CE422: PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING
(Water & Wastewater Engineering)
BY
Dr. Revanuru Subramanyam
Department of Civil Engineering
Papua New Guinea University of Technology
2023 1
Chapter: II
Wastewater Characteristics and Flow
➢Domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater, seepage and
inflow, standards and rules.
Wastewater treatment- Primary treatment
➢Pre treatment, Unit Operations & Processes – objectives,
principles, functions and design of screens, grit chambers and
primary sedimentation tanks.
❖ Course Outcome
▪ Explain the characteristics of domestic and industrial
wastewater
▪ Design the water unit processes and wastewater unit processes
Domestic sewage consists of liquid wastes originating from
urinals, latrines, bath-rooms, kitchen sinks, wash basins, etc. of
the residential, commercial or institutional buildings. This sewage
is generally extremely foul, because of the presence of human
excreta in it.
Industrial sewage consists of liquid wastes originating from the
industrial processes of various industries, such as Dyeing, Paper
making, Brewing, etc.
The quantity of Industrial sewage depends largely upon the type
of industry and the chemicals used in their process waters.
Sometimes, they may be very foul and may require extensive
treatment before being disposed of in public sewers.
The sum total of domestic and industrial sewage, may be termed
as sanitary sewage or simply sewage. It comprises of 99.9%
water and 0.1% solids.
5
Typical Wastewater Composition (1/2)
6
Typical Wastewater Composition (2/2)
7
Standards for discharge of sewage in surface waters
Characteristic of the Tolerance limit for Discharge of
Effluent Sewage in Surface Water Sources
BOD5 20 mg/L
TSS 30 mg/L
Wastewater Quantity Estimation
The flow of sanitary sewage alone in the absence of storms in dry
season is known as dry weather flow (DWF).
Quantity= Per capita sewage contributed per day x Population
Sanitary sewage is mostly the spent water of the community draining
into the sewer system.
It has been observed that a small portion of spent water is lost in
evaporation, seepage in ground, leakage, etc.
Usually 80% of the water supply may be expected to reach the
sewers.
Fluctuations in Dry Weather Flow
Since dry weather flow depends on the quantity of water
used, and as there are fluctuations in rate of water
consumption, there will be fluctuations in dry weather
flow also.
In general, it can be assumed that
(i)Maximum daily flow = 2 x average daily flow
(ii) Minimum daily flow = 2/3 x (average daily flow)
Population Equivalent
Population equivalent is a parameter used in the conversion of
contribution of wastes from industrial establishments for accepting
into sanitary sewer systems.
The strength of industrial sewage is, thus, written as
Std. BOD5 = (Std. BOD5 of domestic sewage per person per day) x
(population equivalent)
12
13
Flow measurement
The most common devices used for measuring flows in a
wastewater treatment plant are
(1) Parshal flumes and
(2) Palmer-Bowlus flumes.
These devices are essentially open-channel venturimeters
have an established flow-head relationship, from which
flow is determined by simply measuring the water elevation
at a given point.
What is Parshal flume and who invented it
A Parshall flume has a special shaped open channel flow section
which may be installed in a ditch,canal, or lateral to measure the
flow rate. The Parshall flume is a particular form of venturi flume
and is named for its principal developer, the late Mr. Ralph L.
Parshall.
Palmer-Bowlus flumes
The Palmer Bowlus Flumes were designed to be a simple
and effective wastewater flow-measuring device.
Physical Unit Operations
The physical unit operations most commonly used in
wastewater treatment include (1) Screening (2) Flow
equalization (3) Coarse solids reduction (Communition) (4)
Mixing and Flocculation (5) Grit removal (6) Sedimentation (7)
Filtration and (8) Flotation
Screening
The first unit operation generally encountered in wastewater
treatment plant is screening.
A screen is a device with openings , generally uniform size that is
said to retain solids found in the influent wastewater to the
treatment plant.
The principal role of screening is to remove coarse materials from
the flow stream that could damage subsequent process
equipment.
Fine screens are sometimes used in place of or following coarse
screens where greater removals of solids are required to protect
process equipment.
Classification of Screens
Note:
1. Coarse and Fine screens are used in preliminary treatment of wastewater.
2. Micro screens are removed in using fine solids from treated effluents.
Location : Should be installed ahead of the grit chamber.
Approach Velocity: Velocity of approach is limited to
approximately 0.45 m/s to provide screen area.
Headloss through the screens: Headloss through mechanically
cleaned coarse screens is limited to about 150 mm. The headloss
through the coarse screen can be estimated using the following
equation
Design a grit chamber for a city with population 350,000 with water
consumption of 300 lpcd.
Assume:
Sewage generation = 85% of water supply
Maximum flow =2.5 X average flow
Horizontal velocity = 0.2 m/s
Detention period = 1 minute
36
skimming tank is a chamber so arranged that the floating matter like oil, fat, grease etc.,
rise and remain on the surface of the wastewater (Sewage) until removed, while the
liquid flows out continuously under partitions or baffles.
It is necessary to remove the floating matter from sewage otherwise it may appear in the
form of unsightly scum on the surface of the settling tanks or interfere with the activated
sludge process of sewage treatment. It is mostly present in the industrial sewage.
Design of Skimming Tank
Design flow = 0.924 m3/s
Vr = 0.25 m/minute
Depth = 3 m
L/B = 1.5 m
The surface area required for the skimming
tank A = 6.22 x 10-3 x q/vr
39
FLOW EQUALIZATION
✓ The wastewater to be treated in the wastewater treatment plant has a lot of
variations in flow rate, concentration of pollutants and characteristics.
✓ A wastewater treatment plant already designed for some flow rate and
loading rate can’t sustain such large seasonal or other variations in flow rate.
✓ Flow equalization is a method to overcome problems related to fluctuations
in flow rate & pollution load.
✓ Flow equalisation basin is located after most of the primary treatment units
such as screening and grit removal but before primary sedimentation.
✓ Flow equalisation method controls the short term, high volumes of incoming
flow, called surges, through the use of basin. It helps in equalizing the flow
rate and optimizing the time required for treatment in secondary and tertiary
processes. It also helps in lowering the strength wastewater by diluting it
with wastewater already present in the equalization basin.
✓ Basin volume and dimensions, mixing and air requirements, etc. are the
basic things that are considered in designing an equalisation basin.
Advantages
✓ Helps in improving the performance of down- stream
operations and reduces the operating & capital cost of down-
stream process.
✓ Biological treatment is enhanced because of elimination of
shock load due to flow rate & pollution load.
✓ Thickner/ settler and filter performance gets enhanced and
their required surface area gets reduced.
Disadvantages
➢ Large land area may be required.
➢ Additional capital and operating cost may be required.
➢ May cause odor problem for nearby residential colonies.
Chapter: 3
SECONDARY TREATMENT
➢Aerobic treatment
oSuspended growth aerobic treatment processes; Activated
sludge process and its modifications;
oAttached growth aerobic processes; Tricking filters and
Rotating biological contactors;
➢Nitrification, denitrification; Phosphorus removal
Microbial growth and food utilization
2 3 4
Classification of biological treatment processes
Activated Sludge Process
The most common suspended growth process used for municipal wastewater treatment
is the activated sludge process as shown in figure:
Q=Influent , m3/d
S=Food (BOD) concentration, kg/m3
V= Volume, m3
F/M=QS0/VX X=Biomass Concentration(MLVSS),kg/m3
F/M=Mass of BOD removed/Biomass in the reactor
Activated sludge plant involves:
1. wastewater aeration in the presence of a microbial suspension,
2. solid-liquid separation following aeration,
3. discharge of clarified effluent,
4. wasting of excess biomass, and
5. return of remaining biomass to the aeration tank.
In activated sludge process wastewater containing organic matter is
aerated in an aeration basin in which micro-organisms metabolize the
suspended and soluble organic matter.
Part of organic matter is synthesized into new cells and part is oxidized
to CO2 and water to derive energy.
In activated sludge systems the new cells formed in the reaction are
removed from the liquid stream in the form of a flocculent sludge in
settling tanks.
A part of this settled biomass, described as activated sludge is returned
to the aeration tank and the remaining forms waste or excess sludge.
Conventional System and its Modifications
Over the years, several modifications to the conventional system have been
developed to meet specific treatment objectives.
In step aeration settled sewage is introduced at several points along the tank
length which produces more uniform oxygen demand throughout.
Tapered aeration attempts to supply air to match oxygen demand along the
length of the tank.
The diffusers are close together at the influent end where more oxygen is
needed. •
Toward the other end of the aeration basin, the spacing of the diffusers is
increased.
Contact stabilization provides for reaeration of return activated
sludge from the final clarifier, which allows a smaller aeration or
contact tank.
Completely mixed process aims at instantaneous mixing of the
influent waste and return sludge with the entire contents of the
aeration tank.
Extended aeration: It utilizes a large aeration basin where a high
population of microorganisms is maintained. It has a channel in the
shape of a race track, with rotors being used to supply oxygen and
maintain circulation. Typically the process produces high-quality
effluent and less activated sludge.
Design Criteria for Activated Sludge Process
The major criteria that are usually assumed for the
design of activated sludge plants are as follows:
- The number of aeration tanks, N= MINIMUM 2 (for
small plants) and usually = 4 or more (for large
plants)
- Depth of wastewater in the tank= 4.5-7.5 m (for
diffuse aeration), = 1.0-6.0 m (for surface aeration)
- Free board = 0.3-0.6 m ( for diffuse aeration)
= 1.0-1.5 m (for surface or mechanical aeration)
- For rectangular aeration tank, L:B=5:1 (for each
channel for large plants) , B:D=3:1To 4:1 (depends on
the aeration system).
Design Criteria for Activated Sludge Process
- Air requirement:
i) 20-55 m3 of air/kg of BOD removed for diffuse
aeration when F/M>=0.3
ii) 70-115 m3 of air/kg of BOD removed when
F/M<=0.3
- Power required for complete mixing :10-14 kW/1000
m3 of tank volume for surface aeration system.
Problem: Design a conventional activated sludge plant to treat
domestic sewage, given the following data:
Design flow = 30 MLD
BOD5 of sewage = 250 mg/l
BOD removed in primary treatment = 25%
Effluent BOD5 = 20 mg/l
F/M ratio = 0.4
MLSS = 3500 mg/l
Assume depth of tank = 5 m and b/d = 3
Use equation F/M = QS0/VX
63
b/d= 3 ;
b= 3x5=15 m
L= 1795/15x5= 24 m
HRT= V/Q = 1795/15x1000/24 = 2.9 h
Trickling Filters
Trickling filter is an attached growth process i.e. process in which microorganisms
responsible for treatment are attached to an inert packing material.
Packing material used in attached growth processes include rock, gravel, slag, sand,
redwood, and a wide range of plastic and other synthetic materials.
Trickling Filter
Process Description
The wastewater in trickling filter is distributed over the top area of
a vessel containing non-submerged packing material.
Air circulation in the void space, by either natural draft or blowers,
provides oxygen for the microorganisms growing as an attached
biofilm.
During operation, the organic material present in the wastewater
is metabolized by the biomass attached to the medium.
The biological slime grows in thickness as the organic matter
abstracted from the flowing wastewater is synthesized into new
cellular material.
The thickness of the aerobic layer is limited by the depth of
penetration of oxygen into the microbial layer.
The micro-organisms near the medium face enter the endogenous
phase as the substrate is metabolized before it can reach the
micro-organisms near the medium face as a result of increased
thickness of the slime layer and loose their ability to cling to the
media surface. The liquid then washes the slime off the medium
and a new slime layer starts to grow. This phenomenon of losing
the slime layer is called sloughing.
The sloughed off film and treated wastewater are collected by an
under drainage which also allows circulation of air through filter.
The collected liquid is passed to a settling tank used for solid-
liquid separation.
Types of Filters
Trickling filters are classified as high rate or low rate, based on the organic and
hydraulic loading applied to the unit.
[Link]. Design Feature Low Rate Filter High Rate Filter
Hydraulic loading,
1. 1-4 10 - 40
m3/m2.d
Organic loading,
2. 0.08 - 0.32 0.32 - 1.0
kg BOD / m3.d
3. Depth, m. 1.8 - 3.0 0.9 - 2.5
0.5 - 3.0 (domestic
wastewater) up to 8 for
4. Recirculation ratio 0
strong industrial
wastewater.
Process Design
Generally trickling filter design is based on empirical relationships to find the required
filter volume for a designed degree of wastewater treatment.
Types of equations:
1. NRC equations (National Research Council of USA)
2. Rankin's equation
3. Eckenfelder equation
4. Galler and Gotaas equation
NRC and Rankin's equations are commonly used. NRC equations give satisfactory
values when there is no re-circulation, the seasonal variations in temperature are not
large and fluctuations with high organic loading.
Rankin's equation is used for high rate filters.
Design a low rate filter to treat 4.5 MLD of sewage
with BOD of 250 mg/l. The final effluent should be 30
mg/l and organic loading rate is 320 g/m3/d. Assume
30% of BOD load removed in primary sedimentation
tank and depth of filter is 2 m.
The Rotating Biological Contactor Process
In the Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC) process, the media is in the form of a drum.
The microorganisms grow on this drum.
The drum is slowly rotated, periodically submerging the microorganisms in the
wastewater, where they are able to remove organic materials from the wastewater for
food.
80
81
Rotating Biological Contactor
Nitrification
▪ The biological conversion of ammonium to nitrate nitrogen
is called Nitrification.
▪ Nitrification is a two-step process.
▪ In first step, bacteria known as Nitrosomonas can convert
ammonia and ammonium to nitrite. These bacteria known
as nitrifiers are strictly aerobes. Next, bacteria called
Nitrobacter finish the conversion of nitrite to nitrate.
83
Denitrification
▪ Denitrification is accomplished under anaerobic or near
anaerobic conditions by facultative heterotrophic bacteria
commonly found in wastewater.
▪ Nitrates are removed by two mechanisms: (1) conversion of
NO3 to N2 gas by bacterial metabolism and (2) conversion of
NO3 to nitrogen contained in cell mass which may be
removed by settling.
▪ Denitrification occurs when oxygen levels are depleted and
nitrate becomes the primary electron acceptor source for
microorganisms.
➢ Denitrification can be carried out as attached growth
(anaerobic filter) and suspended growth process (expanded
84
bed or UASB reactor).
Phosphorus removal (1/3)
• Normally secondary treatment can only remove 1-2 mg/l of
phosphorus, so a large excess of phosphorus is discharged
in the final effluent, causing eutrophication of lakes and
natural water bodies.
• Generally it appears as orthophosphate, polyphosphate and
organically bound phosphorus.
• Phosphate removal is currently achieved largely by chemical
precipitation, which is expensive and causes an increase of
sludge volume by up to 40%.
• An alternative is the biological phosphate removal (BPR),
which is accomplished by sequencing and producing the
appropriate environmental condition in the reactors.
85
Phosphorus removal (2/3)
• Acinetobacter organisms are helpful for removal of
phosphorus from effluent.
• Under anaerobic conditions, phosphorus accumulating
organisms (PAO) assimilate fermentation products (i.e.
volatile fatty acids) into storage products within the cells with
the concomitant release of phosphorus from stored
polyphosphates.
• Release of phosphorus occurs under anoxic condition.
• The BPR requires both aerobic and anaerobic zones in
reactors for efficient treatment.
• Generally, lime precipitation is most commonly used for
phosphorus removal. Phosphorus is removed in the waste
sludge from the system.
86
Phosphorus removal (3/3)
87
