PYTHON

Python is a high-level, interpreted programming language that is widely used for

various purposes such as web development, scientific computing, data analysis,
artificial intelligence, and more. It's known for its simplicity, readability, and ease
of use, making it a great language for beginners and experts alike.
➢ Less lines of code
➢ No rules
➢ No char,short int,long int,double,long double,sighned,unsighned
➢ No switch,do-while,pointers
➢ No braces for block statements
➢ No need for declaring variable
➢ Dynamic typing language-The data type of the variable is decided at run time
only

Features Of Python

1. Simple: Reading a program written in Python feels almost like reading

english. The main strength of Python which allows programmer to concentrate
on the solution to the problem rather than language itself.

2. Easy to Learn: Python program is clearly defined and easily readable. The
structure of the program is simple. It uses few keywords and clearly defined
syntax.

3. Versatile: Python supports development of wide range of applications such

as simple text processing, WWW browsers and games etc..

4. Free and Open Source: It is a Open Source Software. So, anyone can freely
distribute it, read the source code, edit it, and even use the code to write new
(free) programs.

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5. High-level Language: While writing programs in Python we do not worry
about the low-level details like managing memory used by the program.

6. Interactive: Programs in Python work in interactive mode which allows

interactive testing and debugging of pieces of code. Programmer can easily
interact with the interpreter directly at the python prompt to write their
programs.

simple

Easy to
Inter-preter
learn

Features
of
object
oriented
Python High level
programming language

portable Dynamic

7. Portable: It is a portable language and hence the programs behave the same
on wide variety of hardware platforms with different operating systems.

8. Object Oriented: Python supports object-oriented as well as procedure-

oriented style of programming .While object-oriented technique encapsulates
data and functionality with in objects, Procedure oriented at other hand, builds
programs around procedure or functions.

2
9. Interpreted: Python is processed at runtime by interpreter. So, there is no
need to compile a program before executing it. You can simply run the
program. Basically python converts source program into intermediate form
called byte code.

[Link] and strongly typed language: Python is strongly typed as the

interpreter keeps track of all variables types. It's also very dynamic as it rarely
uses what it knows to limit variable usage.

[Link]: Since Python is an open source software, anyone can add low-
level modules to the python interpreter. These modules enable programmers
to add to or customize their tools to work more efficiently.

[Link]: Programmers can embed Python within their C, C++, COM,

ActiveX, CORBA and Java Programs to give ‘scripting ‘capability for users.

13. Extensive Libraries: Python has huge set of libraries that is easily portable
across different .

3
 Tokens

Data
Literals Identifiers keyWords Operators
Types

❖ Literals:
In programming constants are referred to variables that cannot be Changed.

• Numeric literal: It is a literal representation of a number, as opposed to a

variable or an expression that evaluates to a number.

1. Integer literal: Number llike 5,6,3 etc…

2. Floating literal:Numbers with decimal part like 3.14,[Link] etc…

Note:
For c precision part is 6 decimals.
For java and python precesion part is 15 decimals.

• String literal:

A string literal is a sequence of characters that is written directly in the

code, enclosed in quotes (either single quotes ' ' or double quotes " ").

It represents a string value, which can be a word, phrase, sentence, or even a

single character.

4
 Examples of string literals include:
1. 'Hello, World!'
2. "This is a string"
3. 'a' (a single character string)
4. '123' (a string, not a number)

• Boolean literal: Boolean literals are used in programming to represent a

logical value that can be used in conditional statements, loops, and logical
operations.
It can be either “True” or “False

❖ Identifiers:

Identifiers are names given to identify something. This something can be a variable,
function, class, module or other object. For naming any identifier, there are some
basic rules.

Rules of Identifiers:-
[Link] first character of an identifier must be an underscore ('_') or a letter (upper or
lowercase).
[Link] rest of the identifier name can be underscores ('_'), letters (upper or lowercase),
or digits (0- 9).
[Link] names are case-sensitive.
For example, myvar and myVar are not the same.
[Link] characters such as @, $, and % are not allowed within identifiers.
Examples of valid identifier names are sum, __my_var, num1, r, var_20, First,
etc…
Examples of invalid identifier names are 1num, my-var, %check, Basic Sal,
H#R&A, etc…

5
 ❖ Data types:

The variables can hold values of different type called Data type.
They are classifies into two type:

[Link] data type:An immutable data type is a type of data that cannot be
changed or modified once it is created. In other words, its state is immutable, meaning
it cannot be altered after it is initialize.
→ In python int,float,bool,String,tuple are the Immutable data type.
→ In immutable data types, when you change the value of a variable, both the
value and the memory location change.

[Link] datatype: Mutable data type means that the value of the data can be
changed (mutated) after it is created.
→ In python list,dict,set are called mutable data type.
→ In mutable data type when we change the value of variable only the value chages
but location not changes.

❖ Keywords:

• Keywords are the reserved words in Python.

• We cannot use a keyword as variable name, function name or any other
identifier.
• There are 35 keywords in Python 3.10.
This number can vary slightly in course of time. All the keywords except True,
False and None are in lowercase and they must be written as it .

Python Keywords
True , False, None , and , as , assert , async , await , break , class , continue ,
def ,del, elif , else , except , finally , for , from , global , if , import , in , is ,
lambda , nonlocal , not , or , pass , raise , return , try, with, while, yield.

6
[Link] : Write a program to print all keywords in python.

Code:
import keyword
print([Link])

❖ Operators:

Python supports the following operators

1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Relational Operator
3. Bitwise Operator
4. Shift Operator
5. Logical Operator
6. Membership Operator
7. Identity Operator
8. Assignment Operator
9. Comma Operator

[Link] Operator:

Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical operations like addition,

subtraction, multiplication, division, modulus, power.

Arithmetic Operator Symbols: + , - , * , / ,**.

→ / - True division or float division.

→ // - Floor division or Integer division
→ ** - Exponent Operator

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Example: Write a program to perform all arithmetic Operations.

Code:

a=10
b=5
print(“add:”,a+b)
print(“sub:”.a-b)
print(“mul:”a*b)
print(“div:”a//b)
print(“mod:”a%b)
Print(“power:”a**2)

output:
add:15
sub:5
mul:50
div:2
mod:0
power:100

• How to read multiple numbers in same line

var1, var2,… ,var n=map(int,input().split())
(or)
var1,var2,…,var n=map(int,input().split())
Ex:a,b,c=map(int,input().split())

[Link] operator:

A Relational or Comparison operator checks the relationship between two operands.

If the relation is true, it returns 1; if the relation is false, it returns value 0.

Relational Operators Symbols: ==,!=,<,>,<=,>= .

8
For Example assuming a=100 and b=2000
we can use the comparison operators on them as specified in the following

== print(a= =b) False

!= print(a!=b) True
< print(a<b) True
<= print(a<=b) True
> print(a>b) False
>= print(a>=b) False

[Link] operator:
As the name suggests, bitwise operators perform operations at the bit level.
These operators include bitwise AND, bitwise OR, bitwise XOR, and shift operators.
Bitwise operators expect their operands to be of integers and treat them as a sequence
of bits.
• If a number can be expressed in powers of 2 the binary number is 1 followed by
x [Link] zeroes.
eg: Let x=9 then 2**9=512 in bits 1000000000
• If a number is expressed 2**x-1 the binary value is x [Link] ones.
eg: Let x=9 then 2**x-1 in bits 0111111111
→ If n&n-1= = 0 the n can be expressed in powers of 2 otherwise n can’t be
expressed in powes of 2

A B A&B A|B A^B !A

0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 0

[Link] Operators:
Python supports two bitwise shift operators. They are shift left (<<) and shift right (>>).
These operations are used to shift bits to the left or to the right.

Left shift(<<): In left shift we move the bit values by one place towards left

9
We neglect MSB and add 0 to LSB
eg: Let a=12 i.e 00001100 a<<i =a*(2**i)
If i=1 then a<<1=12*(2**1)=24
⸫ a=00001100 then a<<1 is 00011000 i.e 24

Right shift(>>): In right shift we move bit value by one towards rightside
We neglect LSB and add 0 to MSB.
eg: Let a=12 i.e 00001100 a>>i=a//(a**i)
If i=1 then a>>1=12//(2**1)=6
⸫ a=00001100 then a>>1 is 00000110 i.e 6

[Link] operators:
Logical operators are used to simultaneously evaluate two conditions or expressions
with relational operators.
→ Logical And(and): If the first condition false it does not evaluate the second
condition it directly gives false when the both conditions are true it gives true.
→ Logical OR(or): If one or both conditions are true it gives true.

[Link] Operator(in,not in):

in: This operator gives true if the searching element is found in the given sequence or
iterable otherwise it gives false.

not in: This operator gives true if the searching element is not found in given sequence
or iterable otherwise it gives true.

[Link] Operator(is, not is):

is:This operator gives true if both the variable shares the same memory location
otherwise it gives false
In immutable if the values are same then location also same
eg:
a=5
b=5
print(a is b)

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Output:
True
not is:This operator gives true if both variables not sharing same memory location
otherwise it gives false

[Link] Operator:
Assignment operators are used in Python to assign values to variables.
Expression is evaluated and result is stored in LHS i.e variable
Additional/Shortcut assign:
+= , - = ,*=,/=,//=,**=
Multiple assignment :
Var1,var2,var3...varn=val1,val2,val3...valn

[Link] operator(,):
Variable separator and value separator

Character Set

In python or java Unicode is 2 Bytes i.e 216(0-65535).

• 0-127 unicode charcters are same as ascii character
ASCII Division (0-127)
0-31 Non printable character
32-47 Special characters
48-57 ’0’-’9’
58-64 Special Symbols
65-90 ’A’-’Z’
91-96 Special Symbols
97-122 ’a’-’z’
123-126 Special Symbols

• To check ascii in python the functions are

1) ord(): It gives the UNICODE value of a given single character.

2) chr(): It gives the character associated for the given UNICODE value.

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Example:
print(ord(“a”))
print(chr($))

Output:
97
36

Indentation
Whitespace at the beginning of the line is called indentation. These white spaces or the
indentation are very important in Python.
In a Python program, the leading whitespace including spaces and tabs at the beginning
of the logical line determines the indentation level of that logical line.
Once we keep ‘:’ at the end of selection or loop statement then the body of selection or
loop statement will have tab space as identation.

Comments
These are non executable statements in python it is also used to understand the program
in easier manner.
# - It is the single line comment.
‘‘‘ ’’’ - It is the multi line comment.

Statements

A statement is an instruction that the Python interpreter can execute.

[Link] Statements: Any arithemetic,bitwise,assignment,input,output

statements
[Link] Statements:if-else,if-elif-else
[Link] Statements:while,for
[Link] Statements:break,continue
[Link] Statements:if,else,elif,for,while,functions,classes are all bloack statements(At
the end of these statements we will keep ‘:’).

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[Link] Statements:
if-else: If the condition is true statement1 is evaluated otherwise else part statement2 is
evaluated.

Syntax:
if condition:
statement1
else:
statement2

Example:

1. Write a program to read a number and check whether it is perfect square or

not.

Code:

n=int(input())
s=(int(n**0.5))
If p*p==n :
print(‘Yes’)
else:
print(‘No’)

Output:
9
Yes

[Link] a program to read a character and check whether it is upppercase or not.

Code:

c=input()
p=ord(c)
if p>=65 and p<=90:

13
 print(‘Yes’)
else:
print(‘No’)

Output:
A
Yes

[Link] a program to read a character and check whether it is lowercase or not.

Code:

c=input()
p=ord(c)
if p>=97 and p<=122:
print(‘Yes’)
else:
print(‘No’)

Output:
Z
Yes

String modules
1. ascii_lowercase
2. ascii_uppercase
3. ascii_letters
4. digits
5. octdigits
6. hexdigits

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Examples:

[Link] a program to check whether given number is alphabet or not.

Code:

import string
c=input()
if c in string.ascii_letters:
print(‘Yes’)
else:
print(‘No’)

Output:
a
Yes

if-elif-else: If the condition is true statement1 is executed if condition false it

verifies elif condition if it is true statement2 is executes it is false else block i.e
statement3 is executed.

Synatx:
if condition1:
statement1
elif condition2:
statement2
else:
statement3

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Examples:

[Link] a program to read a number and check whether it is single digit or double
digit or 3 digits or 4 digit or greater than 4.

Code:

n=int(input())
if n<10:
print(1)
elif n<100 :
print(2)
elif n<1000:
print(3)
elif n<10000
print(4)
else
print(‘>4’)

Output:
1)5
1
2)2000
4

[Link] a program to read a char and check whether it is uppercase vowel or

uppercase consonant or lowercase vowel or vowel case consonant or digit or
symbol.

Code:

import string
c=input()
v=’aeiouAEIOU’

16
l=string.ascii_lowercase
u=string.ascii_uppercase
if c in l and c in v:
print(‘Lower case vowel’)
elif c in l and c not in v:
print(‘Lower case consonent’)
elif c in u and c in v:
print(‘Upper case vowel’)
elif c in u and c not in v:
print(‘Upper case consonent’)
elif c in [Link]:
print(‘Digits’)
else:
print(‘Symbol’)

Output:
1)a
Lower case vowel
2)$
Symnbol

[Link] a program to read 3 numbers and arrange in descending order (With out
using built in function)

Code:

a,b,c=map(int,input().split())
if a>b and a>c:
if b>c:
print(a,b,c)
else:
print(a,c,b)
elif b>c:
if a>c:
print(b,a,c)
else:

17
 print(b,c,a)
else:
if a>b:
print(c,a,b)
else:
print(c,b,a)

output:
1)5 4 10
4 5 10
2)10 8 3
3 8 10

LOOP STATEMENTS

Loop is an iterative statement which executes for a particular number of times.

while loop:
syntax:
initialization i=1
while condition: while i<=10:
statement print(i)
incr/decr i+=1
else: else:
statement2 print('end of while')
loop variable or control variable
the initialized value is checked in the condition, as long as the condition is True, the
body of the loop(statements inside the loop) will be executed, once the condition is
False, else part will be executed.

for loop:
syntax:
for var in range(start,stop,step):
statement1
else:

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 statement2
range() deals only with numbers
start means initialization(starting value)
stop means condition (last value)
step means incr/decr
➢ start and step are optional.
if start is not given, its default value is 0.
if step is not given its default value is 1.
→ stop is mandatory and it always executes till its previous value.
if start <stop then stop works till stop-1.
if start>stop then stop works till stop+1

Examples

1)Write a program to display the factors of a given number.

Code:

n=int(input())
for i in range(1,n+1):
if n%i==0:
print(i,end=' ')

TLE(TimeLimitExceeded): to avoid this we need to optimize our code.

n=int(input())
for i in range(1,int(n**0.5)+1):#1
if n%i==0:#2
print(i,end=' ')
if i*i!=n:#3
print(n//i,end=' ')

Output:
100
1 100 2 50 4 25 5 20 10

19
2. Write a program to display the count of even factors of a given number.

Code:

n=120
c=0
for i in range(1,int(n**0.5)+1):
if n%i==0:
if i%2==0:
c+=1
if (n//i)%2==0 and i*i!=n:
c+=1
print(c)

Output:
12

[Link] a program to check given number is prime or not.

Code:

n=int(input())
for i in the range(2,int(n**0.5)+1):
if n%i==0:
print(‘No’)
break
else:
print(‘Yes’)

Output:
17
Yes

20
[Link] a program to check given number is perfect number or not.

Code:

n=int(input())
s=0
for i in the range (1,int(n**0.5)+1)
if n%i==0:
s+=i
if i!=1:
s+=n//i
if s==n:
print(‘Yes’)
else:
print(‘no’)

Output:
6
Yes

[Link] a program to display sum of the digits of s given number.

Code:

n=int(input())
c=0
while n!=0;
c+=n%10
n//=10
print(c)

Output:
6545234
29

21
[Link] a program to read and check whether it is strong number or not.

Code:

import math
n=int(input())
c=0
m=n
while n>o:
r=n%10
c+=[Link](r)
n//=10
print(‘yes’ if c==m else ‘No’)

Output:
145
Yes

7. 654321 Code:
6+5+4+3+2+1+ n=int(input())
5+4+3+2+1+ c=0
4+3+2+1+ d=0
3+2+1+ m=n
2+1+ while m>9:
1 d+=1
m//=10
while n>0:
m=n
while m>0:
r=m%10
c+=r
m//=10
n%=100**d
d-=1
print(c)

22
[Link] a program to check whether the given number is palindrome or not.

Code:

n=int(input())
c=0
m=n;
while n>0:
r=m%10
c=c*10+r
n//=10
print(‘Yes’ if c==m else ‘No’)

[Link] a program to check whether the given number is Armstrong or not

Code:

n=int(input())
r=m=n
p=0
c=0
while r>0:
p=p+r
r//=10
while n>0:
r=n%10
c=c+r**p
n//=10
print(‘Yes’ if c==m else ‘No’)

23
9.
4 Code:
#### n=int(input())
# # for i in range (1,n+1):
# # for j in range(1,n+1):
#### if i==1 or i==n or j==1 or j==n:
print(‘#’,end=’ ‘)
else:
print(‘ ’,end=’ ‘)
print()

10.
6 Code:
****** n=int(input())
** ** for i in range(1,n+1):
* ** * for j in range(1,n+1):
* ** * if i=-1 or i==n or j==1 or j==n or i==j or i+j=n+1:
** ** print(‘*’,end=’ ‘)
****** else:
print(‘ ’,end=’ ‘)
print()

24
 STRINGS

String represents a group of character's. These are very important because most of
the data that we use in daily life in the form of string

Single quotes(‘ ’): ‘Hello world’

Double quotes (“ ”): “Hello world”
Triple quote (‘‘‘ ’’’):These are multi line

➢ Operations:
[Link](+):Merging of two string
It is homogeneous that means string only concatinate

[Link](*):Same string is repeated for multiple times

Note:Repetition is applied only when size of string is <256 MB ofter repetition.

[Link]([ ]):Indexing starts from 0 to [Link] characters-1 from left to right

Indexing also starts from -1 to -([Link] characters) from right to left

[Link]([ : : :]):
syntax:
strvar[start:stop:step]
start,stop and step are all optional.
→ if step is not given, its default value is 1.
→ If start, stop are not given, their default value depends on the value of step.
→ If step is empty(1) or +ve, start default value is 0. stop default value is
len(str)[number of characters] and stop works till stop-1.
→ If step is negative, start default value is -1 and stop default value is -
(len(str)+1) and stop works till stop+1.
where to use slicing:
If we wanted to extract a substring or subsequence we have to go for slicing.
Substitute string.

25
Example:
committment 3
output1: mittmentcom
output2: entcommittm
Code:
s=’commitment’
k=3
print(s[k: ]+s[ :k])
print(s[-k: ]+s[ :-k])

String Functions
len() count() find() index() rfind()
rindex() center() ljust() rjust() zfill()
lstrip() rstrip() strip() split() rsplit()
splitness() format() replace() upper() lower()
casefold() title() capitalize() swapcase() isalpha()
isalnum() isspace() isidentifier() isprintable() isascii()
isupper() islower() istitle() isdigit() isdecimal()
isnumeric() startswith() endswith() max() min()
expandtabs() join() chr() ord() str()

Functions:

len() :It gives the length of the string.

len(strvar)

count() :It gives the frequency of the specified pattern(either single character or a
string) in the given string.
[Link](pattern)

26
find(): it gives the first occurrence of the specified pattern in the given string.
[Link](pattern)
[Link](pattern,startIndex)
[Link](pattern,startIndex,stopIndex)
iffind() is unsuccessful, it gives -1.
It works from left to right.

index(): it gives the first occurrence of the specified pattern in the given string.
It works from left to right.
ifindex()is unsuccessful, it raises an exception called ValueError.

rfind():it gives the last occurrence of the specified pattern in the given string.
[Link](pattern)
[Link](pattern,startIndex)
[Link](pattern,startIndex,stopIndex)
it works from right to left.
if rfind() is unsuccessful, it gives -1.

rindex(): it is same as rfind(), but if rindex() is unsuccessful, it raises an exception

called ValueError.

center(): it aligns the string as center aligned in a larger width, the remaining width
is filled by default with spaces or a given single fillchar.
[Link](width)
[Link](width,fillchar)

ljust(): it aligns the string as left justified in a larger width, the remaining width is
filled by default with spaces or a given single fillchar.

rjust(): it aligns the string in right justified in a larger width, the remaining width is
filled by default with spaces or a given single fillchar.

zfill(): it is same as rjust() but the remaining width is filled by zeros.

27
 ➢ HOW MANY TYPES OF SPACES IN PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE:

1. ' '(32)(whitespace character)

2. '\n'(10)(newline character(ENTER))
3.'\t'(9)(horizontal TAB(TAB KEY))
4. '\r'(13)(carriage return(HOME))
5. '\v'(11)(vertical TAB)
6.'\f'(12)(form feed)

istrip(): it removes the leading(before the start of the string) spaces or any specified
character in the given string
[Link]() : it removes all spaces
[Link](char): it removes all chars

rstrip(): it removes the trailing(after the end of the given string) spaces or any
specified character in the given string.
[Link]() : it removes all spaces
[Link](char): it removes all chars

strip(): it removes both leading and trailing spaces or specific characters from the
given string.

split(): it divides the given string into multiple strings(list of strings) based on the
specified delimiter(by default it is space)

rsplit(): it divides the given string into multiple strings(list of strings) based on the
specified delimiter(by default it is space)

split() Vs rsplit(): when we customize the splittings, then split() works from left to
right and rsplit() works from right to left.

splitlines(): it works on '\n' '\v' '\r' '\f'.

upper():it converts the entire string to uppercase(it does not consider digits or
symbols)

28
lower():it converts all the uppercase letters to lowercase.

casefold(): it is same as lower().the difference is lower() works only on english

alphabet whereas casefold() works on english alphabet as well as other linguistics.

capitalize(): it converts 0th index lowercase alphabet to uppercase. if 0index is not

a alphabet then capitalize() does no change.

title(): it converts every words starting letter only to uppercase.

format(): it is used to place the existing variable in string.

1. using format():
2. using format specifiers
3. using f-strings

Code:
a=5.6
b=7.0
c=’hello’
s=’{ } { } { }’.format(a,b,c)
t=’%d %f %s’%(a,b,c)
r=f’{a} {b} {c}’
print(s)
print(t)
print(r)\

replace(): it replaces by default all the occurrences of the specified pattern with the
new pattern in the given string.
[Link](old,new)

isalpha(): it gives True, if the string contains only alphabet(A_Z a_z), if the string
contains one non alphabet it gives False.

29
isalnum(): it gives True, if the string contains only either alphabet or digits, if the
string contains atleast one symbol it gives False.

isspace(): it gives True, if the string contains only spaces(all types of spaces), if the
string contains atleast one non space character, it gives False.

isidentifer(): it gives True, if the string contains a valid identifier(based on the rules)
otherwise it gives False.

isprintable(): it gives True, if the string contains only printable characters, otherwise
it gives False.

isascii(): it gives True, if the string contains characters with valid ASCII values(0-
127) otherwise it gives False.

isupper(): it gives True, if the string contains only uppercase letters, if the string
contains atleast one lowercase letter it gives False.

islower(): it gives True, if the string contains only lowercase letters, if the string
contains atleast one uppercase letter, it gives False.

istitle(): it gives True, if the string is in titlecase(every words starting letter is only
uppercase), otherwise it gives False.

isdigit():it gives True, if the string contains digits or unicode digits(Ex: '\u00B2'),
otherwise it gives False.

isdecimal():it gives True, if the string contains digits otherwise it gives False.

isnumeric():it gives True, if the string contains digits or unicode digits or other
linguistic digits, otherwise it gives False.

startswith():it gives True, if the string is started with the specified pattern, otherwise
it gives False.

30
endswith():it gives True, if the string ends with the specified pattern, otherwise it
gives False.

Example:
s='this is a test'
print([Link]('thi'))
print([Link]('tst'))
output:
True
False

max(): it gives the character with maximum unicode value.

min(): it gives the character with minimum unicode value.

expandtabs():'\t' size can be increased or decreased(min 0) for the string.

join(): multiple strings can be converted into a single string.

[Link](sequence/iterable)

Examples:

1. Write a program to check the given string(or number) is palindrome or not.

Code:

s=input()
print(‘Yes’ if s==s[::-1] else ‘No’)

Output:
4567654
Yes

31
2. Write a program to count the number of characters in the string without
using builtin functions.

Code:
s=input()
c=0
for i in s:
c+=1
print(c)

Output:
Abhi
4

[Link] a program to remove duplicates in the string.

Code:

s=input()
dup=’‘
for i in s:
if i not in dup:
dup+=i
print(dup)

Output:
yddyuewie
yduewi

32
 LISTS

List is a mutable data type which is a dynamic array.

• list is a collection of elements of heterogenuous or different or
dissimilar data types.
• it is represented by [].

Method1:
p=[]
n=int(input())
for i in range(n):
[Link](int(input()))
print(p)

Output:
4
5
1
2
3
[5,1,2,3]

Method2(list comprehension):
n=int(input())
p=[int(input()) for i in range(n)]
print(p)

Output:
3
1
5
8
[1,5,8]

33
Type-2: the array elements are in a single line separated by a space.

Code:
n=int(input())
p=list(map(int,input().split()))[:n]
print(p)
Output:
3
123456
[1,2,3]

method2(list comprehension)
n=int(input())
p=[int(x) for x in input().split()][:n]
print(*p)
Output:
5
12345
12345

➢ Operations:
1. concatenation(+)
2. repetition(*)
3. indexing([])
4. slicing([::])

List Functions
len() count() index() clear()
copy() append() insert() pop()
remove() sort() sorted() min()
max() sum() reverse() extend()

34
Functions:

[Link](): it gives the length of the list(number of elements).

[Link](): it gives the frequency of given element in the list.

[Link](): it gives the first occurrence of the specified element in the given list. if
the element is not found, it raises an exception called ValueError.

[Link](): it will make the list empty(clear all the elements).

5. copy(): it copies only values from one list to another list(it does not share location).
Example:
p=[1,2,3]
q=[Link]()
print(p,q)
Output:
[1,2,3] [1,2,3]

6. append(): one element is appended(added at last) to the list.

[Link](element)

7. insert(): one element is inserted at a particular index.

[Link](index,element)
if the index specified is more than the len(list) then insert() will behave like append().

8. pop(): it removes an element specified by the index, by default it removes the last
element,
if the index specified is not available, it raises an exception called IndexError.

[Link](): it removes the specified element from the list. if the element is not
available, it raises an exception called ValueError.
TIM SORT(insertion +merge)

35
[Link](): the elements are sorted in ascending order.
[Link]()

[Link](): the elements are sorted in ascending order.

listvar=sorted(listvar)

[Link](): it gives the element with maximum value. to apply max() elements must
be of same type.

[Link](): it gives the element with minimum value

to apply min() elements must be of same type.

[Link](): it gives sum(total) of the elements of the list. to apply sum() elements
must be of number type.

[Link](): the given list is reversed.

[Link]()

[Link](): it is same as +(concatenation operator), it merges two lists.

[Link]()

Example:
p=[1,2,3]
[Link](84)
print(p)
[Link](64387438,666)
print(p)
[Link]([23,56])
print(p)

Output:
[1,2,3,84]
[1,2,3,84,666]
[1,2,3,84,666,23,56]

36
 TUPLES

➢ It is same like list but tuple is immutable and list is mutable.

represented by ().
➢ Tuples contain multiple objects with diffrent data types.

Example:
Code:
t= (1,2,3)
a=(1,’String’,[1,2,3])
print(t)
print(a)
Output:
(1,2,3)
(1,’String’,[1,2,3])

• Operations:
1. concatenation
2. repetition
3. indexing
4. slicing

Tuple Functions
len() Count() Index() Max()
Min() Sum() Sorted()

➢ Tuples are utilized by functions in python when they return multiple values.

37
 DICTIONARY

➢ It is a mutable data type where each element has a pair of objects called Key
and Value separated by a ':'.
➢ where Keys are unique(no duplicates) and immutable(we cannot use list or
dict or set as keys).
➢ values may be immutable or mutable.
➢ Dictionaries does not have any order, because order is decided by hashing
technique, that is the reason dictionary in Python is unordered Dictionary.
➢ How to create a dictionary.
d={}
d=dict()
➢ Operations:
1. indexing: indexing can be done that too key is the index of the dictionary.

Dictionary Functions
len() max() min() sum()
clear() copy() sorted() updated()
setdefault() pop() popitem() keys()
values() items() fromkeys() get()

Functions:

[Link]():it gives the length.

2. max(): it gives the maximum key.

3. min(): it gives the minimum key.

4. sum(): it gives sum of keys(keys must be number type)

5. clear():it will make the Dictionary empty(clear all the elements).

38
6. copy():to insert elements into dictionary we have three ways.

7. sorted():the elements are sorted in ascending order.

8. update(): one or more elements can be inserted into dictionary.

[Link]({k1:v1,k2:v2,..kn:vn})

[Link](): one element will be inserted using setdefault().

[Link](key,value)

if the key is already available in the dictionary, then setdefault() does nothing.
if the key is not avaialable, then key,value pair will be inserted.
dictvar[key]=value

[Link](): it removes a specific element with the given key.

[Link](key)
if the key specified is not in the dictionary, pop() raises KeyError exception.

[Link](): it removes the lastly inserted element in the dictionary.

[Link]()

[Link](): it retrieves the keys of the dictionary.

[Link]()

[Link](): values of the dictionary will be retrieved.

[Link]()

[Link](): key,value pair will be retrieved from the dictionary.

[Link]()

[Link](): a dictionary will be created with the existing sequence elements as

keys and by default values are None.
[Link](sequence)
[Link](sequence,value)

39
[Link](): the value of the particular key will be retrieved.
[Link](key): if the key is not available, it returns None
[Link](key,value) : if the key is not available, it returns the default value
specified.

Example:

[Link] a program to create a dictionary where keys are 'a' to 'z' and values
are 1 to 26.

Code:

d={}
import string
p=string.ascii_lowercase
d=[Link](p,0)
for i in range(1,27):
d[p[i-1]]=i
print(d)

Output:

{'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3, 'd': 4, 'e': 5, 'f': 6, 'g': 7, 'h': 8, 'i': 9, 'j': 10, 'k': 11, 'l': 12, 'm': 13,
'n': 14, 'o': 15, 'p': 16, 'q': 17, 'r': 18, 's': 19, 't': 20, 'u': 21, 'v': 22, 'w': 23, 'x': 24, 'y':
25, 'z': 26}

2. Given a string display the count of every letter of the string using dictionary.

Code:

s=input()
d={}
for i in s:
d[i]=[Link](i,0)+1

40
for i,j in [Link]():
print(i,’occurs’,j,’times’)

Output:

hello world
h occurs 1 times
e occurs 1 times
l occurs 3 times
o occurs 2 times
w occurs 1 times
r occurs 1 times
d occurs 1 times

3. Given a string, check whether the string is pangram or not.

(pangram is nothing but in the given string a-z appears atleast once).

Code:

s=input().lower()
import string
d={}
d=[Link](string.ascii_lowercase,0)
for i in s:
d[i]=[Link](i,0)+1
p=list([Link]())
print(‘Pangram’ if 0 not in p else ‘Not Pangram’)

Output:

The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog

Pangram
Hello
Not Pangram

41
 SETS

• Set is a mutable data type where it does not allow duplicates. set is mutable,
but set elements are immutable.
• set in Python is unordered, because order is decided by hash function.
we need to use set when we need to remove duplicates but there is no issue
with the order.
p=set()
• Operations:
1. union
2. intersection

Sets Functions
Len() Max() Min() Sum()
Copy() Clear() Sorted() Update()
Add() Pop() Remove() Discard()

Functions:

[Link]():it gives the length.

2. max(): it gives the maximum key.

3. min(): it gives the minimum key.

4. sum(): it gives sum of keys(keys must be number type)

5. clear():it will make the Dictionary empty(clear all the elements).

6. copy():to insert elements into dictionary we have three ways.

7. sorted():[no use on sets]

42
[Link](): we can insert one or more elements into set at a time(if duplicates are
given it will ignore)
[Link]({ele1,ele2,...elen})

[Link](): one element is inserted into the set.

[Link](element)

[Link](): it removes the first element of the set(whichever may be)

[Link]()

[Link](): it removes a specific element from the set. if the element is not
avaiable, it raises KeyError.
[Link](element)

[Link](): it is same as remove() but if the element is not available, it does not
raise any exceptions.

Example:
1.
p=set(‘artificial’)
print(p)
[Link]({‘n’, ‘o’, ‘l’, ‘e’})
[Link](‘h’)
print(p)
[Link](‘t’)
print(p)

Output:
{'a', 'r', 't', 'i', 'f', 'c', 'l'}
{'a', 'r', 't', 'i', 'f', 'c', 'l', 'n', 'o', 'e', 'h'}
{'a', 'r', 'i', 'f', 'c', 'l', 'n', 'o', 'e', 'h'}

43
2.
s={2,3,4,5,6}
t={1,7,6,5,9}
r={34,45,76,87}
print(s|t)
print([Link](t))
print(s&t)
print([Link](t))
print(s-t)
print([Link](t)
print((s-t)|(t-s))
print(s^t)
print(s.symmetric_diffrence(t))
print([Link](t))
print([Link](s))
print([Link](r))

Output:
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9} (union)
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9} (union)
{5, 6} (intersection)
{5, 6} (intersection)
{2, 3, 4} (difference)
{1, 7, 9} (difference)
{1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9} (symmetric difference)
{1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9} (symmetric difference)
False (issuperset)
False (issubset)
True (isdisjoint)

44
 FUNCTIONS

• Function is set of statements which has self defined task, which is executed
upon access or call or request.
• Functions are two types:
[Link]-in functions(pre-defined functions)
factorial(), gcd(), sqrt(), print()
[Link]-defined functions:

syntax for function definition

def function_name(args-list):
#body of the function
return exp or return (exp) or return

arguments or parameters: input to the function.

def fun():
print('hi')
fun()

NOTE:
The function definition must be placed above the function call and in the same
indentation.
specific features of functions in Python:
1. A function can be assigned to a variable.
2. A function can return multiple values at a time
3. Nested functions are possible.
4. A function can return another function(it avoids the problem in nested functions)
5. Afunction can be used as an argument to another function.

• calling function: Function which is specified in the function call.

• called function: Function which is specified in the function definition.
• actual arguments: The arguments which are specified in the calling
function
• formal arguments: The arguments which are specified in the called function.

45
The communication between actual and formal arguments is called as parameter
passing mechanism.

1. call-by-value(pass-by-value): if the actual arguments are immutable, then the

function call is call by value
2. call-by-reference(pass-by-reference): if the actual arguments are mutable, then
the function call is call-by-reference.

Based on actual and formal arguments our functions are categorised into
[Link] arguments
[Link] arguments
[Link] arguments
[Link] length arguments
[Link] length keyword arguments

Anonymous functions

Nameless functions are called as anonymous functions.

lambda functions are anonymous functions.
syntax:
var=lambda macro:sequence
p=lambda x:x**3
print(type(p))

NOTE: lambda functions are used to implement one liner logics only.

1. map(): map(function, sequence)

2. filter(): filter(function,sequence)
3. reduce(): reduce(function, sequence)

46
Example for lambda Functions:

1.
p=[i for i in range(1,21)]
p=list(map(lambda x:x**3,p))
print(p)

Output:
1 8 27 81

2.

p=[i for in range(1,21)]

p=list(filter(lambda x:x%2==o,p))
print(p)

Output:
0,2,4,6,8

3.

p=[i for i in range (1,21)]

import functools
p=[Link](lambda x,y:x*y,p)
print(p)

Output:
720

47
RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS:
When a function calls itself, it is known as Recusion.
We need to go for recursive function when we can divide a problem into sub
problems.

Problems:

[Link] a program to compute the sum of first n numbers using recursion.

Code:
def add(n):
if n==1:
return 1
return n+add(n-1)
n=int(input())
print(add(n))

Output:
n=5
15

[Link] a program to compute the factorial of a given number .

Code:

def add(n):
if n<=1:
return n*add(n-1)
n=int(input())
print(add (n))

output:
n=5
120

48
[Link] a program to compute LCM of two numbers using recursion.

Code:

def lcm(a, b):

if b == 0:
return a
return lcm(b, a % b)

a, b = map(int, input(“Enter two numbers: “).split())

print((a * b) // lcm(a, b))

Output:
a,b= 12,15
60.

[Link] a program to compute A**B using recursion.

Code:

def power(a, b):

if b == 0:
return 1
return a * power(a, b – 1)

a, b = map(int, input(“Enter two numbers: “).split())

print(power(a, b))

Output:
a,b= 2,3
8

49
[Link] a program to delete duplicate characters of a string using recursion.

Code:

def remove(s):
global op
if len(s) == 0:
return op
if s[0] not in op:
op += s[0]
return remove(s[1:])

s = input(“Enter a string: “)
op = ‘’
print(remove(s))

Output:
S=apple
apl

[Link] a program delete adjacent duplicate characters in a string using

recursion.

Code:
def remove(s):
if len(s) < 2:
return s
if s[0] == s[1]:
return remove(s[1:])
return s[0] + remove(s[1:])

s = input(“Enter a string: “)
print(remove(s))

50
Output:
aabbccdd
abcd

[Link] a program to display nth Fibonacci number using recursion

Code:

def fib(n):
p = [0] * (n + 1)
p[1] = 1

for i in range(2, n + 1):

p[i] = p[i - 1] + p[i - 2]

return p[n]

n = int(input("Enter a number: "))

print(fib(n))

Output:
n=5
5

51
 OOPS IN PYTHON

• Python is a light weight oop language.

• Without using a keyword called class, if we cant execute a program then it is
called as pure oop otherwise it is partial oop.
• Java is pure oop and coming to python it is a partial oop.

FUNCTION AND METHOD:

• When we use function inside a class is called method.

• When we use function outside the class is called function.

FEATURES OF OOPS IN PYTHON

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

1)Class:
Class is a blue print from which objects are created. Class contains data members to
store information and member functions to operate upon data members.
Syntax for class in python: class classname(super class name):

2)Object:
Object is an instances of a class. It is basically a real world implementation of the
class having all those property values which are define or structured in the class.
Syntax for object creation: object name = classname(parameters)

52
3)Encapuslation:
Acquiring properties from one class to another class, the class which gives
Inheritance is called super class or base class or parent class.
The class which gets inheritance is called sub class or derived or child class.

Types of Inheritance:
[Link] or simple Inheritance
[Link] inheritance
[Link] Inheritance
[Link] level Inheritance
[Link] or Multipath Inheritance

[Link] or simple Inheritance: One base class and one derived class .
[Link] inheritance: One derived class and two or more base classes.
[Link] Inheritance: One base class and two or more derived classes.
[Link] level Inheritance: One base class(A), one derived class(B) which in turn
serves as a base class for one more derived(C) class.
[Link] or Multipath Inheritance: Combination of two or more inheritance.

5)Polymorphism: One entity which is exhibited in many forms.

i)Compile time polymorphism: polymorphism which happens at the time of

compilation.
EX: Method overloading, method overriding, operator overloading.

ii)Runtime polymorphism: polymorphism which happens at run time

In python there is no run time polymorphism.

Self: Self is a memory variable, which stores the reference of the current calling
object.
Self is used to:
1)To access the class variable or members of the class inside the class.
2)To differentiate class variable and local variable if names are same.

53
eg:
Code

class A:
A = 78
B = 89

def disp(self, a, b):

print(self.A, self.B, a, b)

p = A()
[Link](24, 7)

Output:
78 89 24 7

➢ In class, there are two types of variables:

1)Class variable or static variable.

2)Instance variable.

1)Static variable: It is available through out the class.

2)Instance variable: The variables created or defined inside the constructor of the
class.

6)Methods:

There are 3 types of methods:

1)Instance method.
2)Class method.
3)Static method.

54
Instance method:

class A:
a = 78
b = 89

def disp(self):
self.a += 22
self.b += 12

p = A()
print(p.a, p.b)
[Link]()
print(p.a, p.b)

q = A()
print(q.a, q.b)

Class method:

class A:
a = 78
b = 89

@classmethod
def disp(cls):
cls.a += 22
cls.b += 12
p = A()
print(p.a, p.b)
[Link]()
print(p.a, p.b)
q = A()
print(q.a, q.b)

55
Static method:

Code:

class A:
a = 78
b = 89

@staticmethod
def disp():
A.a += 32
A.b += 12

p = A()
print(p.a, p.b)
[Link]()
print(p.a, p.b)

q = A()
print(q.a, q.b)

static method is same as class method it does not have any default positional
argument called self class method and static method can be called using object of
the class or class name also but not instance methods.

56
7)Constructor:

Constructor is a special method which is executed when we create object for the
class.
• The rule in java or c++ is constructor name is same as the classname and there
is no return type for constructor.
• In python __init__() is the constructor.

1)Default constructor: The constructor without any arguments other than self.

2)Parameterized constructor: The constructor with atleast one parameter other

than self.

eg: def SUM(a,b):

Return a+b
def SUM(a,b,c):
Return a+b+c
print(SUM(5,6,7))

NOTE:
i)In python, we cannot define multiple methods with same name (either constructors
also or functions also).

ii)We cannot define multiple constructors in the same class (only one constructor
will be executed).

57
 INHERITANCE

[Link] Inheritance: One super class gives inheritance to one sub class.

Example for Simple Inheritance:

Code:

class A:
def sound(self):
print("Sound")

class B(A):
def speed(self):
print("Speed")

b = B()
[Link]()
[Link]()

Output:
Sound
Speed

Uses of super():

• To access the super class constructor in sub class constructor.

• To access super class member inside the subclass constructor or method.
• To access super class method inside subclass constructor or method.

Super() also differentiates super class variable and class variable if names are same.
Like object is superclass of all classes In java,object in the super class of all classes
in python.

58
[Link] Inheritance: One derived class and two or more base classes.

Example For Multiple Inheritance:

Code:

class A:
def sound(self):
print("Sound")

class B:
def speed(self):
print("Speed")

class C(A, B):

def feature(self):
print("Feature")

c = C()
[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]()

Output:
Sound
Speed
Feature

59
[Link] Inheritance: One base class and two or more derived classes.

Example for Hierarchial Inheritance:

Code:

class A:
def sound(self):
print("Sound")

class B(A):
def speed(self):
print("Speed")

class C(A):
def feature(self):
print("Feature")

b = B()
c = C()

[Link]()
[Link]()

[Link]()
[Link]()

Output:
Sound
Speed
Sound
Feature

60
[Link]-level Inheritance: One base class(A), one derived class(B) which in turn
serves as a base class for one more derived(C) class.

Example for Multi-Level Inheritance:

Code:

class A:

def sound(self):
print("Sound")

class B(A):
def speed(self):
print("Speed")

class C(B):
def feature(self):
print("Feature")

c = C()
[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]()

Output:
Sound
Speed
Feature

61
Hybrid Inheritance: Combination of two or more inheritance.

Example for Hybrid Inheritance:

Code:

class A:
def sound(self):
print("Sound")

class B(A):
def speed(self):
print("Speed")

class C(A):
def feature(self):
print("Feature")

class D(B, C):

def extra(self):
print("Extra")
d = D()
[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]()

Output:
Sound
Speed
Feature
Extra

62
Method Overriding:
When a super class method’s name is same as the method name in sub class,
irrespective of the parameters subclass method will always override superclass
method.

Operator Overloading:
Allows you to define custom behavior for operators when they are used with user-
defined objects. This means you can extend the meaning of operators beyond their
predefined operational meaning. For example, the + operator can be used to add two
integers, concatenate two strings, or merge two lists.

Operator Overloading
Pre-defined method for
Operator
Overloading
+ __add__()
- __sub__()
* __mul__()
/ __truediv__()
// __floordiv__()
% __mod__()
** __pow__()
< __lt()__()
> __gt__()
<= __le__()
>= __ge__()
== __eq__()

63
!= __ne__()
& __and__()
| __or__()
^ __xor__()
<< __lshift__()
>> __rshift__()
~ __invert__()
+= __iadd()
-= __isub__()
*= __imul__()
/= __idiv__()
//= __ifloordiv__()
%= __imod__()
**= __imod__()
&= __iand__()
|= __ior__()
^= __ixor__()
_ __neg__()

64
Abstract class

An abstract class can be considered as a blueprint for other classes. It allows goes
to create a set of methods that must be created within any child classes built from
the abstract class. A class which contains one or more abstract methods is called an
abstract class, an abstract method is a method that has a declaration but does not
have an implementation while we are designing large functional units we use an
abstract class.

By defining an abstract base class, you can define a common application program
interface for a set of subclasses.

Code:

class A(ABC):
@abstract method
def disp(self):
print(‘hi’)
@abstract method
def show(self):
print(‘hello’)
class B(A):
def disp(self):
print(‘in subclass’)
def show(self):
print(‘ in show’)

P=B()
[Link]()
[Link]()

Output:
In subclass
In show

65
 Patterns programs in Python
1) Write a python program to print the given pattern.
*****
*****
*****
*****
*****

Code:

for x in range(1,6):
for y in range(1,6):
print(“*”, ends=””)
print()

2) Write a python program to print the given pattern.

11111
22222
33333
44444
55555

Code:

for x in range(1,6):
for y in range(1,6):
print(x,ends=””)
print()

66
3) Write a python program to print the given pattern.
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345

Code:

for x in range(1,6):
for y in range(1,6):
print(y, ends=””)
print()

4) Write a python program to print the given pattern.

ABCDE
ABCDE
ABCDE
ABCDE
ABCDE

Code:

for x in range(1,6):
for y in range(65,70):
print(chr(y),ends=””)
print()

67
5) Write a python program to print the given pattern.
AAAAA
BBBBB
CCCCC
DDDDD
EEEEE

Code:

for x in range(65,70):
for y in range(1,6);
print(chr(x),ends=””)
print()

6) Write a python program to print the given pattern.

55555
44444
33333
22222
11111

Code:

for x in range(5,0,-1):
for y in range(5,0,-1):
Print(x,ends=””)
Print()

68
7) Write a python program to print the given pattern.

EEEEE
DDDD
CCCC
BBBBB
AAAAA

Code:

for x in range(69,64,-1):
for y in range(1,6):
Print(chr(x),ends=””)
Print()

8) Write a python program to print the given pattern.

54321
54321
54321
54321

Code:

for x in range(5,0,-1):
for y in range(5,0,-1):
Print(x,ends=””)
Print()

69
70