obtain solutions.

rigorous mathematics. In truth, only in some simple cases can they
obtain analytical solutions. When problems involve properties
of materials, load distribution and complete boundary conditions, it is
necessary to introduce simplifications or idealizations to reduce the problem to
a mathematical solution that is capable of providing acceptable results from the
point of view of security and economy.
The link between the physical system and the possible mathematical solution is obtained with

the 'mathematical model', this is the symbolic designation of the system

idealized substitution that includes all the simplifications imposed on the
physical problem.
The analysis of free undamped vibrations is only an idealization.
of real systems, since it does not take into account the energy losses in the
frictions. Once in motion, those idealized systems would vibrate.
indefinitely, with constant amplitude. However, real systems
they lose energy due to friction and come to a stop unless there is a
energy source that keeps them running.
There are several types of friction forces that can steal energy.
mechanics of a system in vibration. Among the friction forces more
common, we have: Fluid friction (viscous damping force) that
It occurs when bodies move through viscous fluids, friction.
static (Coulomb friction) that occurs when a body slides over
a dry surface and internal friction that appears when a deformation occurs
solid body.

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II. OBJECTIVES

Understand the Rayleigh principle and the properties of

Rayleigh quotient.

Calculate the fundamental natural frequency of a system

applying the Rayleigh method.

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III.1 DEGREES OF FREEDOM

In structural dynamics, the number of independent coordinates

necessary to specify the configuration or position of a system
at any moment in time is known as the number of degrees
of freedom. Every continuous structure has an infinite number of
degrees of freedom. However, the selection process or
the idealization of an appropriate mathematical model allows to reduce the
degrees of freedom to a discrete number and in some cases to one
alone.

III.2 VISCOSITY DAMPING

III.3 MOTION EQUATION

Let's suppose that a structural system has been modeled as the one
is shown in the figure.
In this figure, m and k represent the mass and the spring constant.
respectively, and c will be the viscous damping coefficient.

model

b) free body diagram

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From the free body diagram, and applying Newton's second law,
the sum of forces is made in such a way that:

…. (*)
The equation (*) is called the fundamental equation of dynamics.
structural for the damped case.
Solving the differential equation (*):

… (*.1)

We refer to the previous equation as 'the initial value problem of dynamics.'

structural
If in the equation F(t)=0 there will be an 'initial value problem in vibrations.
free

…. (*.2)

To solve this equation, it is divided by 'm':

III.4 SYSTEM WITH CRITICAL DAMPING

III.5 SYSTEM WITH OVER DAMPING
III.6 DAMPED SYSTEM
III.7 LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT
III.8 PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
According to Mario Paz, the differential equations for a vibrating system are
obtains, applying the principle of virtual work as a method
alternative to consider the dynamic equilibrium of the system. However, the
differential equation of motion, for a system without damping in

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free vibration can also be obtained by applying the Principle of

Conservation of Energy.
This principle can be stated in the following way:
If there are no external forces acting on the system and there is no dissipation of
energía (amortiguación) la energía total del sistema permanece constante
during the movement, therefore, its derivative with respect to time is equal
to zero.

Displacement functions and generalized properties

Most structures can be idealized as a cantilever.

vertical, whose movements are related to the coordinates
generalized by:

u ( x , t )=ϕ ( x ) Y(t)

Where Y(t ) it is the time-dependent generalized coordinate that

corresponds to the displacement of the free end of the cantilever andϕ ( x ) it is the
x
shape function for any point along the same. In the systems

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with multiple degrees of freedom it becomes necessary to express the forces

elastic and cushioning based on relative displacements

Δu ( x,t )= Δϕ ( x ) Y(t)

and relative speeds at the ends of each element

Delta
˙ ( x,t u)= Δϕ ( x ) Ẏ(t)

To formulate the equation of motion in terms of a coordinate

it is necessary for the masses to be concentrated at the level of the
floors and are simply coupled. Applying the principle of
virtual work, in which given a virtual displacement, the work of the
forces in dynamic equilibrium equals zero

f iδu+fddelta delta u+ fs delta delta u− p( t)delta u=0

The virtual displacement can be written as

delta delta u( x,t)=Δ ϕ

( x ) δY(t)

Where:

Δu ( x,t )=ϕ ( xI )Y ( t )−φ (x jY

) ( t ) =Δϕ ( x ) Y(t)
The inertia, damping, and elastic forces can be expressed
how

f=mu=mϕ
i ¨ Y¨
f=cΔu=cΔϕY
d ˙ ˙
fs=kΔu=kΔϕY

That being replaced in the application of virtual work, the following results
equation of motion in terms of generalized coordinates

m¿ Y+c
¨ ¿ Y+kY=
˙ ¿ p(t)¿

Dondem¿, c ¿ , k ¿ py¿ they are the generalized parameters (generalized mass,

generalized damping, generalized stiffness, and generalized force
respectively), defined by

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m¿ = ∑ 2
m phi i i
i
c¿= ∑
cΔϕ2i i
i
k ¿= ∑
kΔϕ2i i
i
p¿ = ∑
pϕ i I
I

For a time-dependent acceleration at the base, the generalized force

becomes:

p¿ =g¨ L

Where L is the earthquake participation factor:

L= ∑
mφ i i
i

It may be convenient to express the generalized damping in

terms of the critical damping ratio as follows:

c¿= ∑
cΔφ2i=2 λi m ¿ ω
i

Where ω the circular frequency of the generalized system is represented and is given
by

√
k¿
ω=
m¿

The Rayleigh Method

Given an elastic system without damping, the maximum potential energy in

terms of the generalized coordinate can be expressed as

Y p¿ Y
V max = ∑
2 I
pI ϕ=
i
2

And the kinetic energy

ω2 Y 2 ω 2 Y 2m¿
2 ∑
2
T max= m φ
i i =
I 2

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According to the principle of conservation of energy, these values

maxima must be equal to each other and equal to the total energy of the system. By
Thus, the Rayleigh method consists of determining the natural frequency of
system by equating both maximum energies

√
p¿
ω=
m¿ Y

And the period is

√
m¿ Y
T =2 π
p¿

Multiplying and dividing by andYusing u ( x , t )=ϕ ( x ) Y(t) ,

√
∑i wi u2i
T =2 π
g ∑ pI ui
i

APPLICATION EXERCISE - RAYLEIGH METHOD

Calculate the fundamental period, the configuration of the first mode and the
natural frequency of the structure shown below, using the method
of Rayleigh.

m1=m2=m3=0.25 kip·s2 /2

m4 =0.23 kip·s2 /2

all of them=180 kip/¿

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Solution

Selection of lateral forces

Lateral loads in the Rayleigh method are given by the forces from
inertia, that is, the product of each mass with its respective acceleration.
Since we only know the masses, the inertial forces are chosen.
arbitrarily, with descending values from the higher masses towards
the lower ones.

As in our case, the properties of the structure are similar in each

level, it is assumed that the accelerations, and therefore the inertial loads, vary
linearly from the ceiling level. Since the magnitude of the forces of
inertia is irrelevant, we assume the values of 8, 6, 4, and 2 kip for each level
(from the upper masses to the lower ones) for convenience in calculations.

Floor cutting

Using the section method, with inertia forces as loads

externally, we calculate the shear at each level of the structure.
Stated simply, the shear at a level is equal to the sum of the
lateral forces on the masses above it.

V 4 =P4 =8kip

V 3=P 4 + P3=8+ 6=14kip

V 2=P 4 + P3+ P 2=8+6+ 4=18kip

V 1=P 4 + P3+ P 2+ P1 =8+6+ 4+2=20 kip

3. Relative displacements of each level

From Hooke's law, it is known that the relative displacement of the masses is
equal to the shear divided by the stiffness of the floor.

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V1 8
Δ 1= = =0.0444∈¿
k 1180

V 2 14
Δ 2= = =0.0778∈¿
k 2180

V 3 18
Δ 3= = =0.1000∈¿
k 3180

V4 20
Δ4 = = =0.1111∈¿
k 4180

4. Total displacement of each level

It is the accumulation of the relative displacements at each level.

v1 =Δ1 =0.1111∈¿

v 2=Δ1 + Δ2=0.1111+ 0.1000=0.2111∈¿

v3 =Δ 1+ Δ2 + Δ 3=0.1111+0.1000+ 0.0778=0.2889∈¿

v 4= Δ1 + Δ 2+ Δ3 + Δ 4 =0.1111+0.1000+0.0778+0.0444=0.3333∈¿

5. Shape function

It is obtained by dividing the displacements of each level by the maximum.

displacement (that of the upper level)

v 4 0.3333
ϕ 4= = =1.0000
v 40.3333

v 3 0.2889
ϕ 3= = =0.8667
v 40.3333

v 2 0.2111
ϕ 2= = =0.6333
v 40.3333

v 1 0.1111
ϕ 1= = =0.3333
v 40.3333

6. Generalized mass

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m¿ = ∑
m ϕ2i i
4

m ¿ =(0.23) (12 ) + ( 0.25 ) ( 0.86672) + ( 0.25 ) ( 0.63332) + ( 0.25 ) ( 0.33332) =¿ 0.5458 kip·s2 /2

Generalized force

p¿ = ∑
pϕ i i
4

p¿ =( 8 ) ( 1 )+ ( 6 ) ( 0.8667 ) + ( 4 ) ( 0.6333 )+ ( 2 ) ( 0.3333)=16.40 kips

8. Fundamental period

√ √
m¿ Y ( 0.5458(0.3333)
)
T =2 π =2π =0.6618s
p¿ (16.4)

9. Natural frequency

√ √
p¿ (16.4)
ω= ¿ =
=9.4941 rad/s
mY ( 0.5458(0.3333)
)

10. Configuration of the first vibration mode

v 1 0.1111
a 11= = =1.0000
v 10.1111

v 2 0.2111
a 21= = =1.9000
v 10.1111

v3 0.2889
a 31= = =2.6000
v 10.1111

v 1 0.3333
a 41= = =3.0000
v 10.1111

RAYLEIGH METHOD

m
(K*s^2/in
Level K (k/in) ) P (K) V (K) ∆ ( V/K) v Φ (mi)(Φi^2) (Pi)(Φi)

4 0.23 8 0.3333 1 0.2300 8

180 8 0.0444

0.866
3 0.25 6 0.2889 7 0.1878 5.2000

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180 14 0.0778

0.633
2 0.25 4 0.2111 3 0.1003 2.5333

180 18 0.1000

0.333
1 0.25 2 0.1111 3 0.0278 0.6667

0.000
180 20 0.1111 0.0000 0 0.5458 16.4000

Summary of the calculations

The Rayleigh method can also be used to determine the

natural frequency of a continuous system when the deformation of the
The structure is described by a generalized coordinate. The deformation
of continuous structures and of discrete structures of multiple degrees
Freedom can be assumed, in general, arbitrarily. Without
embargo in practical applications, the success of the method depends on
how close is the supposed deformation to the actual deformation of the
structure. Once the deformation has been specified, the value
maximum of kinetic energy and the maximum value of potential energy;
they can be determined by applying the appropriate equations. Without

embargo, if the deformation has been defined as the deformation

produced by static forces, is generally more convenient
calculate the work done by these forces, instead of determining
directly the potential energy of the system. Consequently, in this
In this case, the maximum kinetic energy is equal to the work done by the forces.

applied statically.

IV. Modified Rayleigh Method

The concept of replacing inertial forces with static loads

to determine the form of deflection can be used for
modify and improve the Rayleigh method. In the application of
modified Rayleigh method, initially a curve is assumed
deformation and the maximum values of kinetic energy are calculated
and of the potential energy of the system. A first approximation of
the natural frequency is obtained by equating these two values

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maximum of kinetic and potential energies. One more value

approximate natural frequency can be obtained by loading the
structure with inertia forces, calculated based on the
assumed deformation and the value obtained as the first approximation
for the frequency. This load produces a new deformation, which
It is used to recalculate the maximum potential energy.

APPLICATION EXERCISE

Using the Rayleigh method, determine the natural frequency (the

lowest frequency or fundamental frequency of the two-story portal
shown in the figure. Assume that the horizontal members are
extremely rigid, compared to the columns. This
Assumption reduces the system to only two degrees of freedom, as
indicate by the coordinates y1 and y2 of the figure. The mass of the
structure, which is concentrated at the level of the floors, has the
values m1=25kp*sec2/cm and m2=12kp*sec2/cm. The total stiffness of
The first floor has k1=5500kp/cm and the second floor has k2=8000p/cm.

Solution:
This structure can be modeled by the two-mass and two-system.
springs. For the application of the Rayleigh method, let us assume that
The deformation produces displacements y1=1 and y2=2 the maximum
potential energy is then:

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Equating the maximum potential energy with the maximum energy

kinetics and solving for the natural frequency gives:

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The natural frequency calculated as f=2.64cps is only one

approximation to the exact value, since the general form of the
deformation was assumed with the intention of finding by the method of
Rayleigh. To improve this calculated value for the frequency
natural, we consider the mathematical model of figure (a) and (b) with
the inertial loads calculated as:

The equilibrium equations obtained by setting the sum to zero

the forces in the free body diagrams in figure (b) give:

And solving

Introducing these improved values of the displacements y1 and

y2 in equations (a) and (b) to recalculate the maximum energy
potential and the maximum kinetic energy, results in:

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TABLE: MODIFIED RAYLEIGH METHOD APPLIED TO

EXAMPLE

V. CONCLUSIONES

- The Rayleigh method can also be used to determine the

natural frequency of a continuous system when the deformation of the
structure is described by a generalized coordinate.

The success of the method depends on how close the deformation is.
supposed deformation of the actual structure.

In the application of the modified Rayleigh method, it is assumed

initially a deformation curve is created and the values are calculated
maximums of the kinetic energy and the potential energy of the system

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VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY

-Mario Paz, Structural Dynamics Theory and Calculation. Barcelona Edition

1992. Editorial Reverte S.A.C. Pages 142 - 143.

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