Qualibytes Academy – Networking & DevOps Fundamentals

1. Internet & Network Basics

What is Internet and How It Works Globally

The Internet is a global network that interconnects millions of private, public,

academic, business, and government networks worldwide. It uses the standard
TCP/IP protocol suite to allow communication between different systems and
networks.

It enables users to send and receive information in the form of data packets using
interconnected network devices and infrastructure.

Key Characteristics:
• The Internet is decentralized and made up of numerous independent
networks.

• It relies on a system of routers, switches, and protocols to transmit data.

• Every device connected to the Internet is identified by a unique IP address.

Working Overview:

1. Devices connect to an Internet Service Provider (ISP).

2. Data packets are created and addressed with IP information.

3. Packets travel through multiple routers and switches.

4. Data can cross national boundaries via undersea optical fiber cables.

5. The target device receives and reconstructs the packet stream.

Submarine Optical Fiber Cables

Submarine cables are fiber optic cables laid beneath the sea to carry
telecommunication signals across continents. These are the backbone of
international Internet traffic.
Key Points:

• Made up of bundled glass fibers that transmit light pulses.

• Typically owned and maintained by telecom companies or global consortiums.
 • Protected by multiple layers of armor and waterproofing.

• Can span thousands of kilometers under oceans and seas.

Purpose:

• Enable long-distance communication with low latency.

• Provide global Internet and voice call connectivity.

Submarine Cable Map

Submarine cable maps visualize the global network of undersea cables connecting
different countries and continents.

What It Shows:

• Locations of active and planned submarine cables.

• Landing stations where cables connect to land-based infrastructure.

• Bandwidth capacity and owners/operators of each cable.

Tools to Explore:

• TeleGeography Submarine Cable Map: [Link]

Data Travel Example (UK/US to India via Ocean Cable)

Let’s consider how data travels when a person in the UK sends a message to a
server in India:

1. The message is broken into packets.

2. It travels from the sender’s device to the nearest ISP router.

3. From there, it is routed through multiple regional routers.

4. The packets are transmitted via submarine optical fiber cable across the
ocean.
5. They enter India through a landing station and reach the Indian ISP.

6. Finally, the data is delivered to the destination server or device.

This entire process happens in milliseconds and is automatically managed by routing

protocols.
Real-Life Data Travel Journey

Example Scenario: Sending a WhatsApp message from the UK to a friend in India.

Step-by-step journey:
1. Your phone connects to Wi-Fi or mobile data and sends the message to
WhatsApp’s UK/European server.

2. The message is processed and forwarded to an Indian server.

3. This transfer may happen over a submarine cable like FLAG Europe-Asia.

4. The server in India pushes the message to your friend’s device via their local
ISP.

Thus, a simple message takes a highly complex but optimized journey.

Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 3 Network Providers

The global Internet is supported by different levels of providers based on their

network ownership and services offered:

Tier 1 Providers:

• Own large-scale global infrastructure.

• Can connect to every other network without paying for IP transit.

• Examples: Tata Communications, Level 3, NTT, AT&T.

Tier 2 Providers:

• Purchase Internet transit from Tier 1 providers.

• Have a mix of their own infrastructure and leased access.

• Examples: Airtel, Vodafone, Comcast.

Tier 3 Providers:

• Directly serve end users (home/office broadband).

• Lease bandwidth from Tier 2 providers.

• Examples: Local ISPs in cities and towns.
Types of Networks – PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN

Computer networks are classified based on their range and purpose:

PAN (Personal Area Network):

• Smallest range (typically 10 meters).

• Used to connect personal devices.

• Example: Bluetooth between a phone and wireless earphones.

LAN (Local Area Network):

• Covers a single building or campus.

• Connects computers, printers, and servers.

• Example: Office or school network.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

• Spans an entire city or metropolitan area.

• Example: City-wide cable network for universities and hospitals.

WAN (Wide Area Network):

• Covers multiple countries or continents.

• Example: The Internet itself.

2. Network Models

OSI Model – 7 Layers (Bottom to Top)

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to

understand and implement network communications in seven distinct layers.

Layers (from bottom to top):

1. Physical Layer:

o Concerned with transmission of raw bits over a physical medium

(cables, radio frequencies).

o Examples: Ethernet cables, hubs, fiber optics.

2. Data Link Layer:

o Ensures reliable transmission of data across the physical link using

MAC addressing.
o Handles error detection/correction and flow control.

o Examples: Switches, MAC addresses, PPP.

3. Network Layer:

o Responsible for routing data packets between devices across

networks.

o Uses logical addressing (IP addresses).

o Examples: Routers, IPv4, IPv6.

4. Transport Layer:

o Manages end-to-end communication, segmentation, and error

recovery.

o Protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (unreliable).

5. Session Layer:
o Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications.

o Ensures ongoing communication is maintained efficiently.

6. Presentation Layer:

o Translates data formats between applications.

o Handles encryption, compression, and serialization.

7. Application Layer:
o Closest to the end user.
 o Provides network services to applications.

o Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.

OSI Model Categorization

OSI Layers can also be grouped logically for easier understanding:

• Application-Oriented Layers (5–7): Interface between application and

network.
• Transport Layer (4): Provides logical communication.

• Network Access Layers (1–3): Deal with data transmission across networks.

TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model is a four-layered architecture used practically in real-world

networking. It maps to the OSI model but with fewer layers.

Layers:
1. Application Layer:

o Corresponds to OSI layers 5–7.

o Includes protocols like HTTP, FTP, DNS, SMTP.

2. Transport Layer:

o Corresponds to OSI layer 4.

o Manages delivery using TCP and UDP.

3. Internet Layer:

o Maps to OSI Network Layer (Layer 3).

o Responsible for addressing and routing using IP.

4. Network Access Layer (or Link Layer):

o Combines OSI's Physical and Data Link layers.

o Includes Ethernet, Wi-Fi protocols.

Mapping OSI to TCP/IP

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Application Application

Presentation Application

Session Application

Transport Transport

Network Internet

Data Link Network Access

Physical Network Access

This mapping helps relate theoretical and practical implementations of networking

models.

3. Protocols & Communication

What is TCP/IP

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It is the

foundational suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices
on the Internet.

Key Features:

• Provides end-to-end connectivity and reliable data transmission.

• Ensures that data sent from one device is received accurately by another.

• Divided into layers (Application, Transport, Internet, and Network Access).

Use Case Example:

• When a user accesses a website, TCP ensures reliable delivery of web pages
from the server to the browser.

What are Protocols (HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, IP, TCP, UDP)

A protocol is a set of rules that define how data is formatted and transmitted between
devices in a network.

Common Protocols:
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used to load web pages (Port 80).
 • HTTPS (HTTP Secure): Secure version of HTTP using encryption (Port 443).

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used to transfer files over a network (Ports 20,
21).

• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used to send emails (Port 25).

• IP (Internet Protocol): Provides addressing for data routing.

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable, ordered delivery.

• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Offers faster, connectionless data transfer

without guarantees.

Why Protocols are Important for DevOps

Protocols are critical in DevOps for configuring infrastructure, deploying services,

securing communications, and managing traffic.
Applications in DevOps:

• Automating deployment over SSH.

• Monitoring applications using HTTP APIs.

• Using HTTPS for secure CI/CD tool communication.

• Routing and port mapping with TCP/IP knowledge.

Ports & Their Purpose (22, 80, 443, etc.)

Ports are logical endpoints in a network used to differentiate multiple services
running on the same device.

Port Number Protocol/Service Purpose

22 SSH Remote secure login

80 HTTP Web traffic (unencrypted)

443 HTTPS Secure web traffic

21, 20 FTP File transfers (control, data)

25 SMTP Email sending

53 DNS Domain resolution

HTTP, HTTPS, SSH + Ports

HTTP (Port 80): Used by browsers to access websites.

HTTPS (Port 443): Encrypted communication using SSL/TLS.

• Protects against interception and tampering.

• Used in secure logins, banking, e-commerce.

SSH (Port 22): Secure Shell used to connect to remote servers.

• Essential for DevOps tasks like provisioning, updates, logs.

• Allows execution of commands securely over an unsecured network.

Firewall, Protocols, and Ports

A firewall is a security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on predetermined rules.

Functionality:

• Blocks unwanted access while allowing permitted traffic.

• Uses rules based on IP addresses, protocols, and port numbers.

Example:

• Allowing only Port 22 and 443 to a production server for secure SSH and
HTTPS traffic.

HTTPS: How It Makes Websites Secure

HTTPS ensures secure communication between client and server using encryption.

Security Features:

• Encrypts data during transmission (prevents data theft).

• Uses SSL/TLS certificates issued by Certificate Authorities.

• Protects against man-in-the-middle and phishing attacks.

Visual Indicator:

• A padlock icon in the browser address bar confirms HTTPS is active.

4. IP Addressing & Device Identity

What is IP Protocol

The Internet Protocol (IP) is responsible for addressing and routing packets of data
so they can travel across networks and arrive at the correct destination.

Key Points:

• Every device on a network is assigned a unique IP address.

• IP operates at the Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.

• Common versions: IPv4 and IPv6.

Functions:

• Addressing: Identifying sender and receiver devices.

• Routing: Forwarding packets based on destination IP address.

IPv4 vs IPv6

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Address Length 32-bit 128-bit

Format Decimal (e.g., Hexadecimal (e.g., [Link])

[Link])

Address Capacity ~4.3 billion addresses ~340 undecillion addresses (36

zeros)

Header Less complex More complex

Complexity

Adoption Widely used Growing adoption

IPv6 was introduced to address the exhaustion of IPv4 addresses and improve
routing efficiency and security.
What is Subnet / Subnetting

Subnetting is the process of dividing a large IP network into smaller, more

manageable segments called subnets.

Benefits:

• Reduces broadcast traffic.

• Improves network performance and management.

• Enhances security by isolating network segments.

Example:

• A company with IP range [Link]/24 can create:

o [Link]/26 → Subnet 1 (64 IPs)

o [Link]/26 → Subnet 2 (64 IPs), etc.

IP Address vs MAC Address

Characteristic IP Address MAC Address

Definition Logical address assigned by Physical address assigned to

network NIC

Layer Network Layer (Layer 3) Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

Changeability Can change (dynamic/static) Fixed (burned into hardware)

Format IPv4: Decimal; IPv6: Hex Hexadecimal (e.g.,

[Link])

Usage Routing across networks Local communication within

network
What is MAC Address and How It Works

A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique identifier assigned to a device's

network interface card (NIC).

Characteristics:

• 48-bit address, represented in hexadecimal format.

• Example: [Link]

• Operates within the same local network (LAN).

Working:

• When a device sends data, the switch uses the MAC address to forward it to
the correct device within the LAN.

• MAC addresses are used in ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) to map IP

addresses to hardware addresses.

5. Networking Hardware

What is a Router

A router is a network device that connects two or more networks together and directs
data packets between them based on IP addressing.

Functions:

• Connects LANs to WANs, including the Internet.

• Performs routing using IP addresses.

• Implements NAT (Network Address Translation) to allow multiple devices to
share a single public IP.

• Assigns IP addresses using DHCP.

Real-World Use:

• A home router connects personal devices to the internet.

• In enterprises, routers manage complex traffic between office branches.

What is a Switch

A switch is a network device used within a LAN to connect multiple devices and
enable communication between them using MAC addresses.
Functions:

• Operates at Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of OSI model.

• Uses MAC address table to forward data only to the intended device.

• Minimizes network traffic and improves efficiency.

Layer 3 Switches:

• Capable of routing based on IP addresses.

• Useful in VLAN and inter-networking scenarios.

Router vs Switch

Feature Router Switch

OSI Layer Layer 3 (Network) Layer 2 (Data Link), some

Layer 3

Address Used IP Address MAC Address

Device Role Connects multiple networks Connects devices within a

LAN

Internet Yes No
Connection

Broadcast Breaks broadcast domains Maintains single broadcast

Domain domain

Default Gateway Acts as a gateway to the No gateway role

internet

6. Servers & Cloud

What is a Server

A server is a system or device that provides services, data, or resources to other

devices (clients) over a network.

Functions:

• Hosts websites, files, databases, and applications.

• Responds to client requests (e.g., via web browsers).

Examples:

• Web Server (Apache, Nginx)

• File Server (Samba, FTP)

• Database Server (MySQL, PostgreSQL)

What is On-Premise vs Cloud Server

On-Premise Server:

• Located and maintained within the physical premises of the organization.

• Managed internally by IT teams.

• Higher control and customization but more maintenance and upfront cost.

Cloud Server:

• Hosted on remote data centers maintained by cloud providers.

• Pay-as-you-go model.

• Highly scalable, accessible from anywhere.

Examples of Cloud Providers

• AWS (Amazon Web Services) – Most widely adopted cloud platform.

• Microsoft Azure – Popular for enterprise-grade solutions.

• Google Cloud Platform (GCP) – Known for data analytics and AI integration.
• Linode, DigitalOcean – Developer-friendly, affordable VPS hosting.
Who Uses Cloud and Who Uses On-Premise

Type of Use Cloud On-Premise

Startups Quick scaling and low cost Rarely used

Enterprises Hybrid: Cloud for scale, on- Used for legacy systems,
prem for control compliance

Freelancers/Devs Cloud (AWS Free Tier, Not practical

DigitalOcean, etc.)

Government Often prefer on-prem due to Common

security

What is Server Room & Data Center

Server Room:

• A dedicated room within a building where on-premise servers are kept.

• Includes basic cooling, racks, power backup, and limited security.

Data Center:

• Large facility housing thousands of servers and networking equipment.

• Managed by professionals with high-grade cooling, fire protection, physical

and digital security.

• Used by cloud providers to run their global services.

7. AWS & DevOps Basics

AWS Account Creation and Region Selection

To use Amazon Web Services (AWS), you must first create an AWS account and
choose an appropriate region.

Steps to Create AWS Account:

1. Go to [Link]
2. Click on "Create an AWS Account"

3. Enter email, password, and contact details

4. Add credit/debit card details for identity verification

5. Choose support plan (Free Tier available)

Region Selection:
 • AWS has multiple geographic regions (e.g., us-east-1, ap-south-1)

• Choose a region close to your target users for reduced latency

• Example: Choose Mumbai (ap-south-1) for Indian users

What is EC2 Instance (in AWS, Azure, GCP)

EC2 (Elastic Compute Cloud) is Amazon’s virtual server used to run applications in
the cloud.
Features:

• You can select OS (Linux, Windows), CPU, memory, storage

• Control instance lifecycle: Start, Stop, Reboot, Terminate

• Accessible remotely via SSH or RDP

Similar Services in Other Clouds:

• Azure: Virtual Machines

• GCP: Compute Engine

Example Instance:

• [Link] (Free Tier): 1 vCPU, 1 GB RAM, suitable for learning/dev

How to Launch Ubuntu [Link] EC2 Instance

1. Login to AWS Console → Go to EC2

2. Click “Launch Instance”

3. Choose Ubuntu AMI (e.g., Ubuntu Server 22.04 LTS)

4. Select instance type: [Link]
5. Configure instance details (optional)

6. Add storage and tags

7. Configure Security Group:

o Allow SSH (port 22)

o Allow HTTP/HTTPS if required

8. Launch and download key pair (.pem file)
9. Use SSH to connect: ssh -i [Link] ubuntu@<public-ip>
What is Operating System (Types of OS)

An Operating System (OS) is software that manages hardware and provides

services for applications.

Types of OS:

• Linux (Ubuntu, CentOS): Open-source, commonly used in servers

• Windows Server: GUI-based, used in enterprises

• MacOS: Used on Apple hardware, mostly client-side

• Real-Time OS: Used in embedded systems, robotics

DevOps Use Case: Linux is the preferred OS due to CLI support, automation, and
open-source tools.

Client vs Server Architecture

In networking, the client-server architecture is a model that divides computing tasks

between service requesters (clients) and service providers (servers). This structure is
foundational to modern web services, applications, and system design.

Client:

• A client is a system or device that initiates communication by sending a

request for a specific service or resource.

• Clients do not share any of their resources but request content or services
from the server.

• Examples: Web browser, mobile app, FTP client.

Server:

• A server is a system that listens for incoming client requests and provides
appropriate responses or services.

• Servers are always ready to handle requests from multiple clients

simultaneously.

• Examples: Web server, database server, file server.

Example Scenario:

• A user opens a browser and types [Link].

• The browser (client) sends a request to Google’s servers.

• Google’s server processes the request and sends back the web page content.
Architecture Models

1-Tier Architecture:

• All processing is done on a single machine.

• No distinction between client and server.

• Example: A desktop application like MS Excel.

2-Tier Architecture:

• Direct communication between client and server.

• The client handles UI; the server handles the database and logic.

• Example: A desktop app connected directly to a SQL database.

3-Tier Architecture:

• Separation into three layers: client, application server, and database server.
• Enhances scalability, security, and maintainability.

• Example: A web application where:

o Browser (Client) → Web Server (Application Layer) → MySQL

(Database Layer)

This tiered architecture is the most common in enterprise and cloud-based

application design.