Automatic Control

Lecture (2)
An Introduction to
Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical and Electrical Systems

Computers and Automatic Control Department

Assistant Professor Isam Asaad
References
• Modern Control Systems, Richard C. Dorf and Robert H. Bishop, Prentice
Hall, 12th edition, 2010, ISBN-10: 0-13-602458-0
• Modelling, Dynamics and Control, University of Sheffield,
John Anthony Rossiter.
• Control Systems Course, professor Aniket Khandekar, Zeal college
of engineering and Research, Pune.

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Goals and Objectives:
• The lecture focuses on mathematical models of physical systems.
• After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe a physical system using differential equations.
• Understand how these equations are derived based on physical laws
governing the system.
• Recognize the significance of deriving mathematical models in control
systems analysis.

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Mathematical Models of Systems Objectives:
• Control systems rely on quantitative mathematical models of physical
systems.
• These models describe dynamic behavior with ordinary differential
equations, covering various systems such as mechanical, hydraulic, and
electrical.
• To handle the inherent nonlinearity of most physical systems, we may use
linearization approximations, then we will use Laplace transform methods
to get a transfer function.
• Transfer functions are introduced to represent the input-output
relationships of components and subsystems and are typically organized
into block diagrams or signal-flow graphs for graphical analysis.

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Mathematical Model in Control Engineering:
• The creation of a mathematical model is a fundamental task in control
engineering for analysis and design.
• A mathematical model is a set of differential equations that
accurately represents a dynamic system's behavior.
• Note that there can be multiple mathematical models for the same
system, depending on the context.

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Controller design procedure (preview)
Disturbance
Ref. Output
Controller Actuator Input plant

Sensor

4. Implemenation 1. Modeling
Controller Mathematical model
2. Analysis
3. Design

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Mathematical model
• Representation of the input-output (signal) relation of a physical system

Input
Physical Output
system
Modeling

Model

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 Laplace
Transform
Properties

[Link] 9
TRANSFER FUNCTION
❑ Transfer functions are commonly used to characterize the input—output
relationships of components or systems that can be described by linear,
time-invariant, differential equations.
❑ The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation
system is defined as “the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
(response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving
under the assumption
function) that all initial
conditions are zero”.

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 TRANSFER FUNCTION

❑ The general form of the differential equation for LTI-System is given by

(𝒏) (𝒏−𝟏) (𝒎) (𝒎−𝟏)
𝒂𝟎 ⌃
𝒚 + 𝒂𝟏 ⌃
𝒚 + … + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒚˙ + 𝒂𝒏 𝒚 = 𝒃𝟎 ⌃
𝒙 + 𝒃𝟏 ⌃
𝒙 + … + 𝒃𝒎−𝟏 𝒙˙ + 𝒃𝒎 𝒙
Time
domain
❑ where y is the system output and x is the input of the System model
❑The transfer function of this system is obtained by taking the Laplace
transforms of both sides of Equation (under the assumption that all initial
conditions are zero).

𝑎0 𝑆 𝑛 𝑌 (𝑠)+ ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑆1 𝑌 (𝑠)+ 𝑎𝑛 𝑌(𝑠)= 𝑏0 𝑆 𝒎 𝑿(𝑠) + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚 −1 𝑆 𝟏 𝑿(𝑠) + 𝑏𝑚 𝑿(𝒔)

Then: [𝑎 0 𝑆 𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑆1 + 𝑎𝑛] 𝑌 (𝑠) = [𝑏0𝑆𝒎 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚−1𝑆𝟏 + 𝑏𝑚] 𝑿(𝒔)
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TRANSFER FUNCTION
❑ Then the transfer function is

𝑳𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑮 𝒔 =
𝑳𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒁𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑏0 𝑆 𝒎 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚 −1 𝑆 𝟏 + 𝑏𝑚
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑋(𝑠) 𝑎0 𝑆 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑆 𝑛 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑆 1 + 𝑎𝑛

❑ Poles: are roots of the denominator (Values of s such that transfer

function becomes infinite)
❑ Zeros: are roots of the numerator (Values of s such that transfer
function becomes 0)
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Why do we need LAPLACE transform?

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Transfer function (Conclusion):
1. The transfer function of a system is a mathematical model in that it is an operational
method of expressing the differential equation that relates the output variable to the input
variable.
2. The transfer function is a property of a system itself, independent of the magnitude and
nature of the input or driving function.
3. The transfer function includes the units necessary to relate the input to the output;
however, it does not provide any information concerning the physical structure of the
system (The transfer functions of many physically different systems can be identical).
4. If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response can be studied for
various forms of inputs with a view toward understanding the nature of the system.
5. If the transfer function of a system is unknown, it may be established experimentally by
introducing known inputs and studying the output of the system. Once established, a
transfer function gives a full description of the dynamic characteristics of the system, as
distinct from its physical description.

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Modeling methods
Analytic method
• According to
A. Newton's Law of Motion
B. Law of Kirchhoff
C. System structure and parameters
The mathematical expression of system input and output can be derived.
• Thus, we build the mathematical model (suitable for simple systems).

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Modeling methods
•System identification method
• Building the system model based on the system input-output signal.
• This method is usually applied when there is little information available for
the system.
Neural Networks,
Fuzzy Systems

• Black box: the system is totally unknown.

• Grey box: the system is partially known.

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Why Focus on Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) System
What is linear system?
-A system is called linear if the principle of superposition applies.

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Why Focus on Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) System

Advantages of linear systems:

The overall response of a linear system can be obtained by
-- decomposing the input into a sum of elementary signals
-- figuring out each response to the respective elementary signal
-- adding all these responses together.

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Models of system components
Subsystem types found in controls systems

Motors, Solenoids, Transducers,

Electrical Control Electronics

Mechanical Control Valves, Gear Boxes, Linkages

Liquid Flow
Piping , Tanks, Pumps, Compressors,
Filters
Gas Flow

Heating Elements, Heat Exchangers,

Thermal Insulation,

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Models of system components
Systems’ behavior defined by component
characteristics

Example: electrical components

Resistance Voltage

Capacitance Current

Inductance Charge

Delay

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Models of system components
Systems’ behavior defined by component
characteristics

Example: Mechanical Systems

• Translational
• Linear Motion

• Rotational
• Rotational Motion

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Modelling basics:
6

1. Awareness that many 5

components can be modelled 4

by simple linear equations of 2

Output
1

the same structure. 0

-1

2. Same mathematical structure -2

implies analogous behaviour -3

-4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

so understanding one means Input

understanding all!
3. Learn governing equations
and models for some key
engineering components.

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Describing Differential Equations for Translation
Mechanical Elements Using Laplace
Transform

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 Common Uses of mechanical components
Door Stoppers Heavy Duty Mechanical Scale with Dashpot
Vehicle Suspension

Bridge Suspension Shocks in a vehicle

Flyover Suspension
Describing Differential Equations for Electrical and
Electronic Elements

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27
Numerical Examples

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Example1
Determine the differential equation and transfer function

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Example2
Determine the differential equation and transfer function

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Example2 (continued)
Determine the differential equation and transfer function

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Example3 (Lead Compensator)
Determine the D.E. and T.F.

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Example4 (Lag Compensator)
Determine the D.E. and T.F.

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Free Body Diagram (FBD):
• The free body diagram helps in visualizing the forces acting
on the mass.
• Case study: spring-mass-damper system.
1. External Force (f):
• The external force f acts directly on the mass. It's the "driving force" that initiates the
system's motion.
• This force is responsible for the mass's acceleration.

2. Internal Forces:
• Inertia (m*𝒙ሷ ): This is the force due to the mass's inertia (resistance to change in
motion). The mass resists acceleration.
• Spring Force (k*x): The spring exerts a force proportional to its deformation (the change
in length). This force always acts opposite the direction of deformation.
• Damping Force (b 𝒙): ሶ The damper opposes the mass's velocity ( 𝒙). ሶ This force is
proportional to the velocity and acts in the opposite direction.
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Example5
Determine the D.E. and T.F.

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Example6
Determine the D.E. and T.F.

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Example6
Determine the D.E. and T.F.

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Example6
Determine the D.E. and T.F.

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Example7
Determine the D.E. and T.F.

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Example8
Determine the D.E. and T.F.

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EX. Airbag and accelerometer
• Tiny MEMS accelerometer
• Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)

(Pictures from various websites) 41

EX. RC Circuit Model of the Membrane
• Basic model of membrane of a neuron:

Membrane

Neuron (Cell) Body

Or Equivalently:

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EX. Human Body

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Ex: Mechanical accelerometer

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 Example
• Restaurant plate dispenser

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Example: Automobile Suspension

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Automobile Suspension

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Automobile suspension system
automobile M1
x1(t)
suspension K1 B

wheel M2
x2(t)
f(t)
tire K2

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Example: Train Suspension

Car Body
Bogie-2
Bogie-1
Secondary

Suspension
Bogie

Frame
Primary
Wheelsets
Suspension

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