ISBN-13: 978-1508583448

ISBN-10: 1508583447
ELECTRONICS MANUAL

MIGUEL D'ADDARIO

2nd Edition

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY
2015
 INDEX
ELECTRONICS MANUAL

1. Basic concepts of electricity and

electronics

2. Ohm's Law

3. Resistances

4. Capacitors

5. Coils

6. Diodes

7. Transistors

8. Integrated circuits

9. Circuits with diodes

10. Annex I: Circuits with diodes (power supply)

11. Annex II: Practice and circuits

12. Bibliography
 CHAPTER 1

BASIC CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS

1.1 Definition of electric current:

We understand electric current as the flow of electrons that circulates through a

electric conductor.

The circulation of these electrons is determined by the properties of the medium

through which they are mobilized.

The current is divided into two main branches: alternating and direct.

Alternating current is the one that changes polarity and amplitude over time.

Direct current is the one that maintains a constant polarity and amplitude.
1.2 Atomic structure of conductors and insulators:

Elements have conductive properties or not according to their atomic structure.

The degree of conductivity of an element is given by the number of electrons in the

last orbit of the atom.

Copper is a conductor. The copper atom has 29 protons in the nucleus and 29
planetary electrons that revolve in orbits within four layers around the nucleus.
The first shell contains 2 electrons, the second 8, the third 18, and the fourth, or shell
more external, 1 electron.
The maximum allowed number in the fourth layer is 2 x 42, which is 32. So, this
The only electron in the outermost shell is not strongly bound to the nucleus. It can
move easily.

An atom of an insulator has two or more orbits, each of which is completed.

with the quota of electrons. For example, if an atom has a nucleus of 10 protons,
it will have 10 electrons.
In the first layer, it will have 2 electrons, and in the second 8. Since the second orbit is
It is very difficult to remove an electron from the atom.

The important difference between conductors and insulators is that in a conductor there is one or
two electrons in the outer layer, therefore they are not strongly bound to the nucleus,
while insulators have their last complete or almost complete orbit.

Semiconductors are manufactured elements that are not found in nature.

The elements used in the production of semiconductors (mostly

silicon), have no properties that are useful for conducting electrons, but
through a process known as doping, atoms of impurities are added
(antimony, phosphorus, boron, gallium, etc.) achieving devices that allow the passage of
electric charges under certain conditions.

1.3 Fenómenos asociados a la corriente eléctrica:

The passage of electric current leaves behind a series of physical phenomena that have
they have been studied and in some cases were used for other purposes, such as for
example of magnetism.

Let's briefly review the main phenomena associated with circulation.

electrons.

Temperatura:

In every device there is a heating due to its operation. This is because

Resistance

It is the degree of opposition that a material generates to the flow of electric current. Its
The unit of measurement is the Ohm.

Impedance:

It is the same as resistance. The difference is that the former refers to current.
continues, and the second for alternating current.

Inductance:

Phenomenon produced in the coils, which present greater impedance the more
The frequency of the applied current may be. Its unit is the Henry.

Capacitance:

Phenomenon produced in capacitors, which present lower impedance.

The higher the frequency of the applied current. Its unit is the Farad.

Conductance:

It is the inverse of resistance. Its unit is the Siemens.

Semiconductors

The term semiconductor reveals an idea of its characteristics by itself. The prefix
semi is usually applied to a range of levels situated halfway between two limits. The
The term conductor applies to any material that supports a generous flow of charge,
when a voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across its terminals.
An insulator is a material that offers a very low level of conductivity under pressure.
from an applied voltage source.
A semiconductor, therefore, is a material that has a level of conductivity over
some point between the extremes of an insulator and a conductor. Although it can be
familiar with the electrical properties of copper and mica, the characteristics
semiconductors, germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si), can be relatively new.
Some of the unique qualities of Ge and Si is that both form a very
defined what is periodic in nature (the same repeats continuously).

Symbolism
 CHAPTER 2
OHM'S LAW

2.1 Ohm's Law:

It is a law published by a German scientist of that surname, which postulates the following:

The current intensity flowing through a given circuit is directly proportional

to the applied tension and inversely proportional to its resistance.

This law governs the behavior of electric charges within circuits.

The basic formulas are detailed below:

V = Voltage
I = Current
R= Resistencia
W= Power

V=IxR I=V / R R =V/ I W=V x I

W=I2 x R W = V^2 / R

Making changes to the terms of the equations

V = W / I I2=W/R V2 = W x R

For the voltage drops across the resistances

Vc = Va - (I x R)
current of 0.58 amperes.

e) Calculate the power dissipated from a 25 Ohm resistor, with a

applied tension of 30 volts. Also find out the circulating current.

CHAPTER 3
RESISTANCES

3.1 Definition:

Electrical resistance is the opposition that an element offers to the flow of

electrons through it.
This property is determined by the atomic structure of the element. If the last
the orbit of an atom is complete or almost complete by the maximum number of electrons
What can host, there will exist a binding force that will make it impossible for electrons to...
they can be easily removed from the atom.

3.2 Types of resistances:

The resistors that are commercially used are made of pressed carbon and film.
metallic (metal film), and wire.
3.5 Variation of resistance with time and temperature:

Every resistance has a coefficient of variation due to aging, and also due to
thermal variation.
Carbon resistors are the least stable, as they have a variation.
important in both directions.
Metal film resistors are much more stable than the latter.

Wire resistors are also stable.

Carbon resistors have a temperature drift coefficient of

(6/10000) x average negative °C, while the metal film ones have a drift
of (5/100000) x °C average positive.

By connecting in series a carbon resistor and a metal film resistor, it is possible to obtain a
thermal slip resistance is nil.

Rt=Rcarbon +Rmf

Rcarbon=Rt / 13 Rmf = Rt – Rcarbon

3.6 Exercises:

a) Four resistances are connected in series: 100 ohms, 220 ohms, 1.5
Kohms and 2.2 K ohms, with a voltage of 56 volts and a current of 0.08 amperes (80
milliamperes). Calculate the equivalent series resistance, the total voltage drop and the
individual for each resistance.

b) Three resistors are connected in series: 270 ohms, 4.7 Kohms, and 15
ohms, with a voltage of 15 volts and a current of 0.05 amperes (50 milliamperes).
Calculate the individual voltage drops for each resistor, the power dissipated.
for each of them and the sum of them.

c) Two resistances are connected in parallel: 180 ohms and 220 ohms, with
a current of 0.1 ampere (100 milliamperes). Calculate the parallel resistance
equivalent and the circulating current for each branch of the parallel.
d) Three resistors are connected in parallel: 1 Kohm, 2.2 Kohms, and 2.2.
Mohms, with a voltage of 60 volts. Calculate the equivalent parallel resistance, the
current through each branch of the parallel and the total voltage drop of the circuit.

CHAPTER 4
CAPACITORS

4.1 Definition:

The capacitor is a component that, as its name indicates, stores energy.

for a theoretically infinite time, but in reality depends on CSR
(equivalent series resistance), a type of loss resistance that presents everything
capacitor.

The capacitor behaves like an open circuit for direct current, but in
the reactance alternates decreases as the frequency increases.

There are capacitors of various types. Here we will focus on the most common ones.

4.2 Types of capacitors:

a) We select an intermediate scale, for example Rx 10.

b) We measure the terminals of the capacitor.

c) We carried out the measurement by flipping the legs, that is, turning the capacitor around.
and measuring it in reverse to the previous step.

d) In the previous step, the multimeter needle should jump and then return to the
principle (infinite resistance).

e) If the needle doesn't jump, it is because the capacitor is damaged. On the other hand, if the
resistance does not approach infinity, it is because there are leaks. If the needle rises to
resistance 0, the capacitor is short-circuited.

4.5 Exercises:

a) Three capacitors of 220µF are connected in parallel. Calculate the

equivalent capacity.

b) There are two 100nF capacitors connected in series, and these two in
parallel with one of 220nF. Calculate the equivalent capacitance of the series, and then the
equivalent with the parallel.

c) Three capacitors of 22µF are connected in series. Calculate the capacity.

equivalent.

d) There is a parallel formed by a capacitor of 10µF and another of 47µF.

once, in series with this parallel there is a series of two capacitors, one of 470µF and the other
of 220µF. Calculate the equivalent capacitance of the parallel, of the series, and of the whole
set.
 CHAPTER 5
COILS

5.1 Definition

The coil is a winding of copper wire on a core, which can be air.

(without core), of ferrite, iron, silicon, etc.

With direct current, it functions as a conductor, opposing a resistance that

It depends on the total resistance of the wound wire.

On the other hand, it has the property of increasing its reactance as

increase the frequency. It is the inverse of the capacitor.

Combined with the capacitor, resonant circuits can be obtained, in which the
Resonance occurs when the cutoff frequencies of both elements coincide.

5.2 Types of coils

The most common coils are detailed below.

With iron core: This type is made with a winding of copper wire over
a support of mild iron. This type of coils are only suitable for applications
of electromagnet, where the current through the winding induces a magnetization effect
temporal on iron.

With air core: The coil is wound in the air, that is, it does not have a core.
the inductance of this type of coils is very low, but it has the advantage that they are very
suitable for working at high frequencies.
 CHAPTER 6
DIODES

6.1 Definition:

Diodes are solid-state semiconductor devices, generally

made of silicon, to which impurities are added to achieve its characteristics.

They have two terminals, called anode and cathode.

Basically, a diode is used to rectify electric current. Its characteristic

The main thing is that it allows current to flow in only one direction.

Due to its construction, the silicon diode has forward bias (current flow of
anode current to cathode) a voltage drop of about 0.6 to 0.7 volts,
and in reverse (blocking) it has a practically negligible leakage current.
Electrical installations and automation, Miguel D'Addario, Lulu Publishing.

Assembly and Repair Manual, [Link].C.E. (Centers for Educational Cooperation)

Silicon Semiconductor Manual,Texas Instruments.

MANUAL
OF ELECTRONICS
MIGUEL D´ADDARIO

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY
2015