Olivier Le Diouris

Sailing without electricity

The attire of esteem

Navigation calculations
Coastal navigation
Offshore navigation
Astronomical navigation

This is not archaeology.

This is a pragmatic approach.
-2-
 For Sky

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 Table

OBJECTIVES, BY WAY OF PREFACE...........................................................7

Rehabilitate dead reckoning navigation...........................................................7

INSTRUMENTS..........................................................................................9

Loch

Compass

Maps, protractors, dry points........................................................11

Maps.................................................................11
Reporters and others.............................................................................11
Dry points.......................................................................................12

Measuring time....................................................................................13

Fox

Logbook...........................................................................................14

Sextant...................................................................................................15

Tables, Abacuses, Almanacs...................................................................17

Unfeasible calculations on board........................................................................18
Calculations that can be done on board.......................................................18
A small note: the calculation rules..........................................................18

Paper, crayons, little lamps.......................................................................18

DRESS OF ESTIME................................................................................20

Explanation of the quantities between the compass heading and the ground course.............21
Deviation of the Compass..............................................................21
Magnetic Declination.......................................................22
Derive.................................................................23
Current

RECALL THE ESTIMATE..................................................................................26

Point by surveys.............................................................................26
Alignments..........................................................................................27

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Bearing of a single landmark..........................................................28

Point by probe........................................................................29

Point by capable arcs...........................................................................30

Astronomical point.................................................................................32

Tidal calculations.....................................................................................32
Calculation of water height.......................................................................32

Weather forecasts....................................................................34

ASTRONOMICAL NAVIGATION...............................................................35

Point by meridian height.................................................................37

Latitude by meridian height, in theory..............................................38
Longitude by meridian height, in theory............................................39
Latitude by meridional height, in practice.............................................40
Longitude by meridian height, in practice..........................................42

Point by straight line(s) of height................................................................44

Principle................................................................................................45
In practice...........................................................................................51
With logarithm tables................................................................53
With navigation tables..................................................................71
HO.249, and the others.............................................................................83
Sprain: with a dedicated calculator.........................................................84
Use of computers..........................................................................84
A comment....................................................................................85

TECHNIQUES AND OLD COMBINATIONS.....................................................86

Constant latitude..................................................................................86

Kamal

Lunar Distances.................................................................87

APPENDICES...........................................................................................90

Resolution of triangles.............................................................91

Capable arcs..........................................................................................92

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Mercator and Increasing Latitude..............................................................94

Equation of time..................................................................................96

Simplified use of logarithm tables......................................98

Correction height tables........................................................103

Ephemeris of October 8 and 9, 2009...................................................105

Tables of Dieumegard.................................................................108

Battle Tables..................................................................................108

Links.................................................................108

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Objectives, as a preface
It is about being able to continue navigating calmly – knowing where we are,
to know where we are going, and to know what to do to get to where we want to go –
even when the batteries are dead and the cells are empty.
And even if it is night, that we are nearby, that the weather keeps repeating that there is a warning.
of a gust of wind (which we don't hear, since the batteries are dead, I said),
that it will soon snow, and that everyone is feeling nauseous.

It is obviously pure fiction, but we have the right to believe in it, and we do.
believe!

The world was discovered by sailing, without electricity, the techniques to be implemented
the works are all the better known as they were for a long time the only ones
available. One of the objectives of this document is also to preserve them, not to
let them be forgotten, not to lose them, it would really be too stupid.
Especially since safety at sea - like elsewhere - is completely beyond fashion.
and to the news.

We will discuss tools and techniques that allow them to be implemented.

works, both in terms of their use and the way to exploit them
data that they measure.

On the other hand, we will quickly go over how to use a compass.

Elevation, we will hardly talk about how to use a sextant... this
the document is more of a reminder on how to perform the various
calculations resulting from the use of navigation instruments.

This document does not claim to be a navigation course.

It's at most a reminder.

Rehabilitate dead reckoning navigation

Before having electronic navigation aids, we navigated by estimation.
The principle of dead reckoning navigation is as follows:
We start from a known point, and we try to take into account all the factors that
they displace the ship, such as its speed and heading, its drift, the current, etc.
This allows for an estimated position to be obtained at any time.
Whenever possible, we recalibrate our estimate by taking a point.
depending on where we are, namely in view or out of sight of the coasts,
The point methods will be different and discussed further in this.
document.

7
To make it short, the key to a correct self-esteem lies in two points:
• The knowledge of the factors that move the boat.
• The quality of the points we make to reset the estimate.

To maintain one's self-esteem, one must be able to:

• Measure the road (its direction)
• Measure the distance traveled

To measure the distance traveled, the speed of the boat has long been measured,
and calculated the distance traveled based on the time spent at a given speed, this
which also involves being able to measure time.

We will see – especially in the section dedicated to celestial navigation – that

the measure of time is a critical and important issue, but not so much for the
self-esteem, just to push her away.

Navigation instruments can be divided into several categories:

• The maps and the associated tools
◦ cards
◦ canvas
◦ rapporteurs
◦ drypoints
• The instruments necessary to measure the road
◦ compass
◦ lakes
◦ tidal and current tables
• The instruments necessary to measure time
◦ hourglasses
◦ watches & chronometers
• The necessary instruments to recalibrate the estimate
◦ bearing compass
◦ sextant
◦ ephemerides, tables and abacuses

8
Instruments
Nothing new here. All the instruments mentioned here have been known for a hundred years.
And even more. Some can be built with limited resources.
Others do not. It remains probably interesting to mention from
What instruments are we talking about? Let's go.

Loch
Boat lock, fish lock.

The role of the loch is not so much to evaluate

the speed of the boat, than the distance
that he traveled.

Etymology of the word 'loch'.

Here is a supposed origin - and
plausible - from the word 'loch', which one
pronounce 'lok'. It would come from the
the English word 'log', which means
log The browser
had refined a log to the
a ship's hold, and dropped it at
the bow of the boat. Then,
walking on the bridge backwards
following the log that floats the
long of the edge, counting the
seconds while walking (a...
two..., three...), he knew in
arriving at the back the time that the
log had set out to travel the
length of the boat, that it
knew. A simple rule-of-
three allowed to know
the speed of the boat, given
essential to the maintenance of esteem.
This important data was
recorded in the 'Log Book'
as it is called the Book of
board in English.

The boat lock is a log, a little

more elaborate. It is mainly made of

9
from a wooden plank – it is the boat, the one called the boat of the loch -
to which a line is tied by a fork, so that it floats.
vertically.
The line has nodes at regular intervals of 15.43 meters. It is in
general rolled onto a reel. The principle of operation is as follows: one
wet the loch at the same time as we turn over a 30-second hourglass, and we
let the line from its reel run until the hourglass has run out, after which
We count the nodes that have passed into the water, and we bring everything back on board.
30 seconds make up [Link] of an hour, 15.43 meters at 120eparty
of a nautical mile.
This is how one 'makes five and a half knots', and not that one 'goes at five'
thousand and a half per hour.
We've all heard 'five knots an hour'. No comment!

The fish trap is a more sophisticated mechanical instrument that presents this
advantage of tracking the distance traveled.

Compass
Probably invented in China. This is what people on Earth call a compass.
We use navigational compasses and bearing compasses.
The course compass is mounted on the boat and aligned with the 'line of faith'.
The bearing compass is held in the hand.
Magnetic compasses are based on the Earth's magnetic field. They
indicate north1magnetic, that moves with time, and that is not
located in the same place as geographic north, which is that of the maps.
The heading compass is subject to two corrections to restore the true heading (heading
geographical), the one that is expressed in relation to the north of the map. We will see this at
subject the sectionTeeast of esteem.
The bearing compass is used to determine the angle made by a landmark as seen from the
boat with the magnetic north. The deviation correction is not applied
in the bearing compass, it is sometimes wrongly assumed that it is not subject to
magnetic masses that cause the deviation applied to the magnetic compass.
The boats - generally ships - for which this is false use rather a
circle of deposits. The deposit is the angle made by a landmark with the axis of
boat. We will have the bearing of the landmark by taking into account the heading of the boat, and
the corrections (declination and deviation) that are required.
Gyroscopic compasses are not subject to this kind of phenomenon.
magnetic, but they consume a lot of energy.
The compasses were once divided into 32.2equal parts called "quarters";
They are now graduated in degrees, from 0° to 360°, in the clockwise direction.

1 Unlike the Chinese compass, which points south.

The Chinese compass is divided into 24 parts.

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from a watch, north at 0°, east at 90°, south at 180° and west at 270°.

Maps, protractors, dry points

Maps
The map is the most important of all navigation instruments.
Many software applications now provide electronic maps.
Paper maps have the disadvantage of being expensive and fragile.
They nonetheless have the undeniable advantage of never falling into
breakdown.

Reporters and others

Provided that we know what we want to measure in terms of angle, the most
A simple protractor will be sufficient, provided that it is graduated in degrees.
Some, more elaborate, will be more practical. Others, more sophisticated, will be
superfluous.
The Anglo-Saxons use 'parallel rules', others use straightedges, more
or less elaborate. There is no need to argue, but the parallel rules are
pretend it is difficult to measure an angle with a protractor...
Similarly, among those who use protractors, we see
frequently emerge crowds of elaborate accessories that spin,
sneak and roll, to address users who do not know what
it's just the angle they measure.
One must know what we are measuring, which is why - I said - a protractor is
sufficiently ample. The 'Cras Rule' is its most elaborate avatar, and provides
all the features one can expect from such a tool.

The so-called research in this field is futile, the cornerstone is the

user skills. Instead of trying to invent new
reporters, it seems more wise to learn to use those that exist.
It is only a matter of measuring angles, in degrees, ranging from zero to three hundred.
sixty. If we hold the card3correctly, the 0 and 360 are at the top, 90 at

3 There are cards for which this is not true. I know.

11
right, 180 at the bottom, and 270 to the left.

The one who seeks to measure an angle that starts from the bottom left of the map and goes
up to the right, and finding something like 210 present at least
one of the following pathologies:
• He is holding the card upside down.
• He does not know what he is measuring.
• He doesn't know what he's doing

In addition, the parallel rules ruin the maps, and are less accurate than the
rapporteurs.

Dry points

The dry point compass is used to transfer

distances, from the map on the scale of distances, and
vice versa. It is good to have a model
maneuverable with one hand, to open it like
to close it.

Regarding distances, the nautical mile is used because

that it is defined as being the representation of a
arc minute taken at the center of the Earth, and projected to
on the surface (it is therefore strictly speaking an angle, and not a distance4All
the meridians are the same length, unlike the parallels. Therefore, we will measure
the distances on the meridians, namely on the vertical sides5from the map.

Depending on the projection used on the map (Mercator, Lambert, Gnomonic,

etc), the scales differ. On a Mercator map - for example - the unit of
longitude expands with latitude. The higher the latitude, the more the
The representation of a given angle is large, to the point that it is infinite at the pole.
It is therefore appropriate in this case to refer to the scale of distances at a latitude
neighboring the location where the distance to be measured is located. See in this regard the section
Mercator and Increasing Latitude.

In submarine films, where floods trigger fires,

And in fact, the length of the nautical mile varies between 1843 meters (at the equator) and 1862 meters (at the pole),
depending on the diameter of the Earth, which is not perfectly spherical.
5 When it comes to a Mercator projection, which is orthogonal, unlike projections
of Lambert, gnomonic and others.

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we see the navigators making with the drypoints figures that resemble
In figure skating, I have absolutely no idea what they can possibly be.
to do...

Measuring time
Sand timers, stopwatches, precision required.
It is the most sensitive point offshore, which has always posed the biggest
problem; which persists in our case, that is navigating without electricity.

In view of the coast, an alarm clock or a watch is enough. It is necessary to have the time.
to consult the tide tables, and for the maintenance of the estimate. The accuracy of
a minute – or even a few minutes – is enough, and we can expect it from the
watch that we use every day.

At sea, we only have estimation and astronomical navigation to

to have a point. Precision becomes crucial here, four seconds of error on the
chronometer translates to a one-minute longitude error (namely
a thousand at the equator). It's enormous, and it goes fast.
They existed until 1907 (the date when they ceased to be published) of
tables enabling the adjustment of timers by measuring - when it was
possible – the distance from the moon to the sun with the
sextant. These tables are no longer published,
but the calculations that allow them to
they are always known6It is there
that computer science can prove to be a tool
precious, we can publish these tables beforehand.
to leave, on the same terms as the
almanacs and ephemerides. One finds there
will return in more detail.

Fox
The fox is a wooden instrument,
used for maintaining self-esteem.
In the figure, one can see a rose of
compass, divided into thirty-two quarters (the
what is the thirty-second part of a
circle). Each quarter is pierced with eight
holes, in which one can stick a
ankle.
The lower part of the fox has a
board, pierced with holes for the dowels
him too.
Oh well, that's great!

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Here’s how to use it:
At the beginning of his quarter of four hours, the helmsman makes sure that the fox
it is empty, all the pegs have been removed by the sailor, as will be seen
Then. It has eight strings, each of them has a peg attached to it.
two ends. He looks at his heading, and knows his speed. On the outermost circle
inside, he drives a peg into the quarter he governs, and the peg
on the other end of the string goes to the table below, for
indicate the current speed of the ship.
He proceeds in the same way every half hour, his quarter of four hours.
will take eight half-hours, using a circle that is further away each time
center of the fox than the previous time, the last ankle will be stuck on the
outermost circle of the fox's rose.
At the end of the quarter, the sailor comes to consult the fox, and thus knows about the half-
Time in half-hour increments, the course and speed of the boat over the last four.
hours, which he records in the logbook before removing the pins from the
fox. The maintenance of esteem naturally follows from this.

Time was generally measured using an hourglass (which was often called
"vial") of half an hour.
Those who wanted to shorten their shift7they returned the hourglass before it
it's empty. They called it 'eating sand'...

Logbook
All the necessary elements for maintaining the estimate are recorded there, as well as the
elements likely to interfere with the ship's behavior and influence
it works.
We will note the time and date, the bearing (one bearing is enough, the others follow from it,
they would be redundant), the value of the log (failing that, the speed of the boat).
The state of the sea will impact the drift, it will also be noted.
In the same vein, the weather conditions will influence the progress of
boat, it is appropriate to note the strength and direction of the wind, the value indicated
through the barometer, visibility, and the type of clouds observed. This information
meteorological conditions will allow, if necessary, to anticipate the passage or
the evolution of a disturbance.

The logbook must contain everything that can help trace the route of
boat from its point of departure.

To fulfill this function, the simplest notebook is more than enough.

The keeping of the logbook goes hand in hand with the plotting of the route on the map, where the
Points will be recorded, along with the time, and where applicable, the value of the log.

That 'quarter' is four o'clock... Ah, that's convenient!

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Sextant
Indispensable at sea.
Very useful near the coast. In this case, you also need to have a compass.
(pencil compass) for drawing circles, we will come back to it when we talk about arcs.
capable.

The sextant is also used to measure angles. It can do this with a

precision of the order of the minute of arc, which is very fine. The sextant is a
precision instrument that requires care.

Out of sight from the coasts, it will be used to observe celestial bodies (sun, moon,
planets, stars). In fact, we observe in this case the angle that a celestial body makes with
the horizon8This data is one of the parameters for navigation calculations.
astronomical, mentioned later. The measurement must be carried out with a
precision of the order of the minute of arc, an error of one minute of arc has for
consequence of a thousand error on the map, since that is the definition of a thousand
marine, and that's why we use it. It's a minute of arc at the center of the
earth, projected onto its surface9.

To get a sense of the required precision, if you extend your arm

in front of oneself:

• Between the tip of the thumb and the tip of the little finger of the open hand,
It is about 18°
• The closed fist occupies about 10°
• Three fingers (index, middle, ring) about 4°
• The tip of the index 1¼°
• The tip of the little finger 1°

And one minute of arc is about the thickness of a hair at arm's length...

Near the coast, the sextant will be held horizontally to measure the angle.
apparent between two bitterness. It's very easy, and very precise, a precision of
The order of the degree is sufficient when measuring.
See regarding this the appendixCapable arcs.

The sextant uses a set of two mirrors to determine the angle between two
directions, typically the angle between the direction in which we see a celestial body, and
the direction in which we see the horizon.

Ipso facto, to use the sextant under these conditions, one must see the celestial body and the horizon. It seems
Idiot, but at night, we can see plenty of stars, but not always the horizon clearly enough.
nice.
9 It is repeated: The mile is therefore an angle, not a distance. Depending on the diameter of the Earth -
which is not constant – its length varies between 1851 and 1853 meters.

15
The fact that we use a mirror to bring the image of the sun to the horizon has the purpose of
effect of doubling the angle of the alidade (mobile part of the sextant, on which is fixed
the large mirror). Thus, at a height of 90°, the alidade will make with its position
original (0°) an angle of 45°, which is one-eighth of a circle. We have
long content with octants. The sextant represents the sixth part of a circle,
at 60°, we can measure angles from 0 to 120 degrees. Obviously,
this is superfluous for heights (above 90°, turn around, you have
the star in the back, fool), but it can be useful for capable bows, and
to measure distances from the moon to the sun.

Here is what we see in the sextant's sight, on the left the horizon, on the right the
mirror

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One can use the sextant to observe landmarks. For example, in view of this
coast

The sextant can be used horizontally to measure the angle between the beacon.
visible on the right, and the lighthouse:

This technique will be used in the case of points by capable arcs.

Tables, Abacuses, Almanacs

We are talking here about the documents that are hidden by electronic tools and
computer science.
Tables and charts are used to minimize the number of steps in a calculation,
the almanacs to provide the parameters. The tables and abacuses are
permanent documents, the ephemerides and almanacs are dated, and therefore
Perishable, these are generally published every year.
All are designed so that the calculations they participate in can be made at
the hand, with a paper and a pencil.

- 17 -
Unfeasible calculations on board

Ephemerides and almanacs. Not by hand, the calculations are huge, both for the
tide tables only for astronomical ephemeris.
That's where we talk about computers again. It is simple to entrust this kind of calculations to
a computer, in order to calculate and publish these almanacs on land, before leaving.

Calculations feasible on board

Everything else10.
We will see in the following sections the different calculations to be undertaken.
The more complex ones are those intended for astronomical navigation. We will see that they
can be done in different ways, and there are ways to simplify it
life towards them.

A little note: the calculating rules

Before calculators became widespread - and also before they existed -
we used slide rules; I kept one from my brilliant studies
superior, the 'Graphoplex trilog 640', a marvel, a monument...
There are many models available. The simplest one is enough and can be very useful for
board, for the extrapolations to be carried out during navigation calculations
astronomical, or simply for tide calculations. With a little bit of
practically, we extrapolate in two thumbs (literally), and precision
what they provide is perfectly suited to the calculations that concern us. Their
handling is easily learned, and their use requires knowledge of
orders of magnitude that we handle, which is always a good thing, between
others and in particular in the case that concerns us.

Paper, pencils, little lamps...

No felt pen, no fountain pen, it smudges as soon as it gets humid, and at the
general astonishment, it happens.
We write in the logbook with a ballpoint pen, so that it doesn't fade.
We write on the cards with a pencil, we also need a good eraser, which
only the pencil erases.
In general, you have to hide your pencils, there is always a crew member
who needs it, who will take yours, and who will forget to return it to its
place.

There are different models of card table lamps, with or without a rheostat,
with or without a red filter, intended to reduce glare resulting from exposure
in the white light, the night. I have not yet had the opportunity to notice that
That's just right.

- 18 -
this kind of device had some influence on my vision,... but these
filters, however, have the advantage of dazzling less those who would try to
sleeping near the card table.

The lamps I prefer at the moment are headlamps, in general.

available in the 'camping' section of your favorite toy store. They
are also very effective outdoors, where they allow to do without
bridge projectors that have this unfortunate side effect of draining the batteries
dish in less time than it takes a stammerer to recite the Civil Code. This
which concerns us all the more as – I remind you – the objective here is to navigate
without electricity.

The batteries of the headlamp are a source of electricity. If one holds

absolutely to navigate without electricity, which - don't tell anyone - brushes against
fundamentalism, we'll just have to manage with a kerosene lamp, and too bad
for the one who sleeps.

In this regard, the small lantern, designed to be specially weak, intended to illuminate the
rose from the compass of the road without dazzling the helmsman, was called lefalot. What has
gave rise to what is called a 'faint light'...

- 19 -
East Attire
The estimate is maintained with the help of the logbook and the (or the) chart(s).

In the logbook, entries are recorded at regular intervals, and each time
it is necessary, the time and the date, the heading of the boat, and the value of the log (at
defect, the speed of the boat). With these elements, we are able - if only
that graphically - to retrace the course of the boat; and by means of the fact
that we know where we started from - which is generally the case, we can know where we
est.

The preceding sentence is a summary of reality. Indeed, the boat's heading does not
is not enough. What is important to know is actually the Route Fond (Rf), the one that we
suit on the map.

• The heading we have on board is the Compass Heading.

• Between the Compass Point and the Magnetic Point occurs the Deviation of
compas noted.
• Between the Magnetic North and True North lies the Declination, denoted as D.
◦ The sum of the Deviation and the Declination is called the Variation,
notedW.
• Between True North and the Surface Route, drift occurs.
• Between the Surface Road and the Base Road, the current intervenes.

The primary purpose of the logbook is simple: it is there to maintain the estimate.
Additionally, it allows for recording weather phenomena that may occur.
to interfere with the navigation of the ship (the barometer took a hit of 10 mb
during the last hour, the blue sky has turned into a layer of stratus, the wind is shifting to
to the west, a west swell persists and increases, etc...). Once again,
provided that we know what a logbook is for, a simple notebook works
perfectly the matter, unlike these publications that cram in sections
such as 'Purchases to be made at the next stopover', of which the essential aspect
The maintenance of esteem may not seem obvious to everyone. What we write
the logbook is not what one jots down on a post-it. It is suitable in
this case of drafting several distinct documents.

There are about as many ways to hold the logbook as there are
browsers... It is a field where convictions of a certain order are expressed
almost religious, sometimes difficult to question!
I generally note the following data in the logbook:
Time

Hour, Cap and Loch are data directly used for the management of

20
The estimate. The rise and the state of the sea reduce the value of the drift, necessary
to correct a course.
The time is local time or UT, you just need to know which reference is being used. It has
a particular importance when one needs to refer to almanacs (of
tides, or astronomical.
The Cape is generally the true Cape, from which we will be able to deduce the magnetic and
compass. But the reverse is also true. We can note the compass bearing, which we
will be able to deduce the true course.

The log is when we have a log recorder. Otherwise, we will note the speed.

The following data is used to anticipate changes in the weather.

force and direction
large, strong, huge...) Visibility (analogous to relative humidity), Barometer,
Clouds (in octas, and type: 1/8 Cu - one eighth of cumulus, 2/8 CiSt - two
eighths of Cirro-Stratus, 8/8 St - the weather is not good, etc.

It is noted that the position of the boat is not necessarily part of the
data recorded in the columns of the logbook. It's the kind of
data that must be carried on the card, which must be
updating in parallel with the logbook. The act of noting the position
Having it in the logbook certainly doesn't hurt, but it's redundant.

In regard to the page (on the left) where this data is noted, I leave a
blank page (to the right), available for any additional notes, or that
can bring anything to the maintenance of esteem (...like the hours
of tide, the position of the boat, look at that!)

Explanation of the quantities between the compass course and the ground track

Compass Deviation
The deviation is a quantity related to the boat. It depends on the masses.
magnetic11present on board, and who interact with the compass. It takes a
deviation curve by compass. If we have two compasses, we need to have two curves.

On a plastic or wooden boat, the deviation is often in the order of

a few degrees, on one side or the other. A speaker can however
to make jumps of several tens of degrees. No joke.
A steel boat – or worse yet, one made of ferro-cement – can lead to some
deviations that reach up to 50 degrees, from one edge to the other.

It is correctly said magnetic, and not metallic. Magnetic is what makes a magnet react.
Aluminum - for example - is metallic, it is not magnetic.

21
It is a magnitude not to be overlooked.
We can consider that the deviation curves have a generic equation of the
following form:
d=ab∗cos R c∗cos R ∗sin 2Re∗cos 2R
where represents the deviation for R, which is the compass heading.
If we can record the data emitted by an NMEA station (in a place
sheltered, without current and without drift, measure the difference between heading or magnetic heading and
COG. RMC gives the magnetic declination, in general) using a computer
(or a dedicated accessory), it is very easy to obtain the coefficients a, b, c, d and e
by the method of least squares.

Magnetic Declination
Magnetic declination is a quantity specific to a location at a given date.
It is provided by the nautical charts. In Brittany, it is currently (A.D.
2009) of the order of 3°W. Towards Newfoundland, it can reach 40°W. To San
Francisco, she is at 15°E.
It too should not be overlooked. If we leave San Francisco with the Declination

22
In Newfoundland, we are not necessarily sure of the dialect to use upon arrival. It
can offend sensitive customs officials...

Derive
Drift is caused by external conditions, the wind, the waves.
by the helmsman, who does his job like a pig - it's far from being
exceptional). A small sailboat will obviously be more sensitive than a super-
In the vicinity of the sea, a drift of about 10 degrees is not
exceptional. The drift is positive when it is to starboard, negative
when she steers to port.

Current
The current can have several origins.
The wind, the tide, ocean currents. These three can be combined to
thank you.
Tidal currents are provided in tables and atlases.
Ocean currents – like the Gulf Stream – have their speed and direction.
data provided by certain charts (such as the Pilot Charts), and other documents
(Nautical Instructions, Coast Pilots, etc).
The current generated by the wind is determined by the navigator's guess!
Which can be advantageously assisted by the esteem held in the hours
previous.

In the illustration above, the three different headings are represented. Heading
Compass (Cc), Magnetic Heading (Cm), True Heading (Cv). This involves adding
angles.

23
It is recalled that angles directed to the east are positive, and those directed to the west are negative.
when they go west.
Similarly, angles have a positive value in the clockwise direction.
of a watch (to the right), and negative in the opposite direction of
watch hands (to the left)12.
A glance at the compass rose will convince the most skeptical.

The previous figure illustrates the relationships between True North (Cv), Surface Route (Rs)
and True Course (Rf). It shows that the drift is an angle, which adds to the True Heading.
to obtain the Surface Route. While the current is a vector (characterized
by a speed and a direction), which adds (vector sum) to the vector
Surface Route, also characterized by a speed and a direction. In general,
one is largely satisfied with a graphical resolution - carried out on the map -
for this sum of vectors.

The operation that consists of starting from the compass heading to deduce the ground track.
is called 'Correcting a Course'.

The reverse operation, which consists of giving the helmsman the course to follow for
Maintaining a given road is called 'Enforcing the road.'

To summarize:
12...Unlike the commonly spread practice in trigonometry, where it is the opposite.

24
We have Cap Compas. We want Route Fond.
True Heading is obtained by adding the variation (W) to the Compass Heading (Cc).
The variation (W) is the algebraic sum of the declination (D) and the deviation.
(d).
The Surface Course (Rs) is the algebraic sum of the True Heading (Cv) and the drift.
The Route Fond (Rf) is the (vector) sum of the Surface Route vector (Rs) and
of the current vector.

Cv = Cc + W, where W = D + d
Rs = Cv + drift
Rf = Rs + Current (vectors)

The declination (D) is shown on the maps.

The deviation (d) comes from the compass's deviation curve (specific to the
compass, and to the boat).
The drift is estimated by the navigator based on the wind conditions and
sea.
The current (direction and speed) comes from current tables, or charts, or
from what the browser was able to deduce from previous hours.

- 25 -
Reassess the estimate
To recalibrate the estimate, we take stock. Depending on where we are, of the
The information we have, the point techniques are different.

An important point:
All non-electronic point techniques require a
skill that largely relies on the sense of balance of
the operator. It is about measuring a precise angle – high precision, too
as high as possible – while being in balance (in the best case)
on a bridge animated by permanent and potentially ongoing movements
unpredictable. The ideal is not to move either the hands or the head, while the
legs are specifically responsible for absorbing the movements of the bridge, so that
not to pass them on to the rest.
It is an exercise similar to cycling. The sense of balance is there.
indispensable, it cannot be learned in any case from a book; but when one
And arriving, now that's a skill acquired for good.

Point by point measurements

It is done in view of the coasts, using a bearing compass. It is good to
have at least three bitters, ideally spaced about 120 apart from each other
degrees...
We take the bearings on the compass, we
correct this compass bearing for
deduce the true bearing that we carry
on the map. If the observer has made a good
work, we obtain at the intersection of
raising a small triangle, which contains
the position of the boat.

First, the Declination is estimated.

magnetic
We see on the map (see the figure) that the
Declination was 14°45' E in 2006, and
that it decreases by 6' per year. In 2009, it
has therefore decreased by 18', bringing it down to
14°27'E, which we will round to 14°E.

Then we take three bearings using the bearing compass.

We observe:
Point Blunt in the 251° compass.
Little Alcatraz in the 216° compass.
The fall of Treasure Island in the 134° compass.

- 26 -
We correct these compass readings:
Point Blunt: 265° true.
Little Alcatraz: 230° true.
Fall of Treasure Island: 148° true.

These are the true measurements that we carry on the map:

The point above is entirely correct. The boat is located - it is estimated - in

the triangle formed by the intersection of the bearings. We will also note on the
time of the point, and the value of the log at that moment.

Alignments
There is a particular species of recoveries, which are called alignments.
An alignment is obtained when one sees a landmark from another. Like 'The bell tower'
by the tag ", " the tip by the water tower ", etc. The alignment presents on
The recovery has two undeniable and huge advantages:
• He is infallible (when we see the alignment, it's good, there is no doubt)
or possible inaccuracy).

27
 • It is not subject to any correction (for the good reason that is not the subject
by no means! We draw on the map the line that passes through both
calm, and the matter is settled.
In general, when we are about to have an alignment, we wait to have it.
and when the time comes, we supplement it with two readings. This gives us a point of
better quality, since we are certain of the alignment.

Bearing of a single landmark

This is the technique we will use when the three necessary bitters for the point are available.
mentioned in the previous section are not available.
It is done in view of the coasts, and involves the bearing compass, the route
follow-up (route base), and distance traveled. A reliable log is needed.
If we only have a landmark, we make a bearing, which we carry on the
map (true bearing of course). We carefully note the heading and the value of
Later, we take another bearing on the same landmark.
time we record the new value of the log.
We carry the new elevation on the map.
We then assess the distance traveled between the two readings, as well as the
route followed during this time. If necessary, we correct this data, in
function of the potentially experienced current.
Using the Cras rule and dry point compass, we case this
distance, on this road, between the two bearings.

28
We then find ourselves at the intersection of the road thus traced and the second
lifting.
The difficulty of this method lies in the evaluation of the route and the
distance traveled. The current and the drift are highly susceptible parameters
to generate errors.

Point by probe lines

You really have to be lost..., this technique is not precise. But it can
However, it serves to confirm or adjust an estimate, which is always welcome.
This method is particularly welcome during a landing, after a
Crossing. The ascent of the bottom will allow us to know when we approach.
the continental shelf. If the probe is a handheld probe, someone needs to be there.
dedicated to this function; if we probe depths of more than 20 meters, it is a
full-time work!
Nevertheless, this point method was commonly used during the
landings. Indeed, astronomical navigation has not always had the
precision required to transition from offshore navigation to coastal navigation -
more demanding, precise, and difficult, contrary to what many believe

29
people - the point by probe lines - or at least increased vigilance at
the probes - allowed to recalibrate the estimate made using the
astronomical navigation methods. Even if its accuracy could
subject to certain criticisms, in an appropriate context, this method takes
all its meaning.

Point by capable arcs

The most precise of all, by far!
It is carried out in view of the coasts and involves a horizontally held sextant.
See the appendix on this subjectCapable archesIn addition to being the most accurate, it is also
easy to implement.
Here is why this point is more precise than the point by bearings:
When taking a position by bearings, it is necessary to stabilize the compass rose.
which constitutes the main difficulty of this technique.
When making a point by capable arcs, a held sextant is used.
horizontally. The sextant is used in astronomical navigation to lower a
star on the horizon, in other words, to obtain the angle that a star makes with
the horizon. By holding the sextant horizontally, we measure the angle that a
love with another13As soon as we managed to align the two landmarks, the measurement is
carried out, there is no need to wait for anything to stabilize.

This involves measuring the angle between two landmarks - with the sextant held
horizontally - and then to draw on the map the circle whose all points
see these two marks at the same angle. Here’s how to proceed:
• An angle α was measured with a sextant.
• We draw on the map the segment passing through the two observed landmarks.
• From this segment, a perpendicular is raised from each beacon to the segment.
previous.
• From each landmark, one deduces - in the direction of the other landmark - the angle read.
to the sextant.
• The center of the sought circle is at the intersection of the two lines as such
traced.
• We know that the two landmarks are on the sought-after circle, thus we have all
the necessary data to plot it.

Incidentally, it is surely because of this possible use of the sextant that the octant has
lost its popularity. For astronomical navigation, where the angles never exceed
(except in the case of lunar distances and similar exercises) 90 degrees, the octant is sufficient. The
sextant, measuring angles up to 120 degrees allows for extensive use in the field
capable arcs.

- 30 -
It is then known that we are somewhere on the circle. A second circle will produce
An intersection, at which we are located. Otherwise, a bearing will produce it.
also an intersection with the circle.

Here is what we get with 3 bitters, we are at the intersection of the two circles:

- 31 -
Astronomical point
Detailed in a next section. It is obviously the technique.
who requires the most calculations.

As we will see in the section devoted to it, some aspects of the

astronomical navigation requires the knowledge of time, as precisely
What is possible. There are techniques that allow for resetting the timers,
from the observation of the (angular) distance that separates the Moon from the others
stars (Sun, planets, stars). This technique implements even more
calculates that the astronomical point proper. But it works. The tables
which allow us to know this lunar distance ceased to be published in
1907 (the year when hourly bulletins began to be broadcast by radio),
But thanks to technology, we are able to republish these tables.

Tide calculations
Knowing the state of the tide allows one to know two important things:
If we have enough water to navigate.
How is a possible tidal current oriented, and what is its force?

There are many atlases designed to understand tidal currents, which

refer to the tide times of a given port (called the 'reference port').
The water height is a delicate parameter to obtain, it depends on many
elements. Some can be anticipated and calculated, others cannot.

Calculation of water height

By hand, the rule of twelfths will be used. It allows for an approximation.
completely satisfactory of the sinusoid that the water level actually follows.

Attention!! Not all countries (publishers of maps and almanacs) use

the same reference for the zero of the maps!

The SHOM (French hydrographic service) uses as reference the

level of the lowest possible seas. This means that there are never less
water14What is indicated on the map is very practical.
Others - like the United States - take an average reference
(like the average value of low tides in general..., see the
genre), regarding which one can express some reservations. But of
In any case, we have no choice, it is indeed a matter of knowing what is the
reference used, both for the maps and for the almanac.
In fact, it happens very exceptionally, a few rare times per century..., generally during
of a particularly high tide, with a wind that amplifies the phenomenon.

32
In order of priorities, immediately after identifying the zero of the maps,
It is also important to identify the unit used. Graduated maps can be found in
meters, in feet, and in fathoms. One fathom is equivalent to six feet.15, the meter to a
a little more than three; to have an idea of its draft in each of these three
units can undoubtedly contribute to a certain form of serenity, if we must
to make use of charts established in these different ways... With three fathoms
In water, we can't stand. With three feet, yes, and comfortably.16.

On normal maps, probes and altitudes are expressed in meters. On

other maps, it is not uncommon to have the probes in fathoms, and the
altitudes in feet. We are not laughing.

The tide is described by the superposition of several sinusoidal curves, in

general to the number of nine. The coefficients to be applied to each of these curves
are called harmonic coefficients, which vary over time, and
of the place. The determination of these harmonic coefficients is the key to
the preparation of tide tables and almanacs.
The difference in height between high tide and low tide is called
the 'amplitude', the time difference that separates high tide from
The time of low tide is called the 'duration'.
There are several types of tides, from semi-diurnal to diurnal, including the
tides with unequal diurnal variations... Nevertheless, when it comes to calculating the height
of water, the rule of twelfths remains a safe bet. Especially since - let’s repeat -
the water level is unfortunately not determined by only
harmonic coefficients. The atmospheric pressure, the direction and strength of the wind
have a considerable influence on the tide, which unfortunately cannot be
consideration when calculating the almanacs. The tools available on board
to assess this influence is currently of a pifometric nature or
assimilated.

Rule of Twelfths
We divide the duration into six equal periods, the amplitude into twelve equal parts.
• During the first period, the water level varies by one twelfth.
• During the second period, the water level varies by 2 twelfths.
• During the third period, the water level varies by 3 twelfths.
• During the fourth period, the water level varies by 3 twelfths.
• During the fifth period, the water level varies by 2 twelfths.
• During the sixth period, the water level varies by 1/12.

15 and a cable length at 100 fathoms. It's so convenient!

In English, a foot is called "foot" ("feet" in plural). A fathom is called "fathom"; both
starts with an 'f'... The 'f' is the abbreviation for 'fathom', the foot is written using a
apostrophe. Thus, on an English-speaking map, '6f' means 6 fathoms, while '6'' means
6 feet.

- 33 -
The following figure shows that this rule allows for the arrangement of a sinusoid.
in very acceptable proportions.
6

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Weather forecasts
Here is a vast subject. The forecasts that we will be able to produce without electricity.
will be based on observation, and not on the receipt of documents
(bulletins, fax, GRIBs).
The logbook contributes significantly to taking note of these
observations. Wind speed and direction, associated with atmospheric pressure
Readings on the barometer will be the measured data, cloud cover (clouds in octas and
genre, associated with visibility) will be observed. The value of the pressure read at
the barometer is not as important as the variation it undergoes. The fact
whether the displayed pressure is 1010 or 1030 is not very important. The fact
that this pressure increases or decreases by 15 millibars per hour will have a
major importance.
The evolution of cloud shapes, visibility, atmospheric pressure,
the direction and strength of the wind are parameters that will
allow to anticipate the approach or evolution of a disturbance. As such, they
will be carefully recorded in the logbook.

The way to interpret these parameters far exceeds the scope of this
document.

- 34 -
Astronomical Navigation
A little preamble: used as they are to getting a result by pushing...
buttons, electronics users, remote controls and other zapper
are generally affected by astronomical navigation, particularly by the
calculations that she implements, and it is almost necessary to catch them with a lasso,
especially since they often imagine they have undertaken what is the most complex
after successfully correcting a cap or establishing a route. It's incredible, he
We must think!
The amount of calculations is indeed considerable (especially for someone who does not know
do not count without a calculator), but these calculations are simple, they are additions
and subtractions (there are indeed one or two multiplications for the
interpolations, but nothing dramatic) since we use tables of
logarithms, even dedicated tables for this calculation.

The calculations involved in astronomical navigation involve

nautical - or astronomical - ephemerides that provide several of the
necessary parameters regarding the observed celestial bodies.

Among them, the ephemerides allow us to know at every moment what we

call the "instantaneous geographic position" of a celestial body, noted Pg.
The instantaneous geographical position of a celestial body is the point on Earth where the celestial body

- 35 -
is at the zenith (directly above). It is unique at a given moment for a celestial body.
given.

The latitude of this point Pg is called declination.17of the star.

I know, the term is already used in another context, with another meaning. That's fine.
too bad, but that's how it is.

36
The longitude is called the Greenwich Mean Time Angle, noted GMT Angle, or GMT angle.18.

Point by meridian height.

The calculations are simple. It will involve a few additions, and a few
Interpolations. No need for trigonometric or logarithmic tables.
Paper and pencil are enough.

The point by meridian height exploits a particular case, which is that of the celestial body.
and the observer is on the same meridian. It is noon.19instead of the observer
(if the observed celestial body is the sun).
This particular case occurs once a day, and by star.20.

To facilitate the reading of the figures that follow, we rotate the meridian of
the star in the plane of the leaf.

18 Hour Angle at true zero.

The words "noon" and "meridian" have the same root. The people from the south live in the South.
The transit of a star across the meridian is its passage at the highest point of its path.
sky. For other celestial bodies besides the sun, their passage to their highest point can also be exploited.
So, we then talk about moving to the anti-meridian. In fact, we can also do it with the sun,
condition to be able to see the sun at midnight. This happens in summer, beyond the polar circles.

37
Latitude by meridian height, in theory
We introduce here a new concept, that of zenithal distance, noted Dz, or ξ.
The zenith distance is the complement of the altitude, that is (90˚ - altitude).

If the latitude of the celestial body (point Pg) and the latitude of the observer have the same signs
different, the zenith distance is equal to the sum of the latitude and the
declination of the star.

- 38 -
If the latitude of the celestial body (point Pg) and the latitude of the observer are the same
sign, the latitude is equal to the sum of the zenith distance and the
declination of the celestial body.

Longitude by meridian height, in theory

It is both very simple and a little complicated. The theory is very simple, the
practice is - to everyone's surprise - more scandalous.

The principle is based on the fact that the Earth rotates 360° on itself in 24
hours. There is therefore a close correlation between longitude and time (it is)
It's possible that the term "hour angle" has given you a clue.) If a
a star crosses a meridian at a given time, it will pass exactly one hour
later at a meridian located 15° further west21.

The ephemerides allow us to know at what time the sun culminates at

Greenwich. If we can figure out what time the sun reaches its zenith over the meridian of
the observer, then it is enough to express this time difference in difference
angle to know its longitude.

This, however, requires a precise timer. Indeed, 360° in 24 hours

means 15° in one hour. Thus 15' in one minute (of time), which represents
1' in four seconds (of time). Therefore, an error of 4 seconds on the
The watch corresponds to a one-minute error of longitude. As already stated,
It would actually be true if the stars we observe were immobile; unfortunately, none
of them is not. But 15° remains a reasonable approximation. We will see it in the
commented numerical examples.

- 39 -
noted, it goes fast!

On the other hand, as we will see, the exact time of the culmination is not there.
the easiest data to obtain.

Latitude by meridian height, in practice

Once again, it is necessary to have its estimated position and the date.
This is about implementing the technique stated previously.
For this example, we consider that the observed celestial body is the sun, but this is
valid for all observable celestial bodies. It is even possible for others
stars that the sun uses the anti-meridian height (at the midnight of the star, and
not at its noon, that is to say not when it peaks, but when it reaches
its lowest point).
Suppose we are Thursday, October 8, 2009, and the estimate puts us by
34°04' N and 127°54' W.
The first thing to know is at what time this meridian height will occur.
produce.
We will proceed here with a series of interpolations. We do them here by hand, in order to ...
detail the process. Conversion tables intended for this use are
provided in a separate document.
We will therefore convert its estimated longitude from degrees to hours. One hour
represents 15 degrees (15° in 1 hour = 360° / 24 hours).
Thus, 127° = (127 / 15) = 8.466 hours, and 54' = (54/60) / 15 = 0.06 hour.
So 127°54' equals 8.526 hours. 0.526 hours = (0.526 × 60) minutes,
either 31.56 minutes, or 31 minutes and 33.6 seconds.
The longitude is west, so it will be noon at our estimated longitude of 8 hours 31.
34 minutes (rounded) later than Greenwich.

Attention: Contrary to a commonly spread rumor, it is not noon

Every day at the same time! Those for whom it is new will consult with
profit and in this regard the appendixEquation of time

The nautical ephemerides provide the equation of time. The equation of time
represents the interval that separates 12:00 UT from the time of the sun's culmination
(which is called 'meridian passage time').
For October 8, 2009, the equation of time at noon UT is +12m 29s. One must
perform an interpolation. A linear interpolation is sufficient here.

- 40 -
On October 9, 2009, the equation of time at 12:00 UT is +12m 46s, it
increases by 17 seconds over 24 hours. Our longitude represents as we have
already calculated 8.526 hours, we must therefore add to the time equation the value
next in seconds (17 / 24) × 8.526, or 6.06 seconds.
The equation of time at the hour of the sun's passage at our estimated longitude is
therefore +12m 35s22.
Attention, this means that the culmination (passing at the meridian) of the sun at our
Estimated longitude will occur 12m 35s before legal noon. That is 8h 31m 34s -
12m 35s, namely 20h 18m 59s UT.

The ephemeris also provides the time of passage of celestial bodies at the meridian of
Greenwich. One can also carry out the same interpolation based on the time of
The equation of time and passage time are indeed data
redundant. In our example, the transit time of the sun at Greenwich on the 8th.
October is [Link].113 UT, and on October 9 at [Link].572 UT. Each one will choose the
method that suits him best.
We would find a passage time at our meridian estimated at [Link] UT.
11h 47m 24s + 8h 31m 34s = 20h 18m 58s UT. It's the same.

One can also anticipate the height that should be observed if the estimate
was correct.
At 20:00 UT on October 8, 2009, the declination of the sun is S 6°10.09'.
9 PM, she is S 6°11.04'. Thus, she increases by 0.95' in one hour.
One can interpolate here by head, rounding 18m 59s to 20 minutes, which is 1/3.
of time.
0.95' / 3 = 0.3166'. The declination of the sun at the estimated time of the
the culmination will therefore be at S 6°10.406', which will be rounded to S 6°10.40'.

Latitude and declination are different signs, so Dz = L + D, namely

34°04' + 6°10.4' = 40°14.4'. Thus, the observed height (theoretically)
becomes 90° - 40°14.4', which is 49°45.6'.

It remains to be seen if it's true! We take out the sextant, and we start observing.
start observing long enough before the estimated time of the
culmination, to be sure not to miss it. This time interval depends
of the quality of esteem.
We continue to observe the celestial body as long as its height increases. As soon as
the star begins to descend (that the star begins to get wet23), it is
that we have reached the culmination, and that we now have the height
instrumental. For our example, we read 49°32' on the sextant.
This interpolation is of little importance if one is only concerned with latitude. It becomes
more crucial if one also cares about longitude.
The sextant allows, through its system of mirrors, to bring the celestial body down to the horizon. It is said that one
wet a celestial body when it dips into the water in the mirror of the sextant..

- 41 -
It's not over!
The instrumental height must be corrected to obtain the observed height.
Four corrections need to be made to it:
• semi-diameter
• depression of the horizon
• refraction
• parallax
The semi-diameter applies to the sun and the moon, as the lower edge is lowered.
of the celestial body (sometimes higher in the case of the moon) on the horizon, and not its
centre.
The depression of the horizon comes from the fact that the observer is not at the level of
the water. If the eye is 2 meters above the water, the horizon is already at about 1.8
thousand...
Refraction comes from the fact that the rays of the celestial body pass from the vacuum of space.
in the atmosphere. The refractive index of the two media is not the same24.
The parallax error comes from not making the observation from the center.
from the earth.
These corrections are generally gathered in a single table.
Here we find 0°12.6', which we must therefore add to the instrumental height.
This gives 49°32' + 0°12.6', which is 49°44.6' for the observed altitude.
If the operation took place around the estimated time for the culmination,
It can be considered that the declination of the sun as we have calculated it is valid.
for this observation, namely here S 6°10.40'. Otherwise, it needs to be re-interpolated with
new parameters.
The latitude of the observer and the declination of the star being of opposite signs,
on L = Dz - D. The zenith distance Dz is (90° - 49°44.6'), that is to say 40°15.4', at
which we subtract the declination from to obtain the latitude:
L = 40°15.4' – 6°10.4' = 34°05.0' N
Here is for the latitude!

Longitude by meridian height, in practice

It's possible, provided of course that you have a reliable stopwatch. What it
The thing is to have the exact time of culmination, to add or subtract it to the.
time of passage (noon corrected for the equation of time), to transform this
greatness in angle, as we did in reverse to find out what time
Start observing, and the trick is done!
The problem is that at this time, the sun has a path in the sky that
tangent to the horizontal, and the moment when the culmination is effective is

24Just like when looking at a straw in a glass of water; it seems to be broken at the level.
from the surface of the water.

- 42 -
impossible to determine with the required precision; it is reminded that 4 seconds of
time represents a minute of longitude, and it is precisely the longitude
that we are trying to determine...

However, we will be able to mitigate this drawback. We will take two measurements, one
before, and one after the culmination, at a time when the course of the star is
sufficiently vertical for a given height to be associated with a
precise times, and we will take the average.

We make a first observation about 15 minutes before the estimated time of the
meridian. It is noted exactly at what time T1 the height was taken. We
let the height H1.

We then make the necessary observations to determine the latitude,

as described in the previous paragraph.
Once this is done, we then reset the sextant to the value it had at T1, namely
H1. We are observing the sun again, we wait - without changing the setting of
sextant - that the sun passes again at the same height H1, and we note
carefully the time T2. Assuming that we did not move to any
high speeds between T1 and T2, we can assume that the time of culmination
is the average of T1 and T2.

Example:
We took the first measurement at T1 = [Link] UT.
The sun passed the same height H1 at [Link] UT.
The average of these two times is [Link] UT.
The passage time at Greenwich has been calculated previously, it is
[Link] UT, which constitutes a difference of 8h 31m 41s.

43
8h = 8 × 15° = 120°
31m = (31 / 60) × 15° = 7.75°
41s = (41 / 3600) × 15° = 0.171°

We obtain a hour angle of 120 + 7.75 + 0.171 = 127.921°, which is a

longitude 127°55.26' W.

And there you have it for the longitude.

We moved from an estimated position of 34°04' N and 127°54' W to a

corrected position of 34°05.0' N and 127°55.26'W.

A first comment:
It is noted that when searching for latitude, we only need the time.
to know what time to start the observation; the precision of the minute
(of time) is quite sufficient.
On the other hand, when searching for longitude, the accuracy of the chronometer
directly - and significantly - impacts the accuracy of the calculation of the
longitude. Again, four seconds on the stopwatch represent a
arc minute in longitude.

A second comment:
It takes little practice with the sextant to realize that it is presumptuous.
to want to take measurements with a finer precision than a minute of arc,
especially on a small boat.
The required interpolations for calculating the different values derived from the
ephemerides can be facilitated. Thus, for the calculation of declination, we
found a time variation of 0.95'. In practice, we will round it to 1', and everything will be fine.
Well. There are hardly any reasons to burden oneself with tenths of minutes of arc.
However, pay attention to rounding, it must be rounded to the nearest minute, and
not just settle for the whole part.

Point by straight line(s) of height.

The calculations are more complicated.

The principle of the point by heights of lines is based on the following data:
• The knowledge of time (in other words: 'what time is it?', not
What is the weather like?25»...)
• The position of the observed celestial body (Pg)
• The estimated position of the observer
• The height of the observed celestial body

Even if the sky is overcast, it may call the observation into question.

- 44 -
The basic principle is to compare what we should observe with the sextant.
if we were where we think we are with what we observe in reality, and to correct one's
estimate accordingly.

Prince
We saw in the section dedicated to the point by meridional height the ratio
that exists between latitude, declination, and zenith distance.
We will introduce here the concept of 'great circle.'
• A great circle is a circle that divides the earth into two equal halves.
• The equator is the only parallel that is a great circle.
• All meridians are great circles.
• Through two points on the earth, there passes one and only one great circle (unless they
are each at the end of the same diameter.
• The shortest path from one point to another is an arc of a great circle.
(which is called orthodromy).

Let's consider the frequent case where point Pg and the observer are not
not on the same meridian.
There is therefore one – and only one – great circle that passes through these two points.

- 45 -
We saw in the case of the meridian height, where the observer and the point Pg
are on the same meridian, the relationship that exists between the different magnitudes.
We find ourselves in a similar situation here, where Pg and the observer are
also on the same great circle (a meridian is a great circle).
The trick of the calculation to be made consists of rotating this large circle in the plane of the
leaf. This pivoting will obviously not take place around the axis of the
poles, and this is what constitutes the entire difficulty of the problem.
This pivoting will be determined by two main angles: The ClockwiseAngle
Local etL±D.

Just as the Hour Angle at Greenwich is the difference in longitude between

46
Greenwich and the Pg point, the Local Time Zone is the difference in longitude between
the observer and the point Pg.

Another definition:
The azimuth, noted Z, is the true bearing of point Pg, which will therefore be counted from 0° to
360°.

What we are looking for:

We want to calculate, for the estimated position of the observer, at the exact time of
the observation:
• The height of the celestial body, called 'estimated height'.
• The azimuth of the star.
We note L for latitude, D for the declination of the star, and AHL for the angle.
local time. This angle AHL is calculated from the hour angle at Greenwich, and
the estimated longitude of the observer. Hesera the estimated height of the star, and Z
the azimuth of the star.
We seek to solve the following formulas:

He=asin sine L sin Dcos L .cos D .cos AHL

sin AHL
Z =atan 
 cos L .tan D − sin L .cos AHL

We will then look for the intercept.

Once these data are obtained, the rest of the resolution is carried out from

- 47 -
graphically, using a Mercator map, or a canvas
Mercator26.
A Mercator canvas is a blank map. And we will see that it is not useless!

So, we know what height we should observe if we were in our position.

estimated. All points of a circle centered at point Pg see the observed celestial body at
the same height.

The height is called in the following figure. It also shows the azimuth, which
is therefore the direction in which we see the celestial body.

26 Mercator charts are published by SHOM (Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service)

of the French Navy. The Anglo-Saxons, those who use parallel rules,
use Plotting Sheets, which are very practical and less cumbersome. They deserve very
largely a careful glance.

48
On a sufficiently large map, this contour line of equal heights would look like
next.

In fact, unless one is very close to the point Pg, its radius of curvature is
Great, this circle is comparable to a straight line over a distance of thirty miles. And
So, we call it 'height line'. But it is actually a circular arc.

- 49 -
And here we introduce the notion of intercept, mentioned earlier. The intercept is the
difference between the estimated height and the observed height. This difference is
on the order of a minute of arc, otherwise... we are really lost, and a minute of arc
At the surface of the earth, it is a nautical mile. If the observed height is more
The estimated height is greater because we are closer to the star than expected.
in the direction of the azimuth. Otherwise, well, we are further away.
This is where Mercator charts come into play. When one is offshore, one uses
road maps (small-scale maps). The definition of these maps does not allow
hardly discern the size of a nautical mile. These canvases are detailed maps
from the ocean: they are empty (of land). The SHOM (Hydrographic Service and
Oceanographic of the Navy) publishes Mercator charts with a range of 6
Degrees of latitude. Mercator charts with 3-degree intervals are provided in the appendix.
of amplitude.
We carry the azimuth, the height line, and the intercept on a Mercator grid.
What we know now, according to the figure, is that we are on a line more
closer to the star than one might have thought.
But we still do not know where on this line.

We will know when we have the intersection with... another line.

If we have several celestial bodies (if it's night for example, the moon, the planets,
the stars...), you just need to draw several consecutive lines.
Otherwise, we wait, and we do another one on the same star. Its azimuth having varied,
we will then have an intersection. However, we need to translate the first line, by

- 50 -
the distance traveled in the interval, in the direction of the roadway ground, that
is called a 'transfer of right'. The corrected point is situated at the intersection of
corrected intercept lines.

And there you have it, we know where we are. With a third line, we will really be sure of it.
coup. It works very well. We note in passing that the Mercator canvas allows
to evaluate more precisely the coordinates of the corrected point, in order to
reporter on the road.
It is also noted that this method is very similar to the point method by
Measurements. It is a fact that these two methods are equally reliable.
what the observer will be..., which brings us back to our bicycle story.

One can also solve this kind of figures algebraically or

arithmetic. But why do it? Beyond the number of calculation steps that
this resolution involves (it is about spherical trigonometry), the possible
errors will probably be more obvious in the context of the resolution
graphic. And once again, the accuracy of the line on the map is clearly
greater than the accuracy of the measurement made with the sextant, or even with the
chronometer. It is undoubtedly appropriate to keep this order of magnitude in mind...

In practice
It is assumed for the example that it is Thursday, October 8, 2009, at 8:47 PM.
38 minutes and 38 seconds UT, and that the estimate positions us at 37°46' N and 122°37' W.
We observe the sun, and we read a height of 44°20' on the sextant.

- 51 -
Whether we proceed with logarithm tables or with more elaborate tables,
we will need to obtain the coordinates of point Pg of the observed celestial body, to have the
sun
This is obtained in the ephemeris.

It is recalled that the observation time is 20 h 47 m 38 s UT.

Search for the Hour Angle at Greenwich (AHG)

At the lower round hour, namely 8 PM, we read AHG=123°08.86'.
It is 47m 38s later, what decimal part of an hour does this represent?
47m = 47 × 60 s = 2820 s.
47m 38s = 2820 s + 38 s = 2858 s.
In hours, this represents 2858 / 3600 = 0.793888 hour.
Between 8 PM and 9 PM, the AHG varied from 123°08.86' to 138°09.04', which is a
increase of 15°00.18'27.

There, we're nitpicking. We can very well suffice to say that the Hour Angle varies by 15°.

- 52 -
We linearly interpolate this variation, and we consider that at 47m 38s
(0.793888 h), the AHG increased by 15°00.18' × 0.793888 = 11°54.64'.
The ACG at the time of observation will therefore be 123°08.86' + 11°54.64' = 135°03.5'.

Search for the Declination

Similarly, the declination of the sun at 8 PM is S 6°10.09'. At 9 PM, it
is at S 6°11.04', it therefore increases by 0.95' in one hour.
At 47m 38s, it will have increased by 0.95' × 0.793888 = 0.75419', which it
brings it to S 6°10.84'.

We have the coordinates of Pg:

AHG: 135°03.5'
D : S 6°10.84'

We still need to calculate the Local Hour Angle. The longitude is west, we subtract it from
AHG:
AHL= 135°03.5' – 122°37' = 12°26.5'.

The last step is to correct the instrumental height, to make it one.

observed height. The same table as the one used for the height
The meridian gives a positive correction of (12.59' + 0.1'). This brings the
observed height at 44°32.69'.

We now have all the necessary elements for the calculation.

With logarithm tables

The longest method since it literally solves the formula, but which
walk everywhere with minimal equipment.
With a table of logarithms, calculating a height involves 12 steps, and the
Calculating the azimuth involves 15.
Let's go.
We are therefore looking to solve the following formulas:

He=asin sine L .sin Dcos L .cos D .cos AHL

sin AHL
Z =arc tangent 
 cos L .tan D − sin L .cos AHL

In order to allow everyone to follow the calculations, we use tables here.

American logarithms, available on[Link] to their
subject the appendixSimplified use of logarithm tables.

hour.

- 53 -
I personally prefer to use the Bouvart and Ratinet tables,
unfortunately not yet available on Google Books28.

Estimate height calculation

So, He=asin sin L .sin Dcoast L .cos D .cos. AHL
We will therefore search for the logarithms of
sin(L) = sin(37°46')
sin(D) = sin(-6°10.84') rounded to sin(-6°11')
cos(L) = cos(37°46')
cos(D) = cos(-6°10.84') rounded to cos(-6°11')
cos(AHL) = cos(12°26.5') rounded to cos(12°26')

The method for performing this calculation using logarithm tables is detailed in the
pages that follow.

We will proceed as follows:

log sin(37°46') = -0.21293

log sin(6°11') = -0.96734
log cos(37°46') = -0.10209
log cos(6°11') = -0.00253
-0.01031

log (sin(L).sin(D)) = -0.21293 – 0.96734 = -1.18027

sin(L).sin(D) = 0.065795

log(cos(L).cos(D).cos(AHL)) = -0.10209 – 0.00253 – 0.01031 = -0.11493

cos(L) * cos(D) * cos(AHL) = 0.7675

sin(L).sin(D) + cos(L).cos(D).cos(AHL) = 0.701705

log(0.701705) = log(7.01705 × 10^−1)-1= log(7.01705) - 1 = 0.846192 10-1

He = 44°33.5'

There is a version of these tables on Google Books, but the angles are only expressed in
grades, which makes the tables unsuitable for the intended use here.

54
Search for log(sin(37°46'))

We find: log(sin(37°46')) = 9.78707 so 9.78707 - 10 = -0.21293

- 55 -
Search for log(sin(6°11'))

We find: log(sin(6°11')) = 9.03226 or 9.03226 - 10 = -0.96734

- 56 -
Search for log(cos(37°46'))
We find: log(cos(37°46')) = 9.89791 or 9.89791 - 10 = -0.10209

- 57 -
Search for log(cos(6°11'))

We find: log(cos(6°11')) = 9.99747 so 9.99747 - 10 = -0.00253

- 58 -
Search for log(cos(12°26'))

We find: log(cos(12°26')) = 9.98969 or 9.98969 - 10 = -0.01031

So:
log(sin(L) * sin(D)) = -0.21293 - 0.96734 = -1.18027.

- 59 -
Thus sin(L).sin(D) = 10-1.18027=10(0.81973 - 2)=6.5795.10-2=0.065795
Attention, the declination is negative (S), so its sine is negative. Therefore, we have
sin(L).sin(D)=-0.065795.

Likewise:
log(cos(L).cos(D).cos(AHL)) = -0.10209 - 0.00253 - 0.01031 = -0.11493

- 60 -
Thus cos(L).cos(D).cos(AHL) = 10-0.11493=10-0.11493=7.675.10-1=0.7675
The fact that the decline is negative does not affect the sign of the cosine.

With the values thus calculated, it is determined that

sin(L).sin(D) + cos(L).cos(D).cos(AHL) = -0.065795 + 0.7675 = 0.701705.
Then, log(0.701705) = log(7.01705 × 10)-1) = log(7.01705) - 1.

- 61 -
We find 0.846192 10-1I scored 9.846192 for trigonometry.
We are looking for this number in the part of the table dedicated to trigonometry.
in the column 'sine'.

- 62 -
We thus find the estimated height He 44°33.5'.
The observed altitude being 44°32.69', that gives us an intercept of one minute.
of arc (rounded), further from the star.

63
Calculation of the azimuth

sin AHL
So, we are looking to solve Z =atan 
 cos L .tan D − sin  .cos AHL
Previously, we calculated cos(L), sin(L), and cos(AHL).
Stay tan(D) and sin(AHL).
On a :
log(cos(L)) = log(cos(37°46')) = 9.89791 so 9.89791 - 10 = -0.10209
log(sin(L)) = log(sin(37°46')) = 9.78707 so 9.78707 - 10 = -0.21293
log(cos(AHL)) = log(cos(12°26')) = 9.98969 so 9.98969 - 10 = -0.01031

- 64 -
Search for log(tan(-6°11'))

We take the absolute value of the declination. We find: log(tan(6°11')) =

9.03479 is 9.03479 - 10 = -0.96521

- 65 -
Log(sin(12°26'))

We find: log(sin(12°26')) = 9.33305 so 9.33305 - 10 = -0.66695

So, log(cos(L).tan(D)) = -0.10209 -0.96521 = -1.06730 = 0.93270 - 2.

66
cos(L).tan(D) = 10 (0.93270 - 2) = 100.93270.10-2= 8.5645 10-2= 0.085645.
Attention: D is South, and our estimated latitude is North. This detail must be kept.
At the top, we will use it to trace the azimuth. The found value will be included.
between 0° and 90°, it will be a matter of knowing whether we carry it from the north or from the
south, towards the east or towards the west.

Similarly, log(sin(L).cos(AHL)) = -0.21293 -0.01031 = -0.22324 = 0.77676 - 1.

- 67 -
So sin(L).cos(AHL) = 10-0.22324 = 100.77676.10-1= 5.9810.10-1= 0.59810

The denominator then becomes (-0.085645 - 0.59810) = -0.683745.

without
AHL
Remaining to solve atan 
−0.683745
log(sin(AHL)) = -0.66695

- 68 -
log(0.683745) = log(6.83745 × 10)-10.834900 - 1 = -0.16510.
sin AHL
log  -0.66695 - (-0.16510) = -0.50185 = 0.49815 - 1.
−0.683745

We therefore have log(atan(Z)) = 0.49815 – 1, noted 9.49815 for the table part.
dedicated to trigonometry.

- 69 -
We find 17°29', which we round to 17°.
L and D are of different signs, so the azimuth is to be carried from the pole.
lowered, therefore South since our latitude is North.
The celestial body has already passed the meridian, so the azimuth should be directed to the west.
The azimuth is therefore 17 W29, or 197°.

Similarly to the case of the meridian height, it is observed that there is no

instead of getting worked up about the precision of the calculation, that of the minute is more than sufficient

29It reads: from S, 17° towards W.

70
(which simplifies access to the logarithm table), since once again, the
Measurement taken with the sextant cannot claim to go beyond.

With navigation tables

Facilitate the calculation, by minimizing the number of steps, and thereby the number of
sources of error.
With Dieumegard's tables, calculating the height is reduced to 8 steps, and
With the Battle tables, the calculation of the azimuth is done in 5 steps.

It is also convenient to prepare grids, like forms, to

fill in as the calculation proceeds, providing a minimum of explanation
on their chaining.
One must always remember that if this kind of calculations goes smoothly in the heat
from his living room next to the fireplace, but sometimes it goes differently in
mer... No assistance is superfluous in this field.
Once again, we want to solve these formulas:

He=asin sin  .sin Dcos L .cos D .cos AHL

sin AHL
Z =atan 
 cos L .tan D − sine L .cos AHL

So, the Dieumegard tables are used to solve the calculation of the
height, those of Battle that of the azimuth.

Tables of Dieumegard

Here is how these tables work. They follow the same path as the
procedure described earlier, the one that only implements the table of
logarithms. These tables allow for performing the same operations faster.

The tables of Dieumegard actually consist of 4 tables: 1, 2, 3, A.

Table 1 solves the formula: colog(1 - cos(a))

The table2 solves the formula: colog(cos(a))

The table3 solves the formula: colog(n)

And the table solves the formula: 1 - cos(a)

71
The use of cologarithms allows for having (except in exceptions, characteristics
highlighted) to handle only positive values.

Here is a form that guides the user in the use of the tables.
Dieumegard. The steps are detailed next.

72
- 73 -
We enter table 1 with the local hour angle, to find the number:

a= 1.6298

74
We enter table 2 with L to find the number b:

b =0.1021

- 75 -
We enter table 2 with D to find the number c:

c = 0.0025

We then calculate d = a + b + c = 1.7344

We then enter inside table 3 with the number, to find, in

top first, left next:

- 76 -
e= 0.01845

77
We enter tableA with L±D, at the top left, to find f:

We find f = 0.2801

We calculate g = e + f = 0.29855

We enter inside tableAavecg, and we find the estimated height in

bottom, to the right.

78
He = 44°33'.

Battle Tables

As with the tables of Dieumegard, we will start with the form and elaborate.
then the different steps:

79
We are looking for the angle at the pole in table I.

12°, or 0h 48m.

Always table I, in the latitude row (left column), you find 0.61.

- 80 -
Since P is less than 90°, the number found is negative.

Same operation in table II, with latitude and declination, we find 0.08.
Since L and D are opposite signs, the number found is negative.

81
The sum of the two terms is equal to -0.69, which we are looking for inside the
table II, with the angle at the pole to the right.

The azimuth is found below, either 17°.

(m+n) is negative, we count from the lowered pole. The local hour angle is
ranging from 0° to 180°, we thus carry the azimuth towards the west. We then read
S 17° W, or 197°.

HO.249, and the others...

The HO249 tables have been designed for aeronautics. It is the equivalent
American from the British AP3720. They allow to obtain it in one go.

- 82 -
estimated height and the azimuth. They are composed of 3 large volumes.

They must, however, use an estimated position different from the position.
actually estimated.

And there are many other tables and abacuses, from all origins, and in
all languages. They all have the same purpose, and they are all equally reliable, for
little do we know how to use them. The whole point is to find the ones we prefer, and with
which we are most comfortable with.

Sprain: with a dedicated calculator.

A calculator is electric..., but there are calculators that replace the

ephemerides and other almanacs. The very famous Tamaya had its hour of
Glory. I'm not sure, however, that the programs running on it take
taking into account the leap seconds... To be verified.

Use of computers

There are many programs to edit almanacs and ephemerides, as such

that to solve the necessary calculations for astronomical navigation, one needs to
will provide a list in the appendix.

In the context of this document, the aspect that concerns us is the editing of
ephemerides.

It is provided on the site () Java classes, based on

the astronomical algorithms of Jean Meeus and the remarkable work of Hening
Umland. These classes allow for calculating the data of the almanac for the
Sun, the Moon, four planets (Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn), as well as for
a good fifty stars. We can also, on this occasion, calculate the
distances between celestial bodies, particularly lunar distances.

We use Java30to generate an XML (eXtensible Markup Language) file that we

then transform it into PDF31using XSL (eXtensible Stylesheet Language) and
FOP (Formatting Object Processor), which brings great flexibility to the
approach. We can edit whatever we want, in the format we desire. Several
examples are therefore - it was said - available on the site.

30See [Link]
31 Portable Document Format. Property of Acrobat. Readers are free and available on
numerous platforms.

- 83 -
We can also generate the calculation tables (Dieumegard & Bataille), as well as the
interpolation tables, very practical. These can be generated in
a few clicks in a spreadsheet, it is truly spectacular. It is all the more
so that it is possible to create your own interpolation tables, in
function of its needs.

A comment

The calculations necessary for astronomical navigation are lengthy, to say the least.
that one can say. However, they are not difficult, and with a little practice,
it's very easy, and one quickly acquires a sort of routine. One must not
hesitate to practice it - on land and at sea - as much as possible, it is essential to
not having to learn this technique on the go, when the GPS turns on
bottle... It is important not to make this routine too automatic, it is appropriate to
to persist in knowing what we are doing, in order to be able to detect errors and the
aberrations.

And above all, it is undoubtedly the most rewarding navigation technique. When
At the end of a crossing, the crew is told, 'We should see land ahead.'
we in about thirty minutes," they all have that knowing look, in the manner of
"But of course!". But when thirty minutes later, the earth appears, they are.
sciés, and that's quite normal.

84
Techniques and old tricks

Constant latitude
The hardest data to obtain is the exact time, which directly depends on
the calculation of longitude.
When it was still impossible to obtain reliably, it was common
during a long journey – and when it was possible – to be as much settled as possible
on the latitude of arrival. The rest of the journey was then made from east to west, or
from west to east. Latitude is, as we have seen, easy to obtain, even when
does not have a sufficiently reliable stopwatch.
Many trips between the Americas and Europe have been made from this
way.

Kamal
It is an Arab idea, which Tim Severin discusses in his account of his
Simbad's Voyage. The Kamal is a rudimentary instrument used for
evaluate the height of a celestial body - stars in particular - when it passes at its
lowest point.

It is particularly suited to this technique of constant latitude, mentioned here-

before. Depending on the navigation to be considered, and the time of year, the

85
Nacudas had several kamals at their disposal, each corresponding to the
minimum or maximum height of a given celestial body during the crossing to be made.
It is interesting to note that the vast majority of names given to the
Stars are Arabic names.

Lunar Distances
More than a method for determining longitude, it is actually a way of
reset the chronometer, which leads to the determination of longitude.
Joshua Slocum refers to it.
The principle is simple; it exploits the very particular movement of the Moon by
relationship to other visible celestial bodies. It is indeed the visible celestial body whose
the proper movement is the most striking32.

Another important aspect of this method – if not the reason why

it exists, that is to say - once corrected - the observation made of a distance between
Two stars do not depend on the geographical position of the observer.

In the celestial vault, the visible stars (Sun, planets, stars) will be
considered as the numbers of a large clock, where the Moon would play the role
from the great needle.
The problem is that the numbers are also changing. But it works.
The sextant is then used, no longer to measure a height on the horizon, but
a distance between two celestial bodies.
We will choose to measure this distance from stars located near the path.
from the Moon in the sky, so that the distance that interests us varies from
substantially over time. For example, the North Star will not be
of no use...

It works, but one must know what credit to give to this method.
For example, if we consider the measurement of the distance from the Moon to the Sun, this distance
varies by about 30 minutes per hour. A one-minute error of arc on the sextant – and
this measure is more difficult to obtain than in the case of a height on
the horizon - corresponds to a time error of about two minutes... We do in
general several observations, from which we then calculate an average.
One must be able to measure the lunar distance with a precision of less than one
arc minute.

It is a delicate method, which requires a lot of precision, and a lot of

calculations. But once again, it works. However, we will not wait for the
precision that can be obtained with a height bar. The margin of error is
on the order of several tens of minutes of longitude... But again, this
The Moon has many unique characteristics, its own movement makes it so that we have
the impression that she is moving backwards in the sky... Her own movement is precisely
what constitutes its interest here.

86
the method was developed when stopwatches were not available.
And a longitude that has an error of 30 minutes is better than none
longitude of everything.

An important step in measuring a lunar distance (on the same level as a

distance between two celestial bodies, whether it concerns the Moon or not), it is the correction of
the measurement taken with the sextant. Unlike a height that is taken on
the horizon, the horizon depression correction does not apply at a distance
lunar33The refraction correction remains, the parallax correction too, and
the corrections of the semi-diameter more than ever, since we have here two celestial bodies,
which potentially each have a diameter, which are combinable: we can
take the closest edges, the farthest ones, or the far edge of one
with the edge close to the other, and vice versa; particularly when the Moon is not
not full, its two edges may not be available.
Refraction and parallax corrections are calculated from the height.
of a celestial body above the horizon. We will therefore match the measurement of a distance
lunar with the measurement of the height of each of the observed stars, which will make -
at least - three measures with the sextant34.
This correction of the measured distance is the essence of the calculations to
Next, we will calculate the distance using the ephemerides and almanacs.
theoretical at the moment of observation, then we will deduce by interpolation,
measurement difference, the difference in time and/or longitude.

From the data of the almanac (Declination and Hour Angle), one can at all
moment calculate the distance between two celestial bodies using the formula
next:

Dist = arccos[sin(Dec1) × sin(Dec2) + cos(Dec1) × cos(Dec2) × cos(GHA2-GHA1)]

It is certainly more convenient to carry out this kind of calculations during the
publication of the almanac. Such a document is provided in the annex. It has been published
separately from the almanac, it totally doubles its volume...

The correction of this famous distance is carried out using the formula of
Young

33 We are talking about lunar distance here, but this applies to any distance between two celestial bodies, whatever.
as they may be. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, everything we will say from now on about lunar distances
it also applies to a distance between two celestial bodies, although this hardly presents
of interest here. The Moon is the celestial body that moves the fastest in the sky, hence its unique interest in
this method.
Measuring heights does not require the same precision as measuring distance. It is not there.
to calculate the value of the corrections (refraction, parallax) to be added to the distance. It
works well, because it is not possible to take all three measurements at the same time. The order
measurement is of little importance. The most important thing is to measure the lunar distance with
as accurately as possible.

87
 [Link]
cosD= .[cosDappcos HmappHbapp ]−cos HmHb
[Link]
Where:
Hm is the height of the Moon (Height Moon)
Hb is the height of the other celestial body (Height Body)
Dapp is the apparent distance
Hmapp is the apparent height of the Moon
Hbapp is the apparent height of the other celestial body.

An apparent height is a height corrected for the horizon's depression and

the semi-diameter of the observed celestial body (which implies knowing which edge of
the celestial body has been placed on the horizon, either lower or higher.
We move from the apparent height to the observed height by applying the
refraction and parallax corrections.
The apparent distance is the distance corrected by the semi-diameters of the celestial bodies.
respective. It will be corrected by the refraction which modifies the semi-diameter to
function of height and parallax.

It is essential to use the necessary means to achieve the required precision.

logarithms. This notably complicates the procedure.

Bruce Starka designed new tables intended to correct the observed distance.
With the almanacs we will find in the appendix, we will be able to divide the quantity of
calculations by two, since lunar distances for several celestial bodies are provided
assorted with tabular differences. And while we were at it, we also added the
horizontal parallax when it has a meaning, namely for the Moon, the Sun, Venus
and Mars.

88
Appendices

- 89 -
Triangle resolution

a, b, and c are known, we are looking for α, betγ.

b2 c 2−a 2
α= acos 
2×b×c

c 2a 2 −b2
β= acos 
2×c×a

a 2b 2−c 2
γ= acos 
2×a×b

90
Capable arches
It is about demonstrating that the locus of points that intercept a segment under the
the same angle is a circle.
We proceed in two stages.
We want to first demonstrate that β = 2 × α.

O is the center of the circle, so the length OC is equal to the length OA, so the
Triangle OAC is isosceles. Therefore, the angle at C is equal to the angle at A.
γ = 180° - 90° - 2α = 90° - 2α.
β + γ = 90°
β + 90° - 2α = 90° therefore β = 2α

91
This being established, we move on to the next figure. If segment AB is constant,
the angle α + β is invariant.

Thus, wherever point C is located on the circle, the sum γ + δ is equal to the
half of (α+β). (α+β) being invariant, (γ+δ) is also.
And there it is.

92
Mercator and Increasing Latitude

The 'Increasing Latitude' is the foundation of map construction.

Mercator.
For the latitude φ, λ is the increasing latitude of φ, expressed in radians.

Attention: We are using natural logarithms (ln), and the value found is
expressed in radians.

It is reminded that π/4 radians = 45°.

This is the formula we use to construct Mercator maps.

These maps have the major advantage of representing loxodromes through
straight lines. Even if the problem were simple, the solution is not.
completely trivial!

Using this formula, it is possible to create strong Mercator canvases.

commodes when we make a point by height lines. Such canvases, made
using this formula are provided in a separate document.

Mercator maps cannot represent the poles, which due to the

formula used an increasing infinite latitude (tan(90°)=∞). The latitude
growing actually expresses the scale to consider - the ratio between a degree of
latitude and one degree of longitude – at a given latitude.

Example:
Increasing latitude of 45°. In the formula above, we have φ=45°. We
First find tan(67.5°), we get 2.41421. The natural logarithm of this
value is 0.88137, which we convert from radians to degrees to find
50.498986°, or 50°29.94'.

This means that at a latitude of 45°, the representation on a Mercator map of

this value is at a longitude of 50°29.94'.

The following figure illustrates the previous calculation.

Also note the expansion of the latitude scale as one
approaches the pole.

93
The arc of the circle shown on the map is centered on the point with coordinates 0,0.
It is observed that the same distance corresponds to 45°N and 50°29.9'W.

- 94 -
Equation of time
As we have seen, it is a data correlated with the time of passage at the meridian.
We will also see why we continue to talk about the passage time at the meridian.
and the equation of time.

The fact is that the sun does not cross the meridian at noon, even though one might be tempted.
to think that this is indeed the definition of what noon should be.
Here is why:
The Earth rotates 360 degrees on itself in 24 hours.
In addition, it moves around the sun, which it orbits in something
as 365.25 days. And that's where it gets interesting.
A small drawing is worth more than a long speech, especially when you exaggerate.
the scale of the problem.

We consider the earth, in A. The sun is located in the direction of the line in
long dashes.
24 hours later, the ground is in B. The long dashed line recalls the direction
that the sun had the day before. However, we observe - with the fine dotted line
that the sun has already passed the meridian. From noon to noon, less than
24 hours.

The passing time at Greenwich is given in the ephemerides. This time of

the passage evolves from day to day, and requires interpolation if we are looking for the
time taken for a celestial body to reach a longitude different from that of Greenwich.

The equation of time is actually the difference that exists between local noon and the
time of passage of a celestial body. This equation of time can be interpolated,
while the passage time at Greenwich can only be the

95
time of passage... in Greenwich. Indeed, the time of passage in Greenwich
evolves day by day. The greatness that changes - continuously - is
called the 'equation of time'.
To rephrase the problem, try to answer this question:
How could the time of passage at Greenwich vary in
function of longitude?

That is why this notion of the equation of time was introduced, to resolve this
ambiguity generated by the interpolation of the passage time at Greenwich.

96
Simplified use of logarithm tables

The tables provide the decimal logarithms.

∀ x∈ℝ *,∃!n∈ℤ/ x=10.x' , x'∈ℝ∪[1, 10[

n

+
log x =log x ' log 10 n =log x ' n

Translation for others:

For every positive non-zero real number x, there exists a unique integer n such that
x=x'.10, where x' is a real number greater than or equal to 1, and less than 10.

log(x') is called the mantissa of log(x), log x '  ∈ℝ∪[0, 1[since 1 ≤x< 10, and
that log(1) = 0, and log(10) = 1, because 1 = 100, and 10 = 101.
nis called the characteristic of log(x), ∈ℤ .

So,
x'∈ℝ∪[1, 10[
log x '  ∈ℝ∪[0, 1[
n∈ ℤ

consequently:
log(x) = n + mantissa
log(x) = n + 0,......

if n ≥ 0 then log(x) = n + [Link]

if n < 0 then log(x) = -n + 0,xxxxx noted n,xxxxx (negative characteristic,
always positive35.

About the highlighted features:

This notation does not seem to be adopted universally.
As we will see, the part of the table used to look up the logarithm of a
name it for numbers between 1 and 10. This has the consequence
to produce only positive or zero logarithm values.
However, the part of the table that will provide the logarithms of the lines
trigonometric will have to do it among others for numbers between
-1 and +1 (like sine and cosine). It's there that we might potentially see.
appear this notation where the characteristic is highlighted.
Many tables use another type of notation for these same
It's very practical, when adding more than two digits (two logarithms), we
add the mantissas, and we only have subtraction to do with the characteristics.

97
values.
Let's take the case of log(sin(30°)). Sin(30°) is equal to ½, so its logarithm is therefore
less than zero.
The French tables of Bouvart and Ratinet indicate 1.69897, which means
-1 + 0.69897 equals -0.30103.
Other tables – English or American – will indicate 9.69897, for
signify the same thing. In this case, we find the value to use by subtracting
10 to the value of the table. It is necessary to be warned...

The table provides the logarithms of numbers from 1 to 10.

What we are looking for – and what we will find in the table – is the logarithm of x'.

We are in decimal logs, so

log 101equals 1
log 102= 2
log 103= 3
etc.

Before proceeding, in order to use the table, it is therefore necessary to

reduce the number for which we seek the logarithm to a number between 1 and
10, and to preserve its characteristic.

Example:
Search for the logarithm of a 4-digit number: log(2745).

2745 = 2,745.103
so log(2745) = 3 + log(2.745)

98
So we are looking in the table, not for 2,745, but for 2745.
274 in the left column, and the last digit - 5 - in one column of the
table.
The log of 2.745 is at the intersection of line 274 and column 5.
log(2,745) = 0.43854.

So log(2745) = 3.43854.

In the same way, we are looking for the logarithm of 0.2745.

0.2745 = 2.745 x 10-1, the value to look for in the table remains the same.
So log(0.2745) = -1 + log(2.745), which is 0.43854 - 1, or -0.56146.

Another example:
log(2,517) = ?

99
It is noted here that the value is preceded by an asterisk (*). This means that this
value refers (the first 2 digits of the mantissa) to the following line, namely
0.40088, and not 0.39088.

- 100 -
 Logarithm of a five-digit number
Example:
Finding the value of log(28,864).
As before, we reduce to a number between 1 and 10:
Log (28,864) = log(2,8864.101)
Then we place this number between two 4-digit values:
2.886 < 2.8864 < 2.887

From the table, we determine:

0.46030
0.46045

The difference between the two logarithm values is 0.00015, or 15 cents.

thousandths.

In the far right column, we are looking for the table titled 15, it is the
tabular difference (noted here36P.P., Partial Part). We are looking for the value of
log(2,8864), on a celle de log(2,886). So we have a difference of 0.0004, or 4
ten-thousandths. The fourth line of the tabular difference gives a value of 6.0 (cent-
thousandths), which is then added to the value of log(2.886):
log(2.8864) = 0.46030 + 0.000060 = 0.460360.

Put differently:
0.46030
+ 6.0
0.46036

Thus, log(28,864) = 1.46036.

This is an American table.

- 101 -
Logarithm of trigonometric functions:

It is not necessary here to reduce the value of the number to be searched. The table
give the values of common trigonometric functions for angle values
pre-defined. The accuracy is generally on the order of an arc minute, some
tables go up to the second of arc.
What should be prioritized is the grading system.
employee, highlighted characteristic, or 10 to subtract from the value.
It is easy to discern the grading system used, if one remembers that the
sine and cosine are necessarily between -1 and +1. A glance is enough to
to know if in their cases, the characteristic is highlighted, or greater than 1.

Height correction tables

Available in a separate document37.

37On [Link]

- 102 -
Ephemeris of October 8 and 9, 2009

- 103 -
104
105
Tables of Dieumegard
Available in a separate document38.

Battle Tables
Available in a separate document39.

Links

All documents marked with the mention 'Available in a document'

separate" are available on[Link]

Invalid [Link]/wiki/Navigation_by_dead_reckoning
[Link]
Invalid [Link] to translate URL.
Invalid input. Please provide text for translation.Ttraverse_board
[Link]
existing

Google Books has digitized many books dealing with the theory of
navigation, some date back to the 18th centurye century, and are worth the detour.

38 On [Link]
39 On [Link]

106
Written in 2009-2010.
Cover illustration by Arthur Le Diouris.

107