Table of contents

Foreword
The detection of a failure in an electrical/electronic system of motor vehicles
requires a logical and systematic approach. In particular, it is necessary to determine whether a symptom
must be considered as the cause or as a consequence of a failure. After all, you
you can save a lot of time by familiarizing yourself with the system beforehand and analyzing
the complaint with rigor.
A person who works in a garage as a professional or who trains other people.
must be able to refer quickly and reliably to these basic principles as well as to the details
systems. This manual aims to provide this information, combined with the course
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive sector. Theory and practice are therefore
linked.
This is how this brochure offers in-depth insights into the current state of the art.
automobile and future developments to mechanics, particularly regarding the
diagnostics, failure detection, and advice for garages.
You will find more information and assistance for the diagnosis on the site:
[Link]
This manual is part of the European project 'Diagnostic Techniques in the Automotive Sector' which
is supported by the Interreg-II community initiative of the European Union, the community
German-speaking, the federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia and EDUCAM.
We wish you good luck.
The project team
July 2001
Diagnostic technique in the automotive field
1
Table of contents
Table of Contents
I
Introduction
1.
1.1.
The main steps for an effective diagnosis .................................................. 6
Incident search table for detection and repair of
failures of electronic installations .................................................................7
II
1.
1.1.
1.2.
1.2.1.
1.2.2.
1.2.3.
1.3.
1.4.
2.
Measurement technique for electrical circuits
The multimeter .......................................................................................................... 8
Working with the multimeter
Measurements with the multimeter ........................................................................... 10
Measurement of tension ............................................................................................ 10
Measurement of current intensity ........................................................................... 11
Measurement of resistance ....................................................................................... 11
Ammeter clamp ......................................................................................... 12
Instructions for work in the workshop ..................................................... 12
The oscilloscope ....................................................................................................... 13
The probes of an oscilloscope ................................................................. 14
Oscilloscope control elements ................................................................. 14
AC/DC/GND Setting ........................................................................................... 14
Adjustment of the Y-axis ............................................................................................... 15
Adjustment of the X axis ............................................................................................... 15
Trigger Adjustment ................................................................................................ 16
Safety instructions ......................................................................................... 17
2.1.
2.2.
2.2.1.
2.2.2.
2.2.3.
2.2.4.
2.3.
III
1.
1.1
1.2
1.1.1.
1.1.2.
2.
2.1.
2.2.
2.2.1.
2.2.2.
2.3.
2.3.1.
2.3.2.
2.3.3.
Wiring diagrams
Wiring diagrams ............................................................................................ 18
Connection diagram ..................................................................................... 18
Table of contents
2.
Electronic control device .................................................................... 31
Analog-to-digital converter (A/D) .......................................................... 31
Impulse conformer (CI) .............................................................. 31
Voltage regulator .......................................................................................... 31
Microprocessor (Central unit) .......................................................................... 32
Actuators ...................................................................................... 32
Diagnosis, corrective measures for defects, workshop notes ................................ 34
Error detection procedure ..................................................................... 34
Handling of electronic systems ............................................................. 34
Notes concerning the practical work ..................................................................... 35
Component checks for different relays ....................................................... 35
Relay - Mini ISO
Relay - Micro ISO ................................................................................................ 35
Measurement of sensors and actuators
Control the throttle potentiometer using the oscilloscope ................ 36
Check the position and rotational speed sensor of the engine at
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
3.
4.
4.1.
4.2.
5.
5.1.
5.1.1.
5.1.2.
5.2.
5.2.1.
5.2.2.
the help of the oscilloscope .......................................................................................... 37
Control the injection signal using the oscilloscope ......................................... 37
5.2.3.
V
1.
1.1.
1.1.1.
Systems on vehicles
Engine management systems ................................................................................ 38
Management of gasoline engines ........................................................................... 38
Composition ......................................................................................................... 38
Injection system ............................................................................................... 38
Continuous and intermittent injection ............................................................... 38
Monopoint and multipoint injection .......................................................................... 39
Regulation of injection ........................................................................................ 39
Fuel pump ............................................................................................... 40
Pressure regulator ........................................................................................ 41
Vibration dampener ....................................................................................... 42
Injector ............................................................................................................... 42
Engine management system .................................................................................. 44
Electronic order ...................................................................................... 44
Determination of the amount of fuel to be injected ............................................. 45
Ignition system ............................................................................................. 46
Sensors and actuators ......................................................................................... 47
E.O.B.D. Regulation ..................................................................................... 53
Diagnostic, defect suppression and instructions for the workshop ......................... 56
Systematic fault finding through preliminary checks ..................... 56
Ignition oscillogram ................................................................................... 57
Table of contents
[Link].
[Link].
1.2.4.
Pump-conduit-injector (PLD) ......................................................... 66
Collector injection system - 'Common-Rail' system............................... 67
Sensors, control and adjustment elements ........................................................ 68
Pedal position sensor .............................................................................. 68
Regime probe .................................................................................................. 68
Measurement of air mass flow rate ............................................................................ 68
Needle lift sensor ................................................................................... 69
Other sensors
Regulation of the start of injection on distribution injection pumps ......... 70
Exhaust gas recirculation .................................................................. 71
Boost pressure regulation ....................................................... 71
Altitude probe .................................................................................................... 71
Boost pressure limitation solenoid valve ................................ 71
Glow plug indicator light ...................................................................... 71
Diagnostic, defect suppression, workshop instructions ............................ 72
Systematic search for defects through preliminary checks ......................... 72
Quick verification of the electronic injection system ......................................... 73
Exhaust gas check ..................................................................... 76
[Link].
[Link].
[Link].
[Link].
[Link].
[Link].
[Link].
[Link].
[Link].
[Link].
[Link].
1.2.5.
[Link].
[Link].
[Link].
2.
2.1.
Rolling dynamics ......................................................................................... 77
Anti-lock braking system ........................................................................................... 78
Bases of ABS regulation .................................................................................. 78
Types of ABS systems
Ranking of ABS systems operating according to the hydraulic principle ....... 79
The regulation process ................................................................................... 79
ABS Variants ................................................................................................... 79
Types of regulation .............................................................................................. 80
Braking skating ............................................................................................ 80
ABS workspace ...................................................................................... 80
The individual components and their function .......................................................... 81
Electronic distribution of the braking force .................................................... 81
Regulation of traction skating .............................. 82
Electronic stability program .................................................................... 83
ESP in case of a sudden evasive maneuver .............................................. 83
ESP in case of understeering and oversteering ......................................................... 84
ESP regulation loop .............................................................................. 84
Individual components and their function .......................................................... 85
The essential components ................................................................................... 85
Overview of the system with its sensors, processing and actuators ................. 85
Some sensors ............................................................................................... 86
Input and output signals ................................................................................ 87
Table of contents
[Link].
[Link].
3.1.4.
[Link].
[Link].
[Link].
[Link].
3.1.6.
Electrical diagram of an air conditioning system with expansion valve ... 93
Electrical diagram of a fixed nozzle air conditioning system ............. 94
Diagnostics, defect suppression, workshop instructions ............................ 95
Correct use of a manual air conditioning system ...................... 95
Make a diagnosis by measuring the pressure ......................................................... 95
Troubleshooting table for expansion valve systems ................ 96
Defect search table for systems with fixed orifice expanders ...... 97
Control Organizational Chart ............................................................ 98
Practical advice ................................................................................................ 99
Safety measures ............................................................................................. 99
Recycling station ........................................................................................... 100
3.1.7.
[Link].
[Link].
3.2.
Central locking ............................................................................................. 101
Central locking operation mode .............................................. 101
Electronic central locking ........................................................................ 101
Electropneumatic central locking ..............................................................102
Double locking ............................................................................................. 103
Remote control ........................................................................................ 103
Practical work instructions ............................................................................. 103
3.2.1.
[Link].
[Link].
3.2.2.
3.2.3.
3.2.4.
4.
4.1
Security systems ......................................................................................... 104
Restraint system ........................................................................................... 104
The airbag .............................................................................................................. 104
Components ....................................................................................................... 105
Operating mode .................................................................................... 105
Belt tensioner ........................................................................................... 107
Wiring diagram .................................................................................... 107
Diagnostics, troubleshooting and indications for the workshop ......................... 108
Practical work instructions ............................................................................ 108
4.1.1.
[Link].
[Link].
4.1.2.
4.1.3.
4.1.4.
4.1.5.
4.2.
4.2.1.
Electronic anti-theft
Electronic anti-theft with transponder ................................. 109
Key with transponder ....................................................................................... 110
Transceiver module ................................................................................ 110
Introduction
I Introduction
The detection and repair of faults require a good knowledge and experience of
system concerned.
Random failure research is part of the past. Now, we must take action.
with full knowledge during the maintenance and repair of vehicles. With
know-how and reflection.
The word 'diagnostic' encompasses much more than the sequence of a series of steps in order to find the
solution to a certain problem. It is a way of examining failing systems in order to
find the cause of the failure. This involves knowledge of how the system works and the
ability to recognize a system that is functioning properly.
The mechanic must know how the system works.
For a modern vehicle, the wiring diagram is as important as the principle of
operation. In order to detect a failure, the mechanic must be able to read and use
the wiring diagram. After all, sixty percent of electronic system failures are
due to defective connectors and faulty conductors.
A mechanic who wants to be able to make an effective diagnosis for
An electrical/electronic system of a modern vehicle must rely on a
detailed wiring diagram.
Failures that occur from time to time (with regular intermittence) pose a
specific problem. In principle, it is necessary to reproduce the failure in order to establish the diagnosis of such a
defect. However, this is not always possible in the case of intermittent failures. That is why the
failure often needs to be detected in another way: for example, not searching for the
failure directly but rather exclude the parts that were perfectly in order during a
previous control.
When searching for the failure, work logically and remember
you what you learned during the course 'Diagnostic Techniques in the
automotive sector
1. The main steps for an effective diagnosis
The diagnosis is related to basic rules. As long as you follow these rules, you will find
generally the cause of the problem during the first system check. For an effective diagnosis,
The following basic rules must be observed.
Detecting the symptoms of failure
• An important first step in establishing a diagnosis is to ask questions.
specific to the client. This will allow you to rule out handling errors or
requirements too high in relation to the system.
• Check that the client has correctly identified the problem. If necessary, put yourself in the client's shoes.
client and try to complete the complaint.
• Make a trial if necessary.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
6
Introduction
Detect the defect
• The determination of the symptoms of the failure does not necessarily pinpoint its cause.
Your experience can sometimes give you an idea of the possible cause.
• However, the correct research procedure involves examining the relevant part of
systematic manner. This involves a check of the overall state of the system, a check
visual, a control of the mechanical parts as well as a control through testing devices
and appropriate diagnostics.
Repair the identified failure
• Replace or repair the defective parts.
Control the system
• Then check if the system works well.
1.1. Incident search table for detection and repair of
failures of electronic installations
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
7
Measurement technique of electrical circuits
II Measurement technique of electrical circuits
The multimeter
In a motor vehicle, electrical voltage has a decisive influence on safe operation
modules, systems, and control devices. In order to locate faults in the
electric circuit, it is necessary to be able to measure the voltage, current, and electrical resistance at certain points
appropriate measures.
To do this, in the workshop, we generally use multimeters. We distinguish between analog multimeters and
the digital multimeter. In the vehicle workshop, the multimeter is mainly used.
digital, because the digital display is easier to read.
In the following paragraphs, we will only elaborate on what cannot be learned in the
user manual for measuring devices, as it is included with each multimeter.
Analog multimeters contain a moving coil measuring element. They are suitable for
measuring a voltage or current in direct current and alternating current, and also for
certain measures of resistance. Most of the time, the connections for voltage measurement
(V) and the current measurement (A) are distinct, otherwise the measuring instrument could be destroyed in case
switch actuation errors.
1 = Measuring socket for connection to the
mass. Often, it is also referred to
by COM.
2 = Measuring socket for connection of
measure.
3 = Current and voltage measurement scales
and of resistance.
4 = Current range switch, of
tension and resistance.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
8
Measurement technique for electrical circuits
Digital multimeters replace the analog measurement magnitude with a display.
digital. This allows for a higher resolution and the reading is easier. Moreover, on certain
Multimeters allow you to store a measurement value in memory or have a selection.
automatic measurement scale. If there is an appropriate interface, it can be connected to it.
a printer or a computer.
1 = On/Off switch.
2 = Display screen for current values, of
tension and resistance.
3 = Rotary switch for range selection of
current, voltage, and resistance.
4 = Measuring socket for high current.
5 = Measuring socket for current measurement.
6 = Connecting socket to ground. Often,
she is also referred to as COM.
7 = Measuring socket for voltage measurements
and resistance.
When purchasing a digital multimeter, one must check if the internal resistance of the device is not
not too weak. The lower the internal resistance of a voltage measuring device, the more the
the probability of an erroneous measurement is high. The input resistance must be greater than 10 MΩ.
This high input resistance also means that the measurement conductors
openings resume wave tensions, which leads to the display of values on the screen, even
when the measuring conductors are not connected.
To have the lowest margin of error on the result, you need to set the multimeter selector.
analog to ensure that the needle is in the right part of the display.
On analog multimeters, for example, a voltage measurement is given with an accuracy of +/- 2.5
% FE. FE stands for Scale Fund. Behind this lies what follows. Let's suppose we select a
Measurement range of 15 Volts. The full scale is therefore at 15 Volts. A tolerance of + 2.5% on this value.
represents 15 V. 1.025 = 15.375 Volts. The negative tolerance is then 15 V.. 0.975 = 14.625 Volts. According to
For a measurement of exactly 15 Volts, the needle will reach full scale between 14.625 V and 15.375.
V. But this also means that this tolerance is the tension of + 0.375 V and - 0.375 V for the whole of
The scale represents the absolute tolerance on the voltage.
On digital multimeters, the user manual contains the data +/- 0.25% of the value of
measure + 1 digit. This means that to the last digit, you need to add the number 1. Example, 12.64 V is displayed,
with 1 digit, it is actually 12.64 V + 0.01 V = 12.65 V. It is easy to take the characteristic into account
+/- 0.25% It means that each measured value has an 'imprecision' of +/- 0.25%.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
9
Measurement technique of electrical circuits
1.1. Working with the multimeter
When using measurement leads, the black cable should always be used as the cable.
less or of mass. We always measure the object to be measured with the red cable and its measuring tip.
If the multimeter is incorrectly connected, the digital multimeter displays a minus, for example -
4.5 V, but can still be read. The analog multimeter does not give any indication.
For measurements that must be made on an electronic module, caution is
recommended. The digital multimeter is significantly less harsh on electronics than the
analog multimeter, because the current intensity could charge the measured object too strongly.
The analog multimeter applies a voltage of 1.5 V (battery voltage) to its terminals, and at its lowest
ohmic value, it passes a current of, for example, 80 mA. The digital multimeter shows, for example,
a voltage of 2.7 V on its output for a current of only 0.85 mA.
1.2. Measurements with the multimeter
Depending on the nature of the measurement, three things must be taken into account:
Setting the selection switch according to the type and measurement range
Connection of the measuring conductors to the corresponding measuring sockets of
the measuring device
Circuit corresponding to the type of measurement at the measurement location
1.2.1. Measurement of Voltage
A voltage measurement is always connected in parallel across the load. For this reason, the
the internal resistance of the voltage measuring device must also present an ohmic resistance
as high as possible so as not to influence the circuit being measured.
When taking a measurement using a voltage measuring device, it is necessary to take into account the
following elements:
Take into account the type of voltage (AC/DC).
Choose the largest possible measurement range.
For direct current, possibly take the polarity into account.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
10
Measurement technique of electrical circuits
1.2.2. Measurement of current intensity
Un appareil de mesure de courant (ampèremètre) est toujours raccordé en série sur la charge. A cet
In fact, the current circuit conductor must be open in order to insert the measuring device into the circuit.
current circuit. The current must then pass through the measuring device. The internal resistance of
The ammeter must be as low as possible so as not to influence the current circuit.
For measurement using an ammeter, the following elements must be taken into account:
• Take into account the type of current (AC/DC).
• Select the highest possible measurement range.
• For direct current, possibly take polarity into account.
If the current circuit is difficult to access or cannot be opened, it is necessary to measure the voltage on a
known resistance of the current circuit. One can then calculate the current using Ohm's law:
Another possibility is to use a clamp meter, which is used in conjunction with
the multimeter.
1.2.3. Measurement of resistance
To avoid reading errors and inaccuracies, it is best to measure the value of the resistance.
ohmic using a digital multimeter.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
11
Measurement technique of electrical circuits
In the case of a measurement using a resistance measuring device (ohmmeter), it is necessary to hold
account for the following indications:
During the measurement, the component to be measured cannot be connected to a voltage source.
because the measuring device calculates the value of the resistance from the voltage and the
current.
The component to be measured must be separated from a circuit on at least one side. Otherwise, the
Components connected in parallel influence the measurement result.
Polarity plays no role.
1.3. Clamp ammeter
The clamp ammeter allows measuring currents over a wide range, without contact and without
open the current circuit. Most clamp ammeters are also capable of measuring
many alternating currents than direct currents. In the case of current measurements, a
contactless measurement is particularly advantageous, because in this measurement, no shunt of
current does not distort the measurement result. Whether it is an alternating current clamp meter or
continue, the clamp ammeter can only surround a single conductor during measurement. A
Measuring on a multi-strand cable is not always possible.
In association with any multimeter
digital presenting a measurement range
at 200 mV, it is possible to measure some
currents that go from, for example, 0.1 A to
1000 A. The connection is made directly.
on the input socket of the multimeter.
1.4. Guidelines for workshop work
Before using the multimeter, it is advisable to read the user manual carefully.
In the case of analog multimeters, the current and resistance measurement ranges and
sometimes the tension fields can also be destroyed by overload. In the case of a
digital multimeter, all measurement ranges and functions are protected
electronically. However, it often happens that the Ampere output for high current (by
example of 20 A) is not protected.
Incorrect settings of the measuring range can lead to the destruction of the protection.
of the device. Measurements of completely unknown values must start in the range
high measure.
Never take unreliable measurements. The prohibited measurements on a motor vehicle are
without transducer for example: in the high voltage circuit of the ignition system,
in the starter circuit and the resistance measurements on the starting battery. These
measures can endanger life and lead to the destruction of the measuring device.
When measuring on connection connectors, it is always necessary to use cables.
appropriate adaptations to avoid the widening of contacts.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
12
Measurement technique for electrical circuits
2. The oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are measuring devices that can be used in many ways. While the
analog and digital multimeters can only display fixed values, an oscilloscope can
also accurately represent the evolution of alternating and mixed voltages over time. From
Moreover, a multimeter only takes a measurement two to three times per second.
The oscilloscope is particularly important in the field of motor vehicles; if no code
An error has not been logged but disturbances remain present, a test of the components.
is necessary to detect errors on sensors and actuators. With an oscilloscope
(portable) for commerce, and if we have it, in difficult cases, a connection diagram,
Searching for defects can be very fruitful even without a system tester.
There are oscilloscopes whose technical specifications are very different and for the tasks of
the most different measures. In addition, their price varies a lot as well. In the image below, we
has represented two models.
On an analog oscilloscope, the image is
represented permanently on the screen. For
this reason, the extremely short breaks of
detection and representation of the signal of
measures disappear.
A digital oscilloscope detects the signal of
measures at given intervals and presents it on
the screen. This circumstance, which at first glance
may seem disadvantageous, is compensated
by the fact that once detected, the images are
stored in memory and can even be
printed. Thus, one can notice defects
which cannot be detected on the oscilloscope
analog because they only appear
temporarily or last too short a time.
Today, we mainly use two-channel oscilloscopes. They have two circuits.
similar electronics that are called for example channel A and channel B. This allows for representation
simultaneously on the screen two different developments of the tension, and this in temporal association
correcte. Ainsi, un oscilloscope à deux canaux offre par exemple la possibilité de mesurer
simultaneously the input voltage and the output voltage of a circuit and compare them to each other
or to evaluate them. However, each channel can also be used independently for a measurement.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
13
Measurement technique of electrical circuits
2.1. The probes of an oscilloscope
To avoid erroneous measurements, only connectors of a certain type may be used on an oscilloscope.
measures adapted to the device. They are usually called probes. There are different models of
probes, which are distinguished by the maximum frequency they can measure and the height of the
allowable tension that can be applied to them. Depending on the model, the signal is brought directly to
the input of the oscilloscope (probe 1/1) can be weakened by a factor of 10 or 100. The easiest to use is
a combined probe. It can be switched between a 1/1 operation and a 10/1 operation.
Incorporated attenuation probes must be calibrated before each use. To do this,
There is a calibration output on the oscilloscope where a pure rectangular signal can be applied.
recovered. On the probe, there is a small adjustment screw that allows for calibrating the probe. The probe is
correctly balanced when the screen displays a pure rectangular signal (central curve in the
figure below).
2.2. Oscilloscope Control Elements
2.2.1. AC/DC/GND Adjustment
For measuring alternating voltages, we set to AC, and for measuring voltages
it continues, we adjust to DC.
During an AC coupling, the DC component of the voltage is eliminated by filtering to only consider
from the alternative (interesting) part of the voltage, for example the harmonics of the voltage
charge over the entire height of the screen. Unfortunately, this coupling causes the signals to
purely continuous tension is represented with a distortion.
The DC coupling represents the alternative part and the
continuous part of a signal.
Advantage: the signal is represented accurately.
Disadvantage: poor resolution of a part
superimposed alternative
AC coupling filters the alternating part of the voltage.
Advantage: high resolution of the alternative part of
the tension
Disadvantage: false representation of signals
rectangular
With the GND setting, the inputs of amplifier Y are connected to the internal ground. In this
Adjustment, the position of the zero line on the screen can be checked or readjusted without having to
Disconnect the measurement conductor from the measured object.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
14
Measurement technique of electrical circuits
2.2.2. Adjustment of the Y axis
A rotary switch, the Y amplifier, also known as mV/V button, allows for adjustment of the
deflection of the electron beam in the Y direction during each measurement, separately and
independently on the two channels of a two-channel oscilloscope, such that the amplitude
that the measurement voltage is clearly readable. The magnitude of the voltage scale is thus observed on
the Y-axis. The correct selection of the tension scale also defines under which size the signal of
measurement is displayed on the screen.
The voltage measurement range must be selected in such a way as to display a signal on the screen as
as big as possible.
The selected voltage measurement range is too
The voltage range has been correctly selected.
Great. The signal that appears on the screen is too small. The signal appears on the screen at a maximum size.
The point of mass is indicated at the middle of the right edge.
from the screen by a small rectangle.
2.2.3. Adjustment of the X axis
With the rotary switch for the X deviation or TIME key, the X deviation coefficient is set. It
give the time required for the electron beam to pass through a scale graduation (DIV)
in the horizontal direction. Thus, for example, 10 ms/div means that in this setting, the beam
moves one scale graduation to the right in 10 ms. Based on the deviation coefficients X, one
can then calculate the duration T of the period and from it the frequency f of the signal voltage.
On the X axis, we observe the magnitude of the time scale. The correct selection of the time axis.
decide additionally at what width the measurement signal is represented.
The time base must be selected in such a way as to make the entire information visible.
signal. In many applications, for example the measurement of the probe ratio, the solution the
It's simpler to work at a scale of 100% (if available). It's always a period of the signal.
of measure that is then completely represented.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
15
Measurement technique for electrical circuits
The selected time base is too large. The selected time base is too small. Some
it is not possible to observe the signal accurately.
important details of the measurement signal could be
lost.
The selected time zone is correct. A
correct selection of time results in a
practical representation of the signal on the screen.
Representation at 100%. In this representation,
it is always a complete period that is represented
on the screen.
2.2.4. Trigger Adjustment
Le trigger permet de faire toujours débuter le faisceau d'électrons au même endroit de la tension du
signal when the measurement voltage is periodic.
The trigger level determines the voltage level at which the image is displayed on the screen.
This allows for a fixed image for the observer's eye. If the size of the measurement signal is
always below or above the voltage level of the trigger, it is not possible
to obtain a fixed image. The trigger level must be selected so that the signal of
measure crosses the trigger level.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
16
Measurement technique of electrical circuits
The measurement signal is smaller than the level of
The measurement signal is greater than the level of
trigger. The signal is fixed on the screen.
trigger. The signal moves across the screen. The level of
trigger is indicated by a small 'a' on the left edge of
the screen.
Using the edges of the trigger, one can use either the rising edge (positive) or the falling edge.
(negative) of the measurement signal. The correct selection of the trigger edge defines the beginning of the signal.
measure on the screen.
The measurement signal is on the positive edge of the trigger.
The measurement signal is on the negative edge of the trigger.
2.3. Safety instructions
S'assurer que l'on est bien isolé vis-à-vis de la terre. Prendre soin de porter des vêtements
Use rubber mats or another appropriate and reliable insulating material.
When taking a measurement, never touch the conductors or connections.
open or other conductors carrying a voltage.
Diagnostic technique in the automotive field
17
WIRING DIAGRAMS
III Wiring diagrams
To manufacture parts, we need a manufacturing drawing, for the construction of a house.
of a construction plan and for electronic circuits, both for their manufacturing and for the
fault finding in case of failures, which may eventually be necessary later, a plan of
wiring is essential.
In automobiles, a complete wiring diagram is particularly important. Because,
On one hand, the length of the cables often reaches several hundred meters and they are placed
in the form of bundles; on the other hand, only these plans allow for reliable detection
how the different functions are associated in the circuit.
Connection diagrams
In the connection diagrams, one distinguishes the connection diagram and the wiring diagram.
detailed and the overall wiring diagram.
1.1 Connection Diagram
In the wiring diagram, one can see the connection points of an electrical device and
the conductive connections that are connected to it. For this reason, this plan generally serves as a document
for the connection or replacement of electrical components.
For this purpose, the components of an electrical installation are represented with the wiring diagram.
who is associated with it, all the connection points as well as the designations of the prescribed terminals
according to DIN, most of the time depending on their position. The representation of the diagram of
The connection is not made at scale and generally overlooks the internal wiring of the devices.
The standardized connection symbols are represented in solid lines, and the device enclosures
in interrupted strokes.
Pictorial connection diagram
Wiring diagram with symbols of
connection
1.2. Circuit diagram
The wiring diagram is particularly important for the motor vehicle mechanic because
that allows for clear recognition of electrical paths and operations.
To represent the components using drawings, connection symbols and
designation of terminals.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
18
WIRING DIAGRAMS
1.2.1. Detailed circuit diagram
In this type of representation, the paths of the current (from positive to negative) are represented from
detailed manner. The connection elements are represented separately without considering their
position in the vehicle.
F 31
F 32
K 54
K 55
K 45
Protection 20A
Protection 30A
281 = Control witnesses, instrument
P 31 = Throttle potentiometer
P 35 = Induction Pulse Generator
H 44 = Engine control indicator
X 13 = Diagnostic sheet
R 2 Carburetor preheating
R 7 Preheating the mixture
Y 26 = Throttle actuator
Y 23 = High voltage distribution
Carburetor order
Carburetor relay
Preheating relay of
mixture
Ignition coil
Temperature probe, air
of admission
L3
P 29
P 30
Temperature probe, fluid of
cooling
Y 27 = Primary choke butterfly
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
19
WIRING DIAGRAMS
1.2.2. Global circuit diagram
Here, the individual components of a circuit, the network of conductors, the internal wiring of devices
as well as the mutual association of different circuits are represented in the most
synthetic. The route of the drivers must be as visible as possible. It does not take into account
from the spatial position of individual devices. The mechanical joints are characterized by
junction lines in dashed lines.
2. Drawing and reading wiring diagrams
If one wants to 'read' a connection diagram, a detailed wiring diagram or a diagram of
global wiring, it is necessary to understand the foundations on which these wiring diagrams were based
established.
2.1. Generalities
• Most of the time, connection diagrams are drawn in their powered-off state and the
devices in their resting position. The connection diagrams are read from top to bottom.
• The conductors must be drawn visibly, meaning that the conductors must
to be presented if possible in straight vertical or horizontal lines. We must largely avoid the
intersections.
• All parts of the connection diagram must be drawn with lines of the same thickness.
Exceptions are possible for the login symbols and the components that one wants.
highlight particularly, for example the ignition coil. The smallest width
The line thickness will be 0.25 mm. The length and width of the lines do not influence at all the ...
meaning of a connection symbol.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
20
WIRING DIAGRAMS
• In order to more easily track the drivers on the connection diagram, it is necessary to maintain
a sufficient distance between the conductors.
• Current paths begin with a horizontal line for the voltage source and continue
ending with a horizontal line for the return conductor. Between the voltage source and the
return conductor, current paths lead to individual components.
• The direction lines that may be necessary are not drawn in the lines of
conductors but below these.
• Connection symbols can be drawn in any position, depending on what is required by the
necessary visibility.
• The complicated components of the circuit must be represented by a combination of symbols.
basic connection. This is particularly true for switch combinations.
2.2. The current circuit
2.2.1. Mass representation
For the electricity of motor vehicles, one prefers single-conductor systems due to their
simplicity, that is to say, we use the mass of the vehicle (metal parts of the vehicle) as
return conductor. If, in a drawing, we represent start and return conductors, this
means that there is no guarantee that there is a good conductive connection between the parties
individuals of the mass, whether it is about higher tensions. The mass is characterized by the
ground connection symbol. All ground symbols are electrically connected to each other.
others. If a device is fixed to the mass of the vehicle and for this reason, it is also necessary to establish
the connection to the mass is represented by a mass symbol that comes from the frame of the symbol
of the device.
2.2.2. Designation of the boundaries
The system for the designation of terminals is standardized (DIN 72552) and must allow for a connection.
if possible without defects of the conductors to the devices, and this especially in the case of repair and
replacement of modules. In principle, it is necessary to take into account that the designation of the terminals does not
does not simultaneously constitute a designation of the drivers, because of devices whose
terminals with different designations can be connected to both ends of a conductor.
For this reason, the designation of the terminals is provided at the connection ends.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
21
WIRING DIAGRAMS
Born Meaning
Borne
Meaning
Bound Meaning
Ignition coil, igniter
Low voltage
starters with command
sequential
Sequential tone relay
Entry
1
71
71 a
71 b
72
75
76
77
Output to alarm 1 + 2 low
Output to the warning device 1+ 2 sharp

Alarm switch
Radio, cigarette lighter

Speakers
Order of the valves
actuation of the doors
Switches and switches
Contact of repos and contact
bidirectional
Two separate circuit igniter
towards the limiter I

towards the rev limiter II

Starting relay for control

sequential current
of gearing in case of exploitation
in parallel with two starters
Entry on start relay for the
starter I
Input on the starting relay for the
the starter II
Starter lock relay
1a
1b
2
Short-circuiting terminal
(ignition by magneto)
50 cents

50 d
Ignition coil, igniter
High tension
4
Two separate circuit igniter
from coil I, terminal 4
from coil II, terminal 4
4a
4b
50 c
50 f
Entry
Exit
81
WIRING DIAGRAMS
2.3. Components of a current circuit
2.3.1. Identification of electrical devices
The connection terminals and connection plugs are designated by the designations of
terminals provided on the device. The identification according to DIN 40719 Part 2 serves to identify in a way
Claire, understandable in all countries, installations, devices, components, etc. that are
represented by connection symbols in a connection diagram and which appear at
immediate proximity of the connection symbol.
Marker
identification
A
Type of device
(examples)
Devices, sets, and functional sub-assemblies
Car radio, control unit, and device set.
Transducer of a non-electric quantity into an electric quantity and vice versa
Palpeur, sonde, capteur, fanfare, avertisseur sonore, microphone, haut-parleur, débitmètre d'air
Capacitors of all kinds
B
C
D
Binary operators, memories
Digital device, integrated circuit, memory, delay timer, timer
Miscellaneous materials

Lighting of all kinds, heating, air conditioner, spark plug, ignition (distributor)
E
F
Protective devices
Protection devices against reverse polarity, fuse, overcurrent protection circuit, circuit of
surge protection
Power devices
["Battery","Generator","Rectifier","Charger","Magneto ignition generator","Converter"]
Control, warning, signaling devices
Sound and visual indicators, control of turn signals, turn signals, brake lights, high beam indicator,
G
H
["generator control","indicator lamp","signal lamp","warning buzzer"]
Relay
K
Battery relay, flashing central unit, turn signal relay, solenoid switch, starter relay,
mixed distress-direction center
Inductances
Coils, windings
L
M
N
P
Engines
["Blower motor","Fan motor","Windshield wiper motor","Wiper motor","Starter motor"]
Regulators, amplifiers
Regulator (electronic or electromechanical), voltage stabilizer
Testing, signaling and measuring devices
Measuring and indicating instruments, diagnostic input, measuring point, measuring device, testing device,
tachymeter, watch
Resistances
R
Glow plug with flame, glow plug, preheating control, heating element,
["potentiometer","rheostat","ballast resistance","resistive cable","cigarette lighter"]
Control and connection devices
S
T
WIRING DIAGRAMS
2.3.2. Important connection symbols in vehicle electronics
The connection symbols are represented at rest, that is to say in an off state, without
current and not mechanically operated.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
24
WIRING DIAGRAMS
2.3.3. Current Conductors
In connection diagrams, the conductors are often equipped with abbreviations, for example
RO/GN or BK/WH.
These abbreviations provide indications on the colored identification of the driver. This identification
is standardized according to DIN 72551 and facilitates the work of the mechanic. The basic colors are distinguished.
and the characteristic colors. The base color is the predominant color of the conductor. For
allow for an additional differentiation of the base colors, the conductors are still
identified by colored lines that extend in the direction of its length or in a spiral - the
characteristic colors.
The indication preceding the slash denotes the base color, while the one located behind
the slash gives the characteristic color.
For example: RD/WH: it is the base color red and the characteristic color white.
For the colors, we use the following abbreviations:
German characterization of colors
International Characterization of Colors
(DIN IEC 757)
GN = green
BK = noir
BR = brun
BN = brun
WS = blanc
red
HB = light blue
GE = jaune
SW = black
BU = blue
GN = green
GY = gris
light blue
OG = orange
PK = rose
GR = gris
BL = bleu
RD = red
ivory
NF = natural color
RS = rose
SR = silver
TN = brun clair
VT = violet
VI = violet
WH = white
YE = jaune
The base color is also aligned with a defined use according to DIN standards, as follows:
Base color
Application
Red
Battery conductors to the generator and to
ignition and lighting conductors
Black
Conductors between the batteries and the starters; of
starter lead to the ignition coil or to
the preheating installation, the starting contactor
to the consumer by day; as a driver of
boot installation command
Green
Ignition coil leads to the 'points'
Gray
Conductors for position and delimitation lighting
as well as for the license plate lighting
Sensors and actuators
IV Sensors and actuators
All electronic systems have in common that they operate according to the ETS principle (Input,
Processing, Output) of information processing.
ENTRY
TREATMENT
EXIT
Information
Bootstrapping
Device of
order
Sensors
Actuators
Input organs are the sensors that are also called signal generators, probes or
measurement transducers.
The processing of electrical signals is carried out using a control center that takes the
decisions using programs and activates the actuators.
The sortie includes the actuators that transform the instructions from the device
command to act on the system.
Depending on the use, sensors and actuators can operate in an analog, binary, or ...
digital.
1. Sensors
Sensors are used mainly in the following three areas:
• Safety (e.g. ESP system, ABS system and airbags)
• Powertrain group (e.g., lambda probe, camshaft sensor, and sensors of
clicking
• Comfort (e.g. rain sensor, sensor for the air conditioning system and
remote control receiver for doors
Sensors allow physical values to be converted into electrical values. Depending on their mode
In operation, active sensors and passive sensors are distinguished. The definition of these two
qualifiers are not clearly defined and are the subject of discussion among experts
• Active sensors are sensors powered by a voltage, which contain elements.
of amplification or that generate a signal. The signal outputs, through the integrated electronics in the
sensor, in the form of digital voltage.
• Passive sensors are sensors that contain only passive elements (coil,
resistor, capacitor). Most often the signals output as voltage
analog
The ABS sensors can therefore be 'passive' or 'active'. Sensors that are not powered by a
permanent tension ("passive" coil) are called passives. The sensors whose elements
"Active" electronics are constantly connected to the power supply, for example, sensors.
Hall effect, are called active.
The car's electronics can only function if the sensors - the sensory organs of
control devices - transform physical variables such as, for example, temperatures,
rotation speeds, angles, pressures, etc. into electrical signals and if the sensors
transmit these signals to the control device. Given that the sensors are exposed
often under extreme conditions depending on their place of use in the car, the success of electronics
the engine depends on their reliable functioning.
The following describes some important sensors for control and adjustment of
different systems in the automobile.
Diagnostic technique in the automotive field
26
Sensors and actuators
1.1. Inductive sensor
For the input of movements (rotation speeds, crankshaft rotations, etc.) and positions
(crankshaft position) for example, we use sensors that operate on the principle
induction (also called inductive sensors). The physical principle concerning the production of a
inductive tension relies on the variation over time of the magnetic field. For example, the sensor
The drive gear sweeps the teeth of the flywheel crown and provides an output impulse per tooth.
The image above depicts the appearance of the signal from a sensor.
crankshaft position at starter rotation speed.
1.2. Hall Effect Sensor
It is also possible to determine rotational speeds (rotational speed sensor,
vehicle speed sensor) and positions (ignition point) using a Hall effect sensor.
In the Hall effect probe, a voltage UH(Hall voltage) proportional to the field density
magnetic B is created. A rotating screen allows for changing the magnetic field in phase with the
rotation speed of the distributor, and it is thus possible to create a varying voltage signal with the
magnetic field B.
The tension UHmeasured on the Hall generator is a few millivolts and needs to be amplified using
from a Hall integrated circuit and converted into a rectangular voltage signal (binary signal).
.
The image above shows the appearance of the signal from a sensor with effect.
Hall in the ignition distributor at idle.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
27
Sensors and actuators
1.3. Temperature Sensor
The temperature measurements of the engine and the intake air provide the control device.
electronics of important data related to the engine's charging phases. The sensors of
temperature measures electronically the temperature from changes in resistance at
NTC resistance or PTC resistance means. Most of the time, NTC resistors are
used.
The abbreviation NTC stands for Negative Temperature Coefficient: in the event of an increase in
temperature the value of the resistance decreases. The abbreviation PTC stands for Temperature Coefficient
Positive: in case of an increase in temperature, the value of the resistance increases.
The resistance values corresponding to the temperature values are transmitted to the device.
of command in the form of a voltage signal.
The image above shows the voltage signal of a sensor
coolant temperature for a
temperature of 80°C.
1.4. Pressure sensor
For measuring absolute or relative pressures, piezoelectric sensors are used or
capacitive. The latter create an electric voltage when subjected to pressure.
In the field of the engine, these piezoelectric sensors are used as knock sensors and
as pressure sensors in the intake manifold, e.g. in injection systems, and
indicate the engine's charge state to the control device.
The image above represents the signal from a sensor
depression, whose frequency changes according to the pressure of
intake manifold.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
28
Sensors and actuators
1.5. Oxygen sensor (lambda sensor)
In order to adhere as closely as possible to a lambda value ofλ = 1.00 for the
treatment of toxic gases in the catalyst, the exhaust system is equipped with a probe at
oxygen known as a lambda probe. The sensor consists of a special hollow piece
which is closed on one side and whose interior part is connected with the outside air, while the
The outer wall is in contact with the hot exhaust gases.
If there is oxygen in the exhaust gases, the sensor reacts by generating a voltage signal U.λ .
The tension varies depending on the richness of the mixture. The tension is transmitted to the control device and
from there, the air/fuel mixture is set toλ = 1.00 through the adjustment circuitλ.
The image above represents the signal of a lambda probe.
zirconium in idle mode.
1.6. Potentiometer
For determining the position of the throttle butterfly, the accelerator pedal, etc., we use
potentiometric sensors, that is to say sensors that change their effective resistance.
For the butterfly valve position, the potentiometer's wiper is actuated proportionally to
the position of the butterfly valve so that a corresponding voltage drop occurs and is
transmitted to the control device.
The image above represents the signal of a butterfly sensor.
gases during acceleration followed by deceleration.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
29
Sensors and actuators
1.7. Capacitive sensors
Currently, the automotive sector is increasingly using capacitive sensors (measurement of
oil level, controlled suspension, acceleration sensor). To this end, for example, we use the
modification of the capacitance of the two capacitors with a central electrode.
The position of the central electrode changes under the influence of a force. At this moment, it moves away.
of an electrode and gets closer to the other. The capacitance decreases or increases accordingly. In
calculating the difference, we obtain the measure of acceleration. Such a differential capacitor is
composed of a silicon-based material and can therefore be produced in large quantities and at low
price.
1 = Elément de condensateur; 2 + 3 = Electrodes fixes;
4 = Electrode mobile; 5 = Masse mobile; 6 = Barrette à
spring
7 = Ancrage; C = Entrefer (diélectrique); a = Sens de
the acceleration
1.8. Optical sensors
Optical sensors use detected changes on the
light emitted by reflection, diffraction, or absorption. In the case of
the simplest, just like in a code reading device
In stripes, they only distinguish between light and dark. At this
In fact, a photodiode illuminates a field in which is presented a
corresponding code, and a photosensitive sensor measures if
the intensity of the reflected light is either above or below
a threshold value.
This principle can be used appropriately for measurement
of a linear displacement. Dark marks show gaps at fixed intervals and a
counter detects the number of detections. We can also measure angles. To this end, the
A barcode is, for example, applied to a circular disc that rotates around an axis. It is used to
for example, eight tracks that are marked as follows: track 1 is half light and
for half dark; on track 2, the brightness changes every quarter of the track; on track 3, the rhythm
is an eighth, and so on. If the instantaneous pattern of clarity is detected by several cells, the
absolute angular position can be defined.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
30
Sensors and actuators
2. Electronic control device
Given that the microprocessor in the control device only knows the states
"ACTIVE" and "NOT ACTIVE" or "1" and "0" (binary system), the input circuits must first
transform the analog signals sent by the sensors, corresponding for example to the speed
of rotation, temperature, angular position, etc., in this binary form.
Ford EEC V engine control adjustment device
2.1 Analog to Digital Converter (A/D)
Analog-to-digital converters transform voltage signals into signals
digital. Here are some examples of input signals:
• Temperature probe
• Air flow meter
• Throttle position sensor
2.1. Pulse Shaper (PS)
Impulse shapers transform periodically varying input signals into signals
rectangular.
Here are some examples of input signals that are processed by a pulse shape converter:
• Speed sensor
• Lambda sensor
2.2. Voltage regulator
To avoid problems related to battery voltage fluctuations, the control device
feeds certain sensors with a stabilized voltage of 5 volts (reference voltage). Furthermore, the
mass return to the control device is often independent of the vehicle's mass due to
sources of parasites existing on it.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
31
Sensors and actuators
2.3. Microprocessor (Central Unit)
The microprocessor (CPU = Central Processing Unit) receives instructions from the
program memory (ROM memory) and executes these instructions. The tasks of the central unit
are the following:
• Read the values provided by the sensors in the RAM (Random Access Memory).
• Identify the operating states related to these values
• Retrieve the mapping values for these states from the program memory (ROM)
operation
• Link the measured values and the values of the mapping while respecting the calculation rules.
stored in the program memory.
• Calculate actuator signals from intermediate values and measured values.
• Transmit the actuator signals to the input and output modules (I/O = In/Out)
The signals transmitted by the central unit (CPU) are too weak to activate the actuators.
For this reason, the signals are amplified in the output stages.
Here are some examples of actuators that are triggered by final power stages:
• Injectors
• Idle actuator
• Ignition coil
• Fuel pump
In recent years, we have managed to build increasingly advanced control devices.
smaller, more resilient and more powerful thanks to the development of new techniques.
3. Actuators
The vehicle systems are controlled, switched, and adjusted by actuators called
figuratively the "muscles of microelectronics". The latter transform the instructions
electrical-digital or analog of the control device in mechanical energy (force x
movement).
The transformation of energy is carried out by a motor, in a pneumatic, hydraulic manner,
magnetic or optical. There are electronic actuators (transistors, LEDs, ...), and
electromechanical (relays, solenoids, motors, ...).
For positioning, preference is given to direct current motors and stepper motors.
not ordered electronically.
In most cases, the actuators are electro-magnets that are continuously powered.
on the positive side (12 volts). The control device acts on the ground side and connects the wire from
actuator command with the mass.
Since computers can only operate in binary mode (ON/OFF), the
actuators whose control must be progressive are successively connected and disconnected
several times per second, which allows for example a partial opening of a throttle valve.
Thanks to a change in the duration of operation, also known as pulse width, it is
it is possible to vary the opening of the valve. This control method is called modulation of
pulse width.
Pulse-width modulation (duty-cycle) represents a simple method to allow for
the computer to modulate a command. Indeed, the average voltage varies according to the width of
the high impulse (circuit connection duration).
a = Impulse in greater width
b = Impulse in lower width
c = Period
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
32
Sensors and actuators
The following figures represent an electrical signal that always has the same frequency but whose
tension is connected and disconnected.
Here the high impulse rises to 60% and
the low impulse at 40%. The
percentage of the duration of
operation corresponds to a rate
of 60% impetus. Therefore, the
The average tension rises to 60% of 12.
V, which is 7.2 V.
Here the high impulse rises to 75% and
low impulse at 25%. The
percentage of the duration of
operation corresponds to a rate
of 75% impulse. Therefore, the
The average tension rises to 75% of 12.
V, which is 9 V.
Here the high impulse rises to 50% and
the low impulse at 50%. The
percentage of the duration of
operation corresponds to a rate
of 50% impulses. Therefore,
the average tension rises to 50% of
12 V, or 6 V.
In the case of an injector, the injection duration and thus the injection quantity is modified, however
the injector will be fully open or closed and not held in a certain manner as described above.
position with an average tension. Moreover, the frequency also varies due to the rotation speeds
different.
Low rotation speed
a = Basic setting dependent on the
charge
b = Extended injection boost
Vitesse de rotation élevée
The injection time is increased
thanks to an extension of the signal
injection.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
33
Sensors and actuators
4. Diagnostics, corrective measures for defects, workshop notes
4.1. Error Screening Procedure
• First, the corresponding actuator must be checked. In case of a control signal
defective you need to check the output signal directly at the device level
order.
• If the output signal is correct, the wiring of the actuator must be checked.
• If the output signal is incorrect, the corresponding input signals should then be checked.
• If the input signal is incorrect, the signal at the sensor itself must be checked.
• If the sensor signal is correct, a continuity and insulation check must be performed.
circuit) of the conductors that are connected with the control device.
• If the sensor does not give a correct signal, the sensor itself is the cause of the error or the
The sensor is influenced by other components that are not functioning properly.
• However, it is also important to control the power supply and the mass of the device.
of command, as well as the power supply for the sensors and actuators, as a voltage value
Incorrect can alter the input and output signals.
• If the points mentioned above do not lead to a result, it is obvious that the periphery
is free from defects and the error should lie in the control device. However, it
You have to be careful because the most common mistakes occur due to the bad.
contacts in the connectors.
During a test at VW, the ...
failures of electronic systems in the
automotive sector. The electronic components
like transistors, integrated circuits, modules, etc.
present the fewest breakdowns.
They only represent 10% of the failures. The
sensors and actuators are as follows in the
statistics. They represent 15% of failures.
The greatest problems are posed by the
connections such as connectors, pins
etc. they account for 60% of the breakdowns.
4.1. Handling of electronic systems
• If the contact is made, do not separate the connectors or remove the plugs from the modules.
This is also true for the fixing and connecting of the plugs as it is possible that some
Tension spikes occur that can lead to the destruction of components.
• Take resistance measurements on sensors and actuators only if the connector is
removed, as it is possible to damage the output circuits of the control device.
• Il faudrait préférer une mesure de la chute de tension du composant correspondant à la mesure
of resistance. The measurement is more precise and can be done even if the plug is connected.
This way it is easier to identify the bad contacts.
• Some connectors used in vehicles may have a gold plating. These plugs
must not be connected with crimped terminals because of moisture penetration
can cause rapid corrosion and thus damage to the contacts. This will result in
contact resistances too high.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
34
Sensors and actuators
5. Notes regarding the practical work
5.1. Component controls of different relays
5.1.1. Relay - Mini ISO
Diagrams of
connections
Connection diagrams
Component control (no voltage is applied)
To be checked
Connect the ohmmeter
with the connections
following
The relay works well, if
Reel
85 and 86
50 – 100 ohms
Contact
30 and 87a
30 and 87
86 and 30
86 and 87a
86 and 87
Closed circuit
Open circuit
Open circuit
Open circuit
Open circuit
Bobine - Contact
Component control (voltage is applied)
Disconnect the ohmmeter; connect pins 30 and 85 with a 12 V DC power source.
and pin 86 with the ground. Measure the voltage between pin 87 and pin 86. If the voltage
rises to 12 V, continue the check. If the voltage is not the indicated value, replace the relay.
Disconnect pin 85 from the power source and measure the voltage between pin 87a and pin
86. If the voltage rises to 12 V, the relay works well. If the voltage does not have this value, replace it.
relay.
5.1.2. Relay - Micro ISO
Schemas of
connections
Connection diagrams
Comparison of the designations of terminals:
Micro-relay Small relay Polarity
Normally Inverter
open
1
2
3
4
5
86
85
30
87a
87
+
-
+
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
35
Sensors and actuators
Component control (no voltage is applied)
To be controlled
Connect the ohmmeter
with the connections
following
The relay works well, if
Coil
1 and 2
50 – 100 ohms
Contact
3 and 4
3 and 5
1 and 3
1 and 4
1 and 5
Closed circuit
Open circuit
Open circuit
Open circuit
Open circuit
Coil - Contact
Component control (voltage is applied)
Disconnect the ohmmeter; connect pins 2 and 3 with a 12 V DC power source and
pin 1 with the mass. Measure the voltage between pin 5 and pin 1. If the voltage rises to
12 V, continue the check. If the voltage does not have the indicated value, replace the relay. Separate the
pin 2 of the voltage source and measure the voltage between pin 4 and pin 1. If the voltage
it rises to 12 V, the relay works well. If the voltage does not have this value, replace the relay.
5.2. Measurement of sensors and actuators
• It is necessary to monitor the signals from the sensors where they are used, namely at the level of
the control device. If the correct signal is received, it is certain that not only the sensor
but also the wiring with the control device works flawlessly.
• Usually, signals are taken using a socket box, to which the Y cable is connected.
between the control device and the plug of the control device. If one does not have
of a control box (Break-Out Box), the measurement is carried out directly at the
sensor where we are looking for access to the back of the plug.
5.2.1. Monitor the throttle potentiometer using the oscilloscope
Press the accelerator once to the floor.
(contact miss) and then release (the red probe is
connected to the sensor signal and the black probe to
the mass of the sensor). It should result in a
curve as shown in the image here
against.
If the curve has peaks of interference or
if downward falls appear
as in the adjacent image, the potentiometer of
The gas butterfly is faulty.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
36
Sensors and actuators
5.2.2. Control the position and rotation speed sensor of the motor using
the oscilloscope
Connect the two measurement probes with the
sensor. The measurement is taken at the speed of
starter. This results in an oscillogram like
represented in the figure opposite if the system
works correctly.
The tension point and the wider interval
produce due to the missing tooth on the
crankshaft pinion. The shape of the signal should
to be uniform.
5.2.3. Control the injection signal using the oscilloscope
The tension peak is characteristic of
injector control. The control is performed in
connecting the red measuring probe with the wire
of the injector control (control by the
black measuring probe is connected
with the mass. In this way, one can also
check the grounding by the module of
order.
In the case of a hot engine and idling, the curve
is approximately as shown in the figure
against.
If during this operating situation the
injection time is clearly too long (>4.5 ms)
for example), the air/fuel mixture can be
too rich. A control of the probe signal
lambda and perhaps of the engine control
is necessary.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
37
Engine management systems
In Vehicle Systems
1. Engine management systems
1.1. Management of gasoline engines
1.1.1. Composition
An engine management system is composed of:
-
-
-
-
Injection system (mechanical components)
Ignition system (mechanical components)
Depollution
Ancillary functions
1.1.2. Injection system
In order to achieve optimal power on a gasoline engine with minimal emissions
pollutant gases, the air-fuel mixture must have the correct proportions. In all states of
operation and for all the loads of the engine, it is necessary to provide the engine with the amount of
correct fuel, which corresponds to the amount of air drawn in by the engine. Previously, we used to
this effect of carburetors. The carburetor was supposed to allow reaching the ideal mixture ratio by
mechanical means.
With the strengthening of emissions standards, the need to bring about the
fuel in a more optimal and better-measured way to the engine. The injection systems developed
up to then, with which we were actually trying to increase the power of the engine, were suitable
also to comply with exhaust gas regulations.
The fuel injection has made huge strides. Broadly speaking, its development has taken place from
in the following manner:
-
-
-
-
Mechanical injection system (e.g. : K-Jetronic)
Mechanical/Electronic injection system (e.g.: KE-Jetronic)
Electronic injection system (e.g.: D-Jetronic, L/LE-Jetronic, LH-Jetronic)
Engine management systems (e.g.: Motronic, Mono-Motronic, Magneti-Marelli, etc.)
For the injection systems mentioned above to work in combination with a catalyst
with three pathways, they are equipped with lambda regulation. The work of the lambda regulation is described below.
underneath.
[Link]. Continuous and intermittent injection
There are two types of injection systems to distinguish: continuous injection and intermittent injection.
Among the injection systems mentioned above, the first two examples are systems
of injection that work continuously. With the development of the electrically controlled injector, we have
introduces intermittent injection systems. Examples include the two systems
below injection.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Engine management systems
[Link]. Single and multipoint injection
There are two essential types of intermittent injection systems. The single-point system.
has a single centrally placed injector. This injector is installed in place of the carburetor on
the intake manifold.
In the multipoint injection system, each cylinder has its own injector. In this case, the
fuel is injected directly upstream of the throttle valve.
[Link]. Regulation of injection
Injection can take various forms:
Simultaneous injection
All the engine injectors are activated regardless of which ones.
the work cycle took place at that moment in the cylinder. To have
despite everything, a homogeneous mixture and good combustion, we
inject by crankshaft rotation half of the amount of fuel
necessary.
Group injection
The injectors of cylinders 1 and 3 as well as those of cylinders 2 and 4
are activated once per work cycle. We inject each time
the entirety of the amount of fuel needed before the valves
closed admissions.
Sequential injection
The injectors inject the entire amount of fuel.
necessary (cylinder selection) one after the other in order
of ignition just before the start of the suction. The advantages of
sequential injection has low exhaust gas emissions
and a higher power thanks to a uniform preparation of the
mix for each individual cylinder.
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Engine management systems
The injection system of an engine management system contains the main parts:
• Fuel tank
• Fuel pump
• Fuel filter
• Pressure regulator
• Injector
• (Activated carbon cartridge)
• Distribution ramp
Fuel circuit
The fuel pump brings fuel from the fuel tank to the distribution rail.
To ensure a constant pressure on the injectors, a pressure regulator is placed at
the end of the distribution ramp. Most of the incoming fuel passes through the regulator
from pressure and returns to the fuel tank through the return line. At full load, still
About 80% of the fuel returns to the tank.
In the following paragraph, we present the operation and verification of the components.
essentiels du système d'injection. Naturellement, suivant le système de gestion du moteur, il existe des
differences between the various components of the injection system. These differences are however
minims.
[Link]. Fuel pump
The fuel pump's mission is to deliver a given flow of fuel under pressure.
data. The fuel pump can be mounted in different places. Most of the time, the pump
the fuel gauge is located directly in or on the fuel tank.
The fuel pump is electrically controlled and indirectly by the control device of the
motor. As the current consumed is very high (about 6 A), the voltage supply is made
through the fuel pump relay. For safety reasons, the fuel pump
is unplugged under the following conditions:
• one to two seconds after turning on the ignition if the engine has not started
• after the engine stops
• when the contact is cut off
• after an accident in which the airbag or the seatbelt tensioner was activated (optional)
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Engine management systems
Verification
The fuel pump must be checked in two ways:
• Verification of fuel flow
• Fuel pressure verification
Fuel flow check
Testing method
Temporarily command the fuel pump by bridging the fuel pump relay.
Unplug the return line and let the fuel drain into a measuring container.
Indicative value (for correct data, see the workshop manual)
•
•
4-cylinder engine: approximately 1 l/min
6-cylinder engine: > 1 l/min
Possible causes in case of anomalies
• Clogged or pinched fuel line
• Clogged fuel filter
• The fuel pump's power supply voltage is too low.
• Defective fuel pump
Checking the fuel pressure
Testing method
Connect a pressure gauge to the supply duct at the level of the
distribution tube.
Order the fuel pump after bridging the pump relay.
fuel.
Indicative value (for correct data, see the workshop manual)
• 1 - 3.5 bar
Possible causes in case of anomalies
• Defective pressure regulator
• Clogged or pinched fuel line
• Clogged fuel filter
• The fuel pump power supply voltage is too low
• The fuel pump is defective.
• The return duct is clogged or pinched.
[Link]. Pressure regulator
The pressure regulator aims to maintain a constant pressure differential at the level
from the injector. In practice, this means that the difference between the fuel pressure and the pressure
in the intake manifold must remain constant. The reason is that the amount of fuel
injected is determined only by the injector opening duration and not by the difference in
At idle, the depression in the intake manifold is high (-0.6 bar) and at full
charge, it is low (- 0.1 bar).
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Engine management systems
To be able to adjust the pressure, the pressure regulator is connected to the manifold.
through a vacuum connection admission.

Connection
Verification

of depression
On the regulator, we can visually check for leaks and
the correct connection of the vacuum hose. At the same time, we
can control the operation of the pressure regulator during the
fuel pressure check.
Testing method
Connect the pressure gauge to the supply duct at the level of the
distribution tube (see fuel pressure check).
Start the engine.
The fuel pressure must then depend on the engine speed and the
engine load (this is not the case for a single injection).
If we remove the vacuum hose (see arrow), we should observe
an increase in pressure.
Indicative value (for correct data, see the manual
of the workshop)
• 1-3.5 bar
Possible causes in case of anomalies
• The pressure does not depend on the speed and/or the load:
flexible depression clogged or pinched
• Removing the vacuum hose has no effect:
sealing defects in the vacuum hose, or the
the depression hose is not connected properly
[Link]. Vibration damper
Near the pressure regulator, a damper is often installed as well.
of vibrations. The vibration damper must reduce the oscillations of
pressure (and therefore the noises) that can influence the injection into the tube of
distribution.
[Link]. Injector
The injector has the task of injecting finely atomized fuel into the
intake manifold. The injector is most often made in the form of
of an injector said to have one hole or four holes. The injector is open when its
the pointer is lifted by a magnetic field. The magnetic field is created
by a coil.
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Engine management systems
Electrical verification
We check the injector "electrically" as follows:
• Power supply and control
• Electrical resistance
• Reading the fault memory
Power supply and control
Most injectors are controlled by the control device on the side of their ground.
means that the injector coil is connected to 12 V on a connection, through
main relay. The operation occurs when the control device connects the other terminal of the
coil to ground.
Testing method
The voltage supply can be checked using an LED tester or a multimeter. The
the command is verified using a LED tester or an oscilloscope. With the LED tester, one
measure the coil command and with the oscilloscope, the signal coming from the device of
measurement. These measurements are made on the injector connection sheet.
Indicative value (for correct data, see workshop manual)
• Power supply: When the contact is made, 12 V on the positive wire (coil OK)
• Order: The LED tester is flashing or the oscilloscope is receiving a signal
Possible causes in case of anomalies
• Cable break (wiring or coil)
• Control device
Electrical resistance
Testing method
The resistance of the coil can be measured directly on the injector using a multimeter, the
connection sheet has been removed.
Indicative value
See workshop manual.
Possible causes in case of anomalies
• Broken reel
• Short circuit in the coil
• Bad injector
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Engine management systems
Mechanical verification
The operation of the injector can be checked "mechanically" as follows:
• The injector "clicks"
Using a screwdriver or a stethoscope, listen to the injector
• Sealing
Keep the injector open for a minute against a piece of paper. The stain
What one obtains this way cannot be greater than 5 or 10 mm.
• Form of injection
Cone-shaped or regular distribution of fuel
• Food
The injector power supply cannot be located outside the limit values (see manual
of the workshop)
• Sealing of the intake manifold
A sealing defect on the injector's O-ring can create an air intake. Spray by
example of the brake cleaning product all around the injector and check if the speed or the
value HC increases.
Possible causes in case of anomalies
• Defective injector
Memory of defects
On the new control devices, one can read the disturbances that have appeared on the
injectors using universal testers. In these systems, it is possible to detect in most cases
cable breaks or a command current that is too high.
1.1.3. Engine management system
An engine management system is mainly distinguished from a gasoline injection system because
that in addition to regulating fuel, we also regulate the ignition of the air/fuel mixture by
a microprocessor.
[Link]. Electronic Order
The figure below provides a simplified representation of the electronic control of a system.
engine regulation.
Sensors
Actuators
Module
electronics
(ECU)
Rotationspeed
Enginecharge
Injectors
Ignition
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Engine management systems
The heart of the engine control system is the electronic control unit.
Control Unit (E.C.U.). The actuators are controlled by the output signals from the device
command, the control device receiving the necessary input signals from the sensors. The
different sensors and actuators are listed in section [Link]
The main functions of the control device are:
The determination of the amount of fuel to inject
The order of the ignition installation
- Additional functions (for example, camshaft adjustments, recycling of ...
exhaust gas, idle speed control and control of an intake manifold
variable)
[Link]. Determination of the amount of fuel to be injected
The amount of fuel to be injected is determined by the duration of the injector's opening. The
Essential information needed for this purpose is the engine load and the speed of the
engine. Using these signals, the control device determines a base injection duration to
starting from a mapping. This base injection duration is not yet precise enough, because it
does not yet take into account all the operating states of the engine, for example the
engine temperature (cold start), air temperature, etc.
The base injection duration is adjusted using these variables to determine the final duration.
injection. The determination of the injection duration can be represented as follows:
Rotationspeed
Charge
Injectionduration
corrected
Basicdurationof
the injection
Factorof
correction
Cartography
Enginetemperature
Intakeairtemperature
Examples of mapping are presented in paragraph [Link].
Additional functions
The additional functions related to fuel injection are:
Power cut in push
Limitation of the rotation regime
Knock regulation
Lambda regulation
Lambda regulation
In order for a three-way catalyst to work properly, it is necessary for the mixture of
fuel and air are either alternately "rich" and "lean". This is possible if the engine regulation
has a lambda regulation. The lambda regulation ensures that the value of the lambda coefficient varies
between 0.97 and 1.03 at a defined frequency.
The value of the lambda coefficient provides information about the air-fuel mixture ratio.
To burn one kg of fuel, it theoretically takes 14.7 kg of air. When the engine receives exactly
this quantity, the value of lambda (λ) is equal to 1. The lambda value is defined as follows
next :
Actual amount of air drawn in
λ
=
Theoretically necessary air quantity
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Engine management systems
In case of excess air (lean mixture), the lambda value becomes greater than 1.
In case of lack of air (rich mixture), the lambda value will become less than 1.
The lambda value is influenced by the lambda sensor. The lambda sensor is mounted near the
engine in the exhaust manifold and measure the amount of oxygen in the gases
exhaust. The presence of oxygen is transmitted to the control device in the form of a
Voltage ranging between 100 and 1000 mV. A voltage below 450 mV indicates a lean mixture.
A voltage higher than 450 mV corresponds to a rich mixture.
Shortly after combustion, the lambda sensor checks if the composition of the mixture is correct. A
The additional advantage of this check lies in the fact that modifications to the engine and the
Fuel system (contamination and wear) are detected by the lambda sensor and are treated.
to correct the base injection duration. This learning ability of the regulation system
The engine is called adaptive regulation.
Rotation speed
Charge
Basic duration of
the injection
Factor of
correction
Duration of
correction
Cartography
Engine
Lambda Sensor
Engine temperature
Air intake temperature
[Link]. Ignition system
Today, we determine the ignition timing and the ignition charge duration with a
electronic ignition system that uses the same sensors as those used for
determine the duration of injection.
The high voltage circuit can be created as follows:
• Ignition coil with final ignition stage and rotating high voltage distribution
• Double spark ignition coil, with a final ignition stage for every two times
cylinders and static distribution of high voltage
• High voltage circuit with a spark ignition coil and final ignition stage
for each cylinder
The ignition timing is determined using a mapping. The necessary input signals
are the engine speed, engine load, and engine temperature. The charging time of the
The ignition coil depends on the battery voltage and the engine speed and is therefore also
determined by a mapping.
Ignition mapping
A mapping is generally represented by a 3-dimensional graph.
A = Ignition angle (°)
B = Depression in the collector
admission (in mbar)
C = Engine regime (min-1)
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Engine management systems
In fact, a map is a 2-way table that allows determining the ignition advance in
function of the load and speed of the motor
P 0.9
R 0.8
E 0.7
6
6
6
9
9
15
15
15
14
13
13
18
28
28
20
20
17
14
13
13
18
23
27
22
22
17
15
14
14
18
23
28
23
23
18
16
15
16
19
24
30
23
23
22
20
20
22
24
28
24
24
25
26
29
29
Engine management systems
The difference between the various engine control systems is determined by the modes of
realization of the different sensors and actuators.
Temperature sensors
Depending on the fuel system, one or more temperature sensors are used. The sensor
the temperature of the coolant is always present, and the presence of a sensor of
Air temperature depends on the air measurement system.
The sensors receive a reference voltage (most often 5 V) from the device.
command (E.C.U.). The E.C.U. converts the voltage obtained from the temperature sensors into the
corresponding value of the temperature.
The verification of these sensors can be done by measuring resistance on a cold engine and on
hot engine.
In the event of the disappearance of the signal from a temperature sensor during operation, the E.C.U. will work
with a fixed replacement value. In case, when the engine is cold, the E.C.U. does not receive a signal from the
temperature sensor, some control devices are capable of simulating the
hot engine operation based on a defined calculation.
Throttle position sensor
The throttle position sensor, which is connected to the throttle, comes in different
executions, namely as a double switch or, more frequently, with a potentiometer. The
Most of the time, the casing is equipped with oblong holes for adjustments.
The throttle position sensor receives a reference voltage from the ECU (most of the time)
5 volts). As soon as the throttle butterfly opens, a sliding contact moves along the track.
of a resistance, so that the output voltage changes. The control device of the regulation
the engine associates the throttle adjustment that corresponds to the voltage signal thus obtained.
The verification is carried out by checking the supply voltage and the output voltage in the
different positions.
Volumetric airflow meter
The air flow meter measures the incoming air (in liters) and transmits the measurement to the control device.
(in the form of a voltage signal).
The air flow meter is equipped with a variable resistor and is located in the intake duct.
For the control device to also detect which mass flow rate of air (kg) is drawn in by the
the engine, the air flow meter is additionally equipped with an intake air temperature sensor.
On older models, the air flow meter has a CO screw. This allows for adjustment
first a given airflow rate on the measuring flap, or act on the injection quantity by
the intermediary of a potentiometer.
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Engine management systems
Verification
Accessibility
The measuring flap must be able to move freely.
Tension
Supply voltage
Output voltage (Multimeter, 0-5 V)
Resistance
The intake air temperature sensor can be checked by refrigerant spray.
Air intake
Brake cleaner with a tachometer and a smoke gas tester (HC)
Diagnostic tester
• Mémoire d'erreur
• Sensor values
Measurement of air mass flow rate
For the complete combustion of 1 kg of gasoline, 14.7 kg of air is needed. For the catalyst to function properly
To work at high efficiency, it is important to adhere to the above mixing ratio.
One can only talk about an accurate measurement of fuel if the mass of air drawn in has been measured accurately.
very precise. A volumetric air flowmeter does not measure the mass of air drawn in but the volume of air drawn in. This
Air volume does not indicate anything about the mass of oxygen present in the inhaled air. High-temperature air.
contains a smaller amount of oxygen than air at low temperature (hot air occupies a larger
volume than cold air). When the air density is low, the air also contains less oxygen than air.
at high density (the higher the air pressure, the greater the amount of oxygen present in the air).
A measurement of air mass is therefore more precise than the measurement of volumetric air flow.
measurement of air flow). In measuring air mass, factors such as pressure and the
Temperature plays no role. Thus, lambda regulation should only correct in a small manner.
regulation beach. Lambda regulation thus reacts more quickly and more accurately.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Engine management systems
Operating mode
The air mass flow measurement device by hot wire operates according to the "principle of the
"constant temperature". A temperature sensor located in front of the hot wire indicates to
the electronics of the mass flow measurement device for air the temperature of the drawn air. The current
the one that passes through the hot wire is thus regulated so that the temperature of the hot wire is always at
155° C above the suction temperature.
The greater the amount of air that sweeps over the hot wire, the more important the cooling of the hot wire.
and therefore the current intensity must be higher. The colder the air sweeping over the hot wire, the greater
is the cooling and therefore the higher the current intensity must be. Here, the current that flows through the
A hot wire and a measuring resistor constitute a direct value of the mass of air drawn in.
Another construction method is the device for measuring the mass flow rate of air with a hot film, which
works according to the 'principle of a constant temperature difference' identical to the device of
measurement of the mass flow rate of air using a hot wire.
The electric heating of a metal strip, that is to say the hot film, is regulated in such a way that it
constantly presents a constant temperature difference compared to the air being drawn in that it
The current necessary for heating serves as a measure of the mass of air drawn in.
The hot film mass flow rate measurement device is less sensitive to fouling than
the hot wire mass airflow measurement device. The necessary cleaning combustion
for the hot wire can be removed.
Verification
Tension
Supply voltage (Multimeter, 12 V)
Output voltage (Multimeter, 0-5 V)
Air intake
Brake cleaner with a tachometer and an exhaust gas tester (HC)
Auto-cleaning
To avoid deposits on the hot wire, in many systems, the hot wire is
strongly heated for about 3 seconds after the contact is cut. For this
Reason, after the contact is cut, you need to wait a few seconds before being able to
remove the connection plug from the mass air flow meter.
Diagnostic Tester
Error memory
Sensor values
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Engine management systems
Revolution sensor
The speed sensor's fundamental mission is to measure the
rotation regime. In addition, the sensor is able to determine
the position of the crankshaft.
Modes of realization
• Inductive sensor (common)
• Hall effect sensor (older vehicles)
The operating mode of the two sensors is fundamentally different.
The biggest difference lies in that the Hall sensor needs
with a base voltage to operate. The induction sensor creates it
even a voltage (alternating current voltage).
Most often, the inductive sensor touches a toothed crown.
fixed to the crankshaft tree. On the toothed crown, a larger
the interstice is located at a defined point in front of the dead center
top, which serves as a reference point for the measuring device.
Verification of an inductive sensor
• Tension
Alternative voltage delivered (multimeter)
Alternative tension delivered (oscilloscope)
• Resistance
• Diagnostic tester
Error memory
Sensor value
Camshaft position sensor
The camshaft position sensor is an inductive pulse generator that detects most
A reference cam time on the camshaft. The sensor sends an alternating voltage signal.
to the engine control device that determines the position of the first cylinder. The signal of this
the sensor is used to control the injectors according to the ignition sequence.
Idle regulation
Different idle regulation systems are used. They all have in common ensuring regulation.
from the idle regime.
Most of the time, they are controlled by a synchronized mass circuit of the control device.
The detection report is determined by the control device. For example, it is the force.
magnetic created that controls the opening section of the valve.
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Engine management systems
Adjustment options
In general, adjustments are only possible on older systems.
Regime
On the Motronic, the idle speed is electronically regulated by the control unit.
The control device can regulate the idle speed in different ways:
• Shift of the ignition timing
• Rotary slide
• Stepper motor
• Movement of the gas butterfly
The use of the components mentioned above no longer allows for the adjustment of the idle speed.
Percentage of CO content
The CO content can only be adjusted on older systems. In these systems, the content in
CO is set using a potentiometer on the air mass flow measurement device or by a
see the bypass or a potentiometer on the air flow meter. In most cases, the components that
must be disconnected beforehand.
Auto-diagnostic
Most engine management systems are equipped with self-diagnosis. This means that the
The system is able to detect certain errors and store them in the fault memory.
Modern engine management systems verify the plausibility of all input signals. If the
values are not plausible, for example in the event of a sensor failure, the device of
the command is able to use a placeholder value for many sensors. This
Operation is said to be in emergency mode. The fault is placed in the fault memory and the driver
can in (almost) all cases make it to the garage.
On older vehicles (starting from the early 90s), in case of a detected fault, a
The fault indicator was lit on the instrument panel. The fault indicator often caused
a panic reaction from the driver. For this reason, on many vehicles, measures have been implemented.
removed the fault indicator. From 2001, the introduction of E.O.B.D. regulation prescribes
however a fault indicator (MIL lamp).
As previously indicated, the disturbances are stored.
dans la mémoire de défauts. La mémoire de défauts peut être lue à l'aide
from an LED tester, the fault indicator on the instrument panel or
by a diagnostic device.
The test instructions (from the manufacturer, or for example from Autodata)
describe how to read the fault memory.
Communication with the control device is carried out by
the intermediary of a diagnostic sheet. This diagnostic sheet
most often presents the following connections:
Activation conductor:
Driver L
Conducteur de communication : Conducteur K
Supply voltage (+):
Power supply voltage (-) :
Flicker code:
Borne 30
Post 31
LED driver
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Engine management systems
Diagnostic connection
In the previous paragraph, it was clearly stated that there is a possibility of communication.
with the control device through a diagnostic connection. Unfortunately,
Each manufacturer uses its own diagnostic sheet, so there are many different models.
This connection can be installed from the engine cover into the passenger compartment (box to
fuses/dashboard.
In the two figures above, it is clear that both the location and the realization of
Diagnostic connection may vary from one vehicle to another.
In the figures above, we can see the shape of two different diagnostic forms. The form of
the left diagnostic is used at Opel; the right diagnostic connector, with 16 poles, will be
soon to be used by various manufacturers (E.O.B.D. regulations).
1.1.4. E.O.B.D. Regulation
E.O.B.D. is the abbreviation for European On Board Diagnostics. It is a
diagnostic system that is integrated into the engine control unit and that monitors in
permanence the regulation systems and the components of the engine regulation system that
concerning the exhaust gases.
The E.O.B.D. is part of step 3 of the European standard which is officially enforced from
01.01.2001 for the first registrations of vehicles. However, from 01.01.2000,
only new gasoline engine vehicles compliant with
EU recommendations (with E.O.B.D.).
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Engine management systems
The system contains an 'exhaust gas warning light' that lights up
in case of a fault related to emissions. The warning light comes on when:
• A defect arises which leads to a cylinder shutdown (protection of
catalyst). In this case, the lamp flashes as long as the fault is present.
• A defect occurs concerning exhaust gases during two
successive engine cycles.
• The engine management module detects a fault during its self-test.
• The contact is engaged without the engine running (light bulb check function).
From a technical point of view, the main specifications arising from the E.O.B.D. are the
following:
• Surveillance of:
oCatalyst
Lambda sondes
Injection System
Secondary air system
Exhaust gas recycling
Other systems
• Detection of combustion defects ("engine misfire")
• Standardized tester interface
• Standardized command for malfunction indicators (Malfunction Indicator Lamp - MIL)
• Standardized error protocol and universal error code
On universal diagnostic interfaces, we are moving towards American data.
Pin position for the standard E.O.B.D. connector (16 pins):
Brooches 7 + 15
Pins 2 + 10
Brooch 4
Data communication according to ISO 9141-2
Data communication according to SAE J 1850
Vehicle mass
Brooch 5
Mass of the signal
Brooch 16
Battery +
Brooches 1,3,6,8,9,11,12,13,14 undefined
Diagnostic Trouble Code (D.T.C.) format
The DTCs (Diagnostic Trouble Codes) are structured in such a way as to indicate with their help a
suspected defect. The D.T.C. must be used as accessories during maintenance operations. They do not
must not draw implicit conclusions about defective components.
The SAE J2012 standard prescribes a five-position alphanumeric diagnostic trouble code (D.T.C.).
where the individual positions are defined as follows:
• The first position of the D.T.C. designates the D.T.C. function:
P = Powertrain
B = Body
C = Châssis (Chassis)
• The second position of the D.T.C. indicates who is responsible for defining the D.T.C.:
0 = Code standardized according to SAE/ISO
1 = Specific manufacturer code
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Engine management systems
• The third position of the D.T.C. designates the sub-group:
0 = Global system
1 = Secondary air system/Fuel mixture preparation
Fuel system
3 = Ignition installation/Ignition fault
4 = Additional monitoring of exhaust gases
5 = Idle speed regulation
6 = Input/output signals of the control device
7 = Gearbox
• The fourth and fifth positions of the D.T.C. indicate a continuous numbering of
individual components or systems.
The data stored in the module's fault memory can be read using a tester.
diagnostic of trade (universal devices Scantool).
Reading a standardized D.T.C. (Code P) using a universal Scantool does not indicate any
in an undeniable way if other flaws are underlying this flaw.
Readiness Code
The Readiness Code (P1000) indicates whether, since the last clearing of the fault memory or
since the last disassembly/replacement of the control devices, all the systems of
surveillance has completed their tests.
The availability code is only cleared if, during a readiness trip, all
The tests of the surveillance system have been carried out.
The availability code was introduced to reveal manipulations. It can thus indicate whether the
The fault memory was erased by disconnecting the battery or deliberate erasure before a
official verification.
Freeze Frame Data
When a defect is detected, the following data is stored:
• Error code
• Vehicle speed
• Coolant fluid temperature
• Engine regime
• Etat de charge du moteur
• Adaptation value of the mixture formation
• State of the lambda regulation (open/closed loop regulation)
• Distance traveled since the error was recorded for the first time
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Engine management systems
1.1.5. Diagnostics, defect suppression and workshop instructions
[Link]. Systematic fault finding through preliminary checks
The following verification steps will help to investigate the causes of complaints about an engine.
essence and thus to establish a diagnosis effectively.
Mechanical condition of the engine and its components
• Check the compression of each cylinder, gap between two cylinders: max. 2 bars
• Check the pressure loss of the individual cylinder, maximum 20%, maximum deviation 10%
• Check the idle suction depression (500 - 600 mbar)
• Check the timing belt and its alignment
• Check the valve clearance or the condition of the hydraulic lifters
• Pressure drop in the exhaust maximum 0.4 bar (give full throttle briefly once,
measurement before the catalyst
• Using the oil level gauge, check if the engine oil is not contaminated with liquid.
cooling
• Check the functioning of the crankcase ventilation
• Check for any leaks in the intake system, as well as the rings.
injector sealing
• Check if the exhaust system is leak-proof (important for correct operation of the
lambda probe
• Check the heating resistors (if present) in the intake manifold.
• Check the status and correct connection of the vacuum connections.
• Check if the throttle butterfly opening is correctly adjusted
• Check if the engine and the engine management components comply with the standards.
of application
Defects associated with the fuel system
• Check the fuel pressure (check if the electric fuel pump is running)
• Check the quality of the fuel (clogging)
• Check the operation of the injectors
• Check the values on the exhaust gases (see 0)
• Check the condition of the air filter and the intake ducts
• Check the summer/winter flap of the air filter
• Check if the fuel vapor recovery system is functioning correctly.
• Check if the exhaust gas recycling is working properly.
• Check the venting status of the tank
• Check if the thermostat is working properly
Defects associated with the electrical circuit
• Check the status of the electrical connections and the ground connections
• Check the battery charge status
• Check if the starter system is sufficient and if it is running smoothly.
• Check the condition of the spark plugs
• Check the ignition voltage on all cylinders (at idle, the voltage should reach 8 to 14 KV,
permissible difference of 2 KV, and in case of sudden load, the ignition voltage must rise by 2
at 4 kV
• Check the ignition timing
• Check the condition and resistance of the ignition cables (4 kΩ /10 cm)
• Check the lambda probe regulation (the voltage value varies between 0.1 and 0.8 V)
• Check the PCM control device (error codes)
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
56
Engine management systems
[Link]. Ignition Oscillogram
The oscilloscope allows for the representation of the evolution of the voltage in the primary circuit and in the circuit
secondary of the ignition installation. For electronic ignition systems, the representation
the secondary circuit is quite sufficient.
If the progression deviates from the normal oscillogram, depending on the type of anomaly, we can draw some conclusions.
conclusions on defects in the ignition system, the mixture formation or combustion.
Normal secondary oscillogram
A = duration of transistor blocking
B = duration of the transistor passage
a = duration of the spark
b = damping of oscillations
1 = the transistor is stuck (moment of ignition)
2 = ignition tension
3 = combustion tension
4 = the transistor is conducting
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Engine management systems
[Link]. Quick check of electronic ignition and injection systems
On new gasoline engines for cars, electronic systems are now being used.
injection and ignition combined like the Bosch Motronic. The moving components of the distributor
Ignition systems have been replaced by electronic components that work without contact and without
Sure. Although disturbances are rare, the diagnosis is by no means easier than on the
old ignition systems controlled by contact or transistor. Proceed logically
the determination of the defect is therefore even more important than before. The work scheme
represented below will help the engine workshop technician succeed in his diagnosis even without assistance
of a computer. The quick checking of complaints involves first requiring that the starter and the circuit
that the fuel levels are in order and that the anti-theft system is disabled.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
58
Engine management systems
[Link].
Quick diagnostic of exhaust gases
Before starting the test on a hot engine, run the engine for 3 minutes at 3,000.
tours/min.
Exhaust gas
Carbohydrate 'HC'
Carbon monoxide "CO"
Oxygen "O2"
Carbon dioxide 'CO2"
Lambda valueλ"
Without catalyst
100-300 ppm
0.5-3.5%
0.5-1.5%
13.0-14.5%
0.9-1.1
With catalyst
0-30 ppm
0.0-0.3%
0.0-0.2%
14.8-16.8%
0.98-1.015
High values of HC come from:
• extinction of the flame in the border area
cold from the combustion chamber, for example
when the engine is cold
High levels of O2 come from:
• mixture adjusted too poor
• defective lambda regulation
• insufficient conversion in the catalyst
• too poor a mix, for example by:
• ignition rupture and ignition power
insufficient, for example due to:
-
difference in fuel flow rate between the
individual cylinders
-
worn or defective spark plug
ignition cable with too high resistance, short circuit, etc.
-
-
-
non-tight admission system (air intake)
fuel system pressure too low
ignition defects are also
detectable by oscillating values of HC
and of O2)
dilution of exhaust gases, for example by:
-
-
leaky exhaust installation
the exhaust gas intake pipe
the tester is not waterproof
• poor timing at ignition
• mixture too rich or too poor
• non-tight valves
-
the secondary air injection system in the
exhaust gas is functioning
Engine management systems
1.2. Management of Diesel Engines
Until the mid-1980s, diesel injection systems were exclusively made with
a mechanical regulation.
• Injection pump series
• Distribution injection pump
• Mechanical injector-pump system
This means that the driver's wish is conveyed to the injection pump by the cable or the rod.
from the accelerator pedal.
In the inline injection pump, a
modification of the accelerator pedal position
towards an increase or a decrease of the
injected quantity makes the pump piston turn at
the help of an adjustment rod, which modifies the
feeding course for a steady race of
piston.
In the distributor injection pump, pressing the accelerator pedal moves a
adjustment slide on the axial piston for an increase or decrease in the quantity of
fuel. Thus, here as well, the feed stroke is modified for a constant stroke of the
piston.
1 = transfer pump
2 = ring bearing rollers
3 = cam disc
4 = axial piston
5 = check valve
6 = shut-off solenoid valve
7 = centrifugal regulator
8 = adjustment slide
Diagnostic technique in the automotive field
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Engine management systems
1.2.1 Mechanical Adjustment and Control
With the strengthening of requirements regarding power and emissions in the gases
exhaust, the control options described above are no longer sufficient. In order to be able to
to meet these requirements, it is necessary to use other adaptation possibilities that detect the state of
engine operation to act on the injection.
[Link]. Mechanical Regulation Systems
• Full load stop dependent on atmospheric pressure (ADA)
The injected quantity is modified according to atmospheric pressure.
• Full load stop dependent on boost pressure (LDA)
On turbocharged diesel engines, the boost pressure influences the
injected quantity.
• Cold Start Accelerator (KSB)
To improve cold start behavior, the injection timing is shifted.
depending on the temperature of the coolant.
• Idle speed adjustment based on temperature (TLA)
To make the engine heat up faster and run more smoothly when cold, the
idle regime is raised by modifying the injected quantity and the timing
injection.
• Load-dependent start of power supply (LFB)
The emissions of burnt gas and noise are reduced by adapting to the
load condition of the
engine.
1.2.2. Electronic diesel regulation
In 1985, the Bosch company developed the electronic diesel regulation called EDC => Electronic
DieselControl.
[Link]. Functions of the EDC
Just like the use of electronic fuel injection, the use of diesel injection systems
The electronic regulation allows for precise control of the start of injection, associated with a
extremely precise dosage of the amount of fuel.
Diagnostic technique in the automotive field
61
Engine management systems
Entrées => capteurs
The sensors detect operational data, such as load, speed, the
engine temperature and ambient conditions, such as temperature and air pressure
of admission.
Processing => Electronic control device
This is a microprocessor that, based on operational data, information
regarding the environment and taking into account the target values maintained in the
cartographies, defines the amount injected, the start of the injection, etc., and possibly regulates it.
recirculation of burnt gases.
Output => Actuators or control elements
They allow for electrical action on the high-pressure injection device, possibly on
the exhaust gas recirculation system and the turbocharging system.
[Link]. Structure of the EDC
Electronic control injection systems consist of:
Sensors
Actuators
Lift sensor
of the needle
Regime probe
Mass air flow meter
Altitude probe
Candle witness
preheating
S
I
S
I
G
N
A
U
X
Solenoid valve of
gas recirculation
Temperature probe of
cooling
G
N
A
U
X
EDC
Solenoid valve of
pressure regulation
overfeeding
Temperature probe of
the intake air
D
E
Pedal switch
of clutch
D'
E
N
T
R
E
E
Microprocessor
Stepper motor of the
Engine management systems
1.2.3. Electronic injection systems
[Link]. Axial piston pump with adjustment slide (e.g. Bosch VP 37)
It is a fully electronic injection pump controlled by an EDC module. As
previously, high pressure is mechanically created by a high-pressure axial piston. The
injection pump with distribution and adjusting slide has a structure identical to that of the
mechanical regulation fuel injection pump. The adjustment slide control does not operate there.
mechanically by a lever mechanism, but by means of a magnet mechanism that receives some
information from the EDC control device. The control device compares the actual values
and the setpoint of the adjustment slider obtained by a position sensor of the adjustment slider
who determines the instantaneous position of the adjusting slider. Similarly, the start of the injection is
electronically regulated by the EDC control device. To this end, a solenoid valve is
synchronized appropriately by the EDC control device to thus modify the pressure
fuel in the advance mechanism.
1 = slider position probe
setting
2 = flow actuator
3 = shut-off solenoid valve
4 = distribution piston (axial piston)
5 = advance adjustment solenoid valve
6 = adjusting slider
Furthermore, a thermistor transmits the
fuel temperature at the device of
order. In case of modification of the
fuel temperature, its density changes, this
which allows the control device to adjust the
appropriate amount of fuel.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
63
Engine management systems
[Link]. Axial piston pump with solenoid valve control (e.g. Bosch VP 30)
Instead of the electronically controlled adjusting slider, in this pump, it is a valve
high pressure that is synchronized by the control device which ensures the modification of the
injected quantity.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
cellular pump with fins
rotation angle sensor
pebble ring
pump control device
connection sheet
axial piston
high pressure solenoid valve
return strangler
advance solenoid valve
10 = advance mechanism
11 = cam disc
12 = pulse emission wheel
Remarks regarding this injection distribution pump
• Injection pressure up to 1300 bars
• Integrated pump control device for high pressure valve synchronization
and the injection stroke adjustment solenoid
• Wide adjustment range of the beginning of injection
• Regulation of the start of feeding without the needle's race probe, by the signals from the
rotation angle probe in cooperation with the rotation angle sensor
• An initial power setting is not necessary.
[Link]. Radial piston injection pump (e.g. Bosch VP 44)
This is also an entirely electronic injection pump with an integrated control device.
However, high pressure is created by mechanical means using high-pressure pistons.
arranged radially. This allows for a high spraying energy to be applied at the level of
the injector. The injection control is carried out exactly as in the VP 30 pump described
higher.
Diagnostic technique in the automotive field
64
Engine management systems
Features of this fuel injection distribution pump
• Injection pressure up to 1800 bars
• Integrated pump control device for high-pressure valve synchronization
and the injection adjustment solenoid valve
• Wide adjustment range at the beginning of injection
• Regulation of the start of the feed without the needle's travel probe, by the signals from the
rotation angle sensor in cooperation with the rotation angle sensor
• An initial power setting is not necessary.
• Variable feed rates and the possibility of a pre-injection within the operating range.
concerned
[Link]. Injector-Pump (PDE or UI)
In the injector-pump unit, the high-pressure pump and the injector form a unit. Each
the engine cylinder has its own injector-pump module. The injector is controlled by a
synchronized solenoid valve based on the initial injection parameters and modification of the
injected quantity delivered by the EDC control device.
There is no more loss in the high-pressure lines between the injection pump and the injectors.
Moreover, each individual cylinder of the engine can be fuelled individually based on
input signals processed by the control device.
Here we can reach injection pressures of up to 2000 bars.
Lucas injector-pump in the 5-cylinder engine of the Landrover
Diagnostic technique in the automotive field
65
Engine management systems
Brief description of how it works
• Filling phase
The solenoid valve is open (no voltage on the stator winding) => fuel enters
in the high-pressure chamber
• Feeding phase (injection)
A voltage is applied to the stator winding => the fuel supply is closed.
additional came on the engine camshaft drives the pump piston downward.
At around 180 bars, the injector nozzle opens for pre-injection. From about 300 bars
start the main injection. The injection ends when the solenoid valve is no longer activated.
Injector-pump training
Winding of the stator with
Camshaft
magnetic valve
Injector
The high injection pressure shortens the injection duration, improves mixture formation, and reduces
the emission parameters.
[Link]. Pump-pipe-injector (PLD)
This system operates similarly to the PDE system described above, but the injection pump
and the high-pressure element does not form a common module. They are arranged separately and are
linked to each other by a short high-pressure duct.
In addition to its own injector, each cylinder has a separate high-pressure section so that
that one of the units represented above is associated with each cylinder.
As in the PDE, the injection timing and the injection quantity of each individual cylinder of the
engine can be determined based on the state of the engine. This system allows for control
individual cylinders of the engine, even on engines where the camshaft is located below,
that is still very commonly found on utility vehicles.
Here too, the determination of the start of the injection and the quantity injected is carried out by
the intermediary of a solenoid valve as in the PDE.
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66
Engine management systems
[Link]. Manifold injection system – 'Common-Rail' system
In the 'Common-Rail' injection, the creation of pressure and injection are decoupled.
injection pressure is created independently of the engine speed and the amount injected, and it
is made available for injection into the 'rail' (fuel collector). The timing and the quantity
injection are calculated in the control unit and converted by the injector (injection unit) of
each cylinder of the engine through a controlled solenoid valve. Thanks to the injector and the
permanent presence of high pressure (which can reach 1,600 bars), on the auto engines
ignition and direct injection, we can adapt the behavior of injection more precisely
than with each of the other systems currently known.
Characteristics of this distribution injection pump
• High pressure fuel pump up to 1600 bars
• The distribution collector (Common-Rail) has a pressure that the control device
adapted to the operating conditions of the engine
• Pressure sensor on the distribution pipe
• Flow limiter
• Special injectors, with quick control
• Pre-injection
• Fuel cooler
Properties
• The 'Common Rail' system has the advantage of being able to select freely in
certain limits the injection pressure, regardless of the engine speed and the quantity
injected.
• The creation of high pressure and injection are separate.
• No establishment succession and removal of pressure => injection pressure
exists permanently and is available throughout the entire injection.
• The injected quantity and spraying are improved, resulting in reduced noise and
emissions in the exhaust gases.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
67
Engine management systems
1.2.4. Sensors, control and adjustment components
[Link]. Pedal position sensor
The pedal position sensor transmits the driver's wish to
the control device. A sliding contact potentiometer transmits a
signal corresponding to the position of the accelerator pedal to the device
of an order that calculates the amount of fuel taking into account
also of a throttle switch and a kick-down switch.
When the probe is defective, the control device switches to
backup operation: the engine runs at a higher speed, this
which allows the customer to go to the garage.
EDC vehicles do not have a mechanical connection in the form of a cable.
or from the rail to the injection pump or other flow adjustment systems.
[Link]. Regime probe
One of the most important magnitudes that influence the calculation of the quantity
injected in the case of preparing the mixture by electronic control
EDC is the system. It is determined either by a sensor placed on the flywheel.
either by a rotary angle sensor, such as in the pump
VP 44 distribution injection from Bosch.
In case of probe failure, in many types, a program of
backup operation is activated for an existing race probe of
pointeau provides information regarding the system as a signal of
replacement.
The emergency operation plan includes the following actions:
• Reduction of fuel quantity
• The command at the beginning of the injection is done in open loop.
• Stop the boost pressure regulation
• If the replacement signal for the needle stroke probe is also faulty,
the fuel injection is stopped - the engine stops.
[Link]. Measurement of air mass flow
The measurement of the mass flow rate of air transmits to the device
command the mass flow rate of drawn air. Today, we use
only a mass flow measurement of air by hot film.
Thus, the cleaning combustion that was necessary after
the engine shutdown for measuring the mass flow rate of air by wire
hot, disappears.
If the mass flow rate of air is too low, so that the engine
tends to create black smoke, the amount injected is
reprise in a mapping stored in memory in
the control device.
If the measurement of the air mass flow fails, a
The predetermined fixed value of the air flow rate is defined by the device.
of control. This air flow rate value is manifested in the range of partial loads by a
potentially reduced engine power.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
68
Engine management systems
[Link]. Needle lift sensor
The needle lift sensor is an integral part of an injector.
example on the EDC with Bosch VP 36 pump. It consists of a coil
magnetic and a pressure rod.
The magnetic coil is powered by direct current from the device.
command, so that a permanent magnetic field reigns. During
the opening of the injector (namely a lift of the injector needle),
the pressure rod, which constitutes an extension of the tip of the needle
the injector is driven simultaneously, which results in a
modification of the magnetic field. This modification has the effect of a
modification of the direct current by induction in the magnetic coil.
The modification of the direct current is recorded by the device.
order.
Starting from the needle's racing impulse and the high dead point signal
delivered by the regime probe, the control device calculates the beginning
effectiveness of the injection, which is compared to values stored in
The control device. The control device corrects any discrepancies.
[Link]. Other sensors
• Clutch pedal switch
To avoid engine jolts, when the clutch is engaged, the injection quantity is
briefly diminished.
• Brake pedal position
This switch prevents full power from being supplied when the brake is activated.
Frequently, for safety reasons, two contactors are installed whose operation
the community is monitored by the control system.
If one of the two contactors fails or if the contactors are not adjusted identically, a
The backup program is activated to regulate the amount of fuel.
• Adjustment slide travel
In injection pumps with EDC distribution and slide control adjustment (by
example Bosch VP 37), the effective value of the fuel quantity is transmitted to the device
command by transmission of the position of the adjusting slider. For safety reasons,
In case of failure of this sensor, the engine is stopped.
• Fuel and coolant temperature
To accurately calculate the quantity of fuel, the control device must have the
fuel temperature. Furthermore, for the exact calculation of the injected quantity, we need the
coolant liquid temperature. If one of these signals disappears, or both, the device
the order uses cached data.
[Link]. Regulation of the start of injection on distribution injection pumps
The increasing requirements concerning emissions in exhaust gases demand regulation of
start of the injection which is based on regulation according to the regime. The behavior in
startup and fuel consumption are also positively influenced by a
electronic regulation of the start of injection.
Just as in mechanical diesel regulation, the injection governor operates based on the
internal pressure in the pump. While in a purely mechanical pump, the pressure
the pump's internal is modified only according to the speed by the flow rate of the pump
of fuel supply, in the EDC, the pump determines the angle of rotation of the roller ring
to determine the start of the injection. The synchronization of this valve modifies the pressure on the left
and to the right of the injection adjustment piston.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
69
Engine management systems
Schematic structure of the injection adjustment of the VP 37 pump
Influences from:
• The temperature of the cooling fluid
When the engine is cold, there is a significant ignition delay. To compensate for the
disadvantages of the delay of inflammation, the moment of injection is shifted towards an advance.
In case of a probe failure, a fixed temperature of the coolant is
predetermined.
• Race probe of the needle
If there are deviations from the set values of the stored mapping,
observed, a correction of the start of injection is made by the start of injection valve on the
distribution pump.
When the signal from the needle travel probe fails while the speed probe
works, the start of the injection is no longer regulated but is controlled by a program of
rescue, while at the same time limiting the amount injected. If, in addition, the speed signal
disappears, the fuel supply is blocked and the engine stops.
[Link]. Recirculation of exhaust gases
Exhaust gas recirculation reduces the content of nitrogen oxides (NOx).
An increase in hydrocarbon (HC) emissions, carbon monoxide
(CO) and particle emissions, however, impose limits on the
exhaust gas recirculation.
The exhaust gas regulation valve is located in a channel that connects
the exhaust collector to the intake manifold. It is controlled by
the exhaust gas recirculation solenoid valve.
Powered by the engine's vacuum pump, it converts the signals from
the control device controls the exhaust gas recirculation at a command pressure.
Cyclic feedback determines the depression that is transmitted to the exhaust gas recirculation valve.
[Link]. Supercharging pressure regulation
As the engine speed increases, the turbocharger's boost pressure increases.
The geometry of the turbocharger is designed so that at low revs, the turbocharging
usable is very low. This however means that at high speed, it would increase in a way
inadmissible, which means that the boost pressure must be regulated.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
70
Engine management systems
The boost pressure regulation ensures the following functions:
•
•
•
Increase in engine lifespan
Optimal adaptation of the boost pressure to the engine load state
More regular boost pressure over a wide range of speed
[Link]. Altitude sensor
The ambient air pressure depends on geographical altitude. When
As altitude increases, the ambient air pressure decreases. The altitude probe
transmits to the control device the effective pressure of the ambient air.
Based on this information, an altitude correction is made to the
regulation of boost pressure as well as recirculation
exhaust gases.
[Link]. Boost pressure limitation solenoid valve
The EDC control device sends signals of
output at the magnetic valve of the limitation of the
boost pressure as a function of a field of
pressure setpoint characteristics of
overfeeding. The modification of the ratio of
signal detection transmits pressure more or less
raised in the intake manifold to the valve of
boost pressure regulation of
turbocharger powered by exhaust gases.
Thus, the boost pressure can be modified
between a minimum and a maximum.
[Link]. Glow plug indicator light
For example, on the 1.9 TDI, the warning light has a dual function. If it lights up while driving, it does not
does not mean that the glow plug is on, but in this case it works as an indicator
by default and informs the driver that there is a fault in the engine control system.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
71
Engine management systems
1.2.5. Diagnostic, defect suppression, workshop instructions
[Link]. Systematic defect search through preliminary checks
The testing steps below will help investigate the cause of the complaint about a diesel engine.
to thus enable an effective diagnosis.
Mechanical condition of the engine and its components
• Check the compression of each cylinder: minimum value 28 bars for indirect injection, 19 bars for
direct injection. Maximum deviation of 4 bars.
• Check the pressure drop of individual cylinders, at most 22%, maximum deviation of 10%.
• Check the injection advance (white smoke - too much advance; black smoke - too much delay).
• Check the toothed belt.
• Check the valve clearance or the condition of the hydraulic lifters.
• Check the oil level gauge to see if the engine oil is contaminated with diesel fuel or liquid.
for cooling.
• Check the operation of the crankcase ventilation.
• Check the condition and correct connection of the vacuum pipes.
• Check the setting of the throttle cable tension and the fuel lever on the injection pump.
• Check the seal of the injection pump.
• Check if the exhaust system is not clogged with soot and if there are any sealing defects.
turbocharger.
• Check the condition of the hoses and the bypass valve of the turbocharger.
• Check the boost air control valve.
• Check the turbocharger.
• Check if the engine and its components comply with the specific standards.
• Check the exhaust gases (the exhaust gases cannot be weakly charged).
Defects associated with the fuel system
• Check if the fuel is arriving in sufficient quantity (if necessary, check the supply pressure in the
in the case of an external power supply pump
• Check for any potential leakage defects at the connections of the fuel lines.
• Check for any fuel leaks (sealing defects can also allow air to enter)
to enter).
• Check for the presence of air bubbles in the supply or return line.
• Check if the tank contains the prescribed fuel.
• Check for any impurities in the fuel.
• Check if the fuel system does not contain water.
• Check the condition of the injectors and if fuel is reaching all the injectors.
• Check the condition of the air filter and the suction hose.
• Check if the exhaust gas recirculation is functioning properly.
• Check that the suction collector is not clogged with soot.
• Check the condition of the tank vent.
• Check if the thermostat is working properly.
• Check if the fuel filter is not clogged or does not have any deposits of paraffin.
Defects associated with the power supply circuit
• Check the status of electrical connections and ground connections
• Check the stop solenoid valve.
• Check the battery charge status.
• Check if the starter spins at a sufficient and consistent speed.
• Check the operation of the preheating system.
• Check the condition and model of the glow plugs.
• Check the proper functioning of the fuel preheating (if there is one).
• Check the operation of the cold speed adjustment and the partial load adjustment.
• Check the EDC control unit (error codes).
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
72
Engine management systems
[Link]. Quick verification of the electronic injection system
On electronic diesel regulations, diagnostics have not become any easier. Proceed
Logically, in the search for the defect, it is therefore even more important than before. The
The work schemes represented below will provide appropriate assistance to comply with the new ones.
specifications.
Verification plan for Bosch VP 36 injection pumps
Complaint:
No fuel at the injectors.
Condition:
The fuel supply is in order up to the injection pump.
Possible causes:• shut-off solenoid valve
• Anti-theft
• EDC control device
• Adjustment of quantity on zero supply
• Failure of the position sensor of the regulator
Controls:• Check the operation of the EDC control light.
• Check the operation of the alarm light (if there is one).
• Check the power supply voltage and the operation of the shut-off solenoid.
• Check the operation of the flow regulator.
Coil resistance 0.5 - 2.5Ω between pins 5 and 6 of the flow regulator.
Contact me, check if the power supply voltage > 12 V on pin 5.
Disconnect the connector: connect pin 5 to positive and briefly connect pin 6.
to the mass.
• Check the operation of the regulator position sensor.
- Check the resistance: 5 - 7Ω on the primary coil (pins 1 and 2) and the coil
secondary (pins 2 and 3).
Contact me, check for the presence of a 10 kHz frequency on pins 1 and
3 (in relation to mass).
• Check the EDC control device and the anti-theft system.
Check the supply voltage of the control devices (don’t forget the
connections to ground!)
Connection sheet: VW
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
73
Engine management systems
Bosch VP 30 / VP 44 injection pump verification program
Diagnostic technique in the automotive field
74
Engine management systems
Bosch injector-pump system verification program
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
75
Engine management systems
[Link]. Exhaust gas verification
The European Union has decided to conduct checks on the exhaust gases of diesel engines starting from
1heJanuary 1996. The test provides for a measurement of exhaust gases during free acceleration.
of the engine. The maximum measured values cannot exceed that of the European standard
72/306EG.
If the manufacturer's data is not available, the legal limits imposed are
following:
• 2.5 km-1for naturally aspirated engines
• 3.0 km-1for supercharged engines
The measurement of exhaust gases provides no indication of the possible causes of defects.
A value of opacity that is too high can have several causes: poor combustion, high
oil consumption or high water vapor content in the exhaust, malfunctioning
of the EGR system, etc.
Verification scheme in case of excessive opacity values
Read the error memory
on an EDC device.
The engine must have its temperature.
operating (driving 10 km)
Coefficient k values too high
The air-fuel mixture is not
good
Bad start to the diet
Defective injector
Air and fuel filters OK?
Clean suction ducts?
Start of pump supply
Injection OK?
Is the montage correct?

Thermal insulation OK?

Torque couple OK?
Sealing on the air cooler
of overclocking? Cooling
sufficient?
Check the advance variator
Injector verification:
What type of injector?
Opening pressure?
Sealing?
Cold operation adjustment and
partial charge OK?
Valve clearance OK?
Shape of the jet?
Oil quality and level OK?
Waterproof flame candle?
Maximum diet. Not too high?
Displacement probe of the needle
OK?
OK ?
Control device OK?
Pressure in the exhaust
normal?
On turbo engines: pressure of
Overfeeding OK?
LDA OK?
EGR system OK?
Engine OK?
If these checks do not resolve the issue, the
fuel pump must be repaired.
The flow screw protection is not
not damaged?
Vehicle dynamics
Vehicle Dynamics
Under the term vehicle dynamics, we group together the systems below, for regulation
vehicle dynamics electronics, whose role is to stabilize the vehicle and thus make it
safer driving.
MMonsterPair of shoelaces
M
V
Stabilization couple
stab

Vehicle speed
FATensile force
FBhRear braking force
FShRear lateral guidance
αh
αv
δ
Rear drift angle
Before drift angle
Steering angle
FSvFront lateral guidance
FBvFront braking force
ABS => Système anti-blocage
ABV => Automatic regulation of force distribution
braking
Anti-skid regulation
Electronic Stability Program
MSR => Motor torque regulation of skidding
Anti-lock braking system (ABS)
• Prevents wheel locking during braking, thus ensuring lateral control and reliability
of maximum conduct, which are the basis of all dynamical control systems.
Regulation of acceleration skating (TCS, ASR, ASC)
• Prevents unwanted skating of the wheels in the longitudinal direction, but, contrary to
At the ABS, it acts during acceleration.
• To reduce the traction torque, the brakes are activated in addition to the action on the engine.
Electronic differential locking (BTCS, EDS, ETS)
• Controlled braking action on the drive wheels, which creates the effect of a differential lock.
• Used as a startup aid up to 40 km/h.
Electronic distribution of braking force (EBD, ABV, EBV)
• Takes into account the dynamic distribution of the load between the axles during braking and
correspondingly shift a part of the braking force to the front axle or
back. This allows for the removal of the brake force distributor based on the load.
or the pressure relief valve.
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Vehicle dynamics
Electronic Stability Program (ESP, FDR, VSC, DSC3, PSM, DSTC)
• All systems are based on the same basic principle: braking on a single wheel,
activated in the sense of a corrective action on the course, is based on a regulation of the
couple of laces that cooperate with the ABS and ASR.
Regulation of the engine locking couple (MSR)
• Prevents the drive wheels from being locked by the engine due to braking when the
the accelerator pedal is suddenly released or when a braking is performed with a
engaged speed report
2.1. Anti-lock system
2.1.1. Foundations of ABS Regulation
When braking suddenly or too hard on a slippery road (wet road or
in snowy conditions, the wheels tend to get stuck.
• If the rear wheels lock up, the rear of the car will slide sideways uncontrollably.
• If the front wheels lock up, we lose control of driving.
If the rear wheels lock up, the car becomes uncontrollable.
A well-known physical phenomenon.
The ABS prevents wheel lock during braking. The following advantages are obtained:
• The lateral guiding forces and directional stability are maintained, which delays the
slip.
• The vehicle remains controllable, which allows for avoiding obstacles.
• If you brake hard, you get the shortest stopping distance - except on terrain.
stony.
• Tire wear remains minimal and no 'brake flat' is observed.
2.1.2. Types of ABS systems
Mechanical ABS
• Two belt-driven control units regulate the pressure of
braking on the front wheels.
Integrated ABS
• In the integrated system, only the wheel brakes are taken from a classic system.
braking.
• The hydraulic unit includes the tandem master cylinder and a hydraulic booster of
braking force in addition to the elements of the ABS function.
Add-on or distributed type ABS
• In these systems, an ABS hydraulic control unit is inserted into the system.
braking hydraulics between the tandem master cylinder and the wheel brakes.
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Vehicle dynamics
2.1.3. Classification of ABS systems according to hydraulic principle
Open system
The brake fluid expelled from the wheel brakes returns to the reservoir. To maintain the pressure
return to the wheel brakes, the brake fluid can be sent back into the braking system either by
a transfer pump either dynamically from a high-pressure reservoir.
Closed system
The brake fluid drained from the wheel brakes goes into a low-pressure accumulator. From there, it
is immediately returned to the braking circuit by a return pump.
2.1.4. The regulation process
An ABS regulation cycle consists of three phases: pressure maintenance, reduction of the
pressure and pressure recovery.
Phase 1: Maintenance of pressure
If a rotational speed sensor indicates a significant decrease in wheel speed, there is a trend
at the blockage. First of all, the braking pressure on this wheel is limited to the level already reached;
she can no longer increase.
Phase 2: Reduction of pressure
Yes, despite this, the slowing of the wheel continues, the braking pressure is decreased, this
which allows the wheel to start turning again at the speed of the vehicle.
Phase 3: Restoration of pressure
As the braking pressure is lower, the wheel rotation accelerates. When a certain
the limit speed of rotation is reached, the pressure is again increased. This
Restoring the pressure slows the wheel down again.
Rolling speed
Wheel speed
Braking force
Depending on the nature of the roadway, about 5 to
12 regulation cycles take place by
second.
A = Maintaining pressure
B = Decrease in pressure
C = Restoration of pressure
Weather
2.1.5. Different types of ABS systems
Based on the fundamental regulation principle, anti-lock systems are grouped into
different groups:
Two-channel system
In the 2-channel system, one control channel serves the brakes of the left front wheel and
right rear, and the second control channel supplies the brakes of the right front and rear wheels
left.
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Rolling dynamics
3-channel system
In the 3-channel system, the front wheels are controlled independently of each other by
two channels, while the wheels of the rear axle are regulated together by the third channel.
4-channel system
In the 4-channel system, the four wheels are all controlled independently of each other.
the other.
2.1.6. Types of regulation
Depending on the dynamic behaviors of different types of vehicles, different types of
regulation.
Select-Low Regulation
The wheel that shows a tendency to lock triggers the braking regulation. The wheel
the opposite receives the same braking pressure even if it does not show a tendency to
blocking. This type of regulation ensures a high lateral guidance force and prevents the action
braking force is applied to one side of the axle.
Individual regulation
The two wheels of an axle are controlled completely independently of each other.
The braking action on each wheel is thus adjusted according to mechanical conditions.
existing ones, so that they can be used to the maximum. This type of
regulation guarantees the maximum braking action possible regardless of the road condition. On
slippery roads on one side, a unilateral braking effect is observed that the driver
must be compensated by a counter-steering.
2.1.7. Skid during braking
During braking, the wheel of the vehicle turns slower than the speed of the vehicle. This phenomenon,
called slip, is indicated as a percentage.
• 0% slip means a wheel turning freely.
• 100% slip means a locked wheel.
2.1.8. ABS working range
The working range of the ABS starts just before the maximum braking force and ends
at maximum, followed by an unstable area in which no regulation is possible anymore.
Research has shown that depending on the level of friction between the tires and the road,
one can exert the best braking forces with a slip of 20 to 30%. It is within this
beach that works the anti-lock system.
A = Stable beach
B = Critical beach
C = Unstable beach
D = Blocking
Braking slip in %
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Dynamics of rolling
2.1.9. The individual components and their function
Wheel rotation speed sensor
Measure the rotation speed of the wheel. Inductive sensors are used that create a voltage.
alternative that results from the modification of the flow of a magnetic field, and whose frequency (the
electrical signal) is proportional to the rotational speed (see also "sensors and
actuators.
With the ASR and the ESP, the requirements regarding the accuracy of rotational speed detection
from the wheel have increased. At speeds below 7 km/h, the inductive sensors encounter
limits. The latest speed sensors are based on the principle of the Hall effect and should
eliminate these weaknesses. These sensors deliver a rectangular signal of constant amplitude.
The pulse transmitter is incorporated into a thin stamped plate that is integrated into the seal.
of the wheel bearing seal to be protected from corrosion.
Control device
Detects the signals from the wheel speed sensors and controls the hydraulic unit
to act on the braking pressure.
Indicator light
Lights up as soon as the safety circuit is activated, to indicate to the driver that the ABS is not
does not work.
Hydraulic unit
Receives the control signal emitted by the control device to increase, decrease or
maintain a constant braking pressure through solenoid valves.
2.2. Electronic distribution of braking force
The use of ABS components for brake force distribution (EBD) makes the use unnecessary.
of a braking force regulator or a pressure relief valve on the rear axle.
• The EBD can already be used for light braking actions, especially in
curves
• The ABS control unit detects the instantaneous speed of the wheels.
• If the rear wheel skidding is too significant, the braking pressure is regulated by
so that they cannot be braked too hard.
• EBD regulation thus ensures high lateral guiding forces and good distribution.
of the braking force.
• The working range of the EBD ends when the ABS regulation begins to operate, that is to say
that is to say when a tendency to lock is detected on a wheel.
Controllable vehicle
Uncontrollable vehicle
Braking force
Lateral guiding force
Free rotating wheel
Sliding during braking
Max. - wheel locked
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Rolling dynamics
2.3. Regulation of skating
The traction control prevents the driving wheels from slipping during start-up and
acceleration. Thus, skating regulation ensures the same functions at acceleration as ABS
during braking. The traction control works in conjunction with the ABS system.
Among the regulation systems of skating, two variants must be distinguished:
Regulation of skating with action on the brakes and on the engine (for example: TCS - Traction)
Control System
The system is active across the entire speed range and acts on the management of the brakes and/or the engine.
A braking pressure can be established without pressing the brake pedal. The system cannot
act on the wheel brakes for an unlimited duration, and for this reason, the action on the brakes is
adapted to the capabilities of the braking system.
To minimize brake engagement as much as possible, the system also reduces the torque of the
engine until we achieve the best possible use of grip for traction
without acting on the brakes.
Regulation of skating with action on the brakes (for example: BTCS - Brake Traction Control
System
This system acts solely through an automatic action on the brakes. Through controlled braking, the
driven wheels in skating are maintained within the range of rotational speed that corresponds to
an optimal traction. It must be taken into account that the action on the brakes is not applied in
permanence. The system works, for example, at a speed of about 40 km/h, and it regulates
so essentially the startup phase.
The advantages of regulating skating are as follows:
• Maintaining stability while driving for rear-wheel drive vehicles or road holding
front-wheel drive vehicles.
• Differential locking function on front-wheel drive vehicles.
• Increase in pulling forces.
• Warning before the physical limits of stability are reached, by a witness
of warning.
• Reduction of tire wear.
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Rolling Dynamics
2.4. Electronic Stability Program
To prevent a skid, a dynamic driving system such as ESP must be able to act on
the brakes in a fraction of a second. The establishment of pressure is achieved by the pump of
return of the ABS. To increase the pump capacity, sufficient pressure is needed on the side.
suction of the pump.
It is in the creation of this pressure that the fundamental difference between the systems lies.
BOSCH of ITT Automotive.
• At Bosch, the pressure is created by a pre-charge pump.
• At ITT, the pressure is established by an active braking amplifier, which is also
called "booster".
2.4.1. ESP in case of a sudden avoidance maneuver
A sudden change of direction poses to
the problems of a car's rolling stock
more difficult, even in case of full braking
with ABS.
Often, the sudden movement of the steering wheel towards the
left or right can only be controlled by
by a highly experienced driver.
The ABS with ESP reduces the consequences of
panic reactions.
During a significant solicitation, the vehicle is
stabilized even in the event of a change of
brutal direction.
The system detects oversteer or understeer.
cornering and the ABS/ESP system maintains the
vehicle on its trajectory.
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Rolling dynamics
2.4.2. ESP in case of understeering and oversteering
Understeer
Oversteer
The front of the car rests on the wheel
located outside the curve
The ESP applies the wheel brake
left back
The back rests on the wheel located at
the outside of the curve
The ESP activates the front wheel brake
right
The vehicle "pulls" to the left
controlled manner)
The vehicle "pulls" to the right (of
controlled manner
ESP has significantly reduced the demands placed on the driver. However, ESP does not allow
Of course, one must not exceed physical limits. As always, physics has its limits.
2.4.3 ESP Control Loop
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Rolling dynamics
2.4.4. Individual components and their function
[Link]. The essential components
[Link]. Overview of the system with its sensors, processing, and actuators
Sensors
Module
Actuators
Relay of the transfer pump
ABS in a housing of
protection
ASR/ESP switch
brake light switch
ABS return pump
Magnetic valve relays of
the ABS in a protective casing
Pedal switch of
brake
ABS inlet valves
Control valve 1
Control valve 2
High control valve
pression1
Wheel sensors
right back
before the right

arrière gauche
front left
High control valve
pression2
Hydraulic pump (pump of
preload
Angle sensor of
robbery
Instrument combo
Acceleration sensor
transversal
ABS control warning light
Pressure sensor of
braking
Installation control witness
braking
ASR/ESP control witness
Lace sensor
Additional signals
Engine management
Gearbox management
Navigation management
Signals
supplementary
Raccord de diagnostic
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Dynamics of rolling
[Link]. Some sensors
In addition to the known ABS sensors, the following detectors are essentially added:
Steering angle sensor
The detector transmits the steering wheel angle to
the control device
=> max. 7200≅ four complete turns of the steering wheel
Measurement of the angle according to the principle of the
light barrier
Transverse acceleration sensor
The detector determines whether, and to what extent, some
lateral forces (for example, side wind or curve)
brings the vehicle out of the planned course. This sensor
measures within a range of +1.7 g
at - 1.7 g (1g = 9.81 m/s²)
Rotation rate detector
The rotation angle sensor determines whether the vehicle is experiencing
rotational displacements around its main axis. We speak
of the measurement of the angle of rotation or yaw.
Brake pressure detector
The brake pressure regulator transmits to the device
the effective pressure that prevails in the system of
braking. From there, the control device calculates the
braking forces on the wheels and thus the forces
longitudinal forces that act on the vehicle. If the ESP must
to intervene, the control device refers to this value for
calculate the lateral guiding forces.
The detector is screwed into the hydraulic pump of the
regulation of the rolling dynamics. This detector is a
capacitive detector in which the distance between two plates
varies depending on the prevailing pressure.
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Rolling dynamics
2.4.5. Input and output signals
Entrance
Treatment
Exit
Contact of
the ASR/ESP
Light switch
Relay of the
the stop
S
I
booster pump
S
Contact switch of
brake pedal
I
ESP
G
N
A
U
Relay of the valves
ABS magnets
G
N
A
Speed probe of
rotation
Hydraulic pump
precharge pump
In Microprocessor X
X
Angle detector of
robbery
D
E
Control device
of the display unit
D'
E
N
T
R
É
E
Acceleration detector
transversal
S
O
R
T
I
Additional signals
for the
Engine management
Management of transmission
Navigation management
Pressure detector
of braking
E
Rolling dynamics
Inductive sensor
Ecart sensor-rotor
When the gap between the sensor and rotor is greater than the prescribed gap, the output voltage decreases. If
We go below the prescribed gap, the rotor teeth hit against the sensor.
Correct gap in relation to the rotor
Sensor too far apart
Steel chips on the sensor
As the sensor is made of a magnetic material, it easily attracts iron filings.
which comes from steel chips torn from brake discs. If too many are
steel particles were deposited on the sensor, the output signal from the speed detector of
rotation is disturbed.
Game too important in the wheel rotations
A very important play in the wheel bearings can cause a faulty signal.
• Only plug or unplug the ABS control device plug after disconnecting the
contact.
• Many ABS failures are only detected at a minimum speed of 12 km/h.
2.6. Practical Work Instructions
Verification of inductive sensors
Verification with the oscilloscope
For inductive wheel sensors, disconnect the sensor connection plug and connect it to
the oscilloscope. With the vehicle on the lift, manually turn the concerned wheel. If the sensor
the rotation speed works correctly, we should see a clear alternating voltage signal on
the screen (see paragraph 2.5).
Voltage verification
The vehicle being on the lift, measure with a voltmeter (set to alternating voltage) at the level of the
ABS module connector (wiring side) => turn the wheel at about 60 revolutions/min.
First connect the contact. We must observe a voltage that corresponds to the indications of the
manufacturer (for example: Citroën Xantia 0.3 V ~).
Resistance verification
Measure the resistance between the terminals on the wiring side of the ABS module multiple connector:
about 1000ΩIf this value is not reached, the resistance must be measured directly on the
wheel sensor. If the resistance value is correct, the conductors should be checked. If the value
is not correct, replace the sensor.
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Dynamics of rolling
Check of the air gap (see also paragraph 2.5)
The air gap between a rotor wheel and the sensor is measured. First, this tooth and the
sensors are exactly facing each other.
When adjusting or replacing the sensor, it is essential to pay attention to the torque of
necessary tightening.
Active wheel sensor verification
In their new model, these wheel sensors now have only two connections.
Resistance check
If the resistance value of the sensor does not match the workshop data, it means that
the sensor or the conductors are defective.
Checking the power supply voltage
Remove the multiple connectors from the wheel rotation speed sensor and measure the voltage with respect to
the mass on the corresponding terminal. If the set value of at least 12 Volts is not reached
verification of drivers
Switching voltage check
Turn the wheel slowly and measure the voltage between the test terminal (case or plug) and the
mass. If the voltage does not correspond to the set value indicated by the manufacturer, it is necessary to
Check the conductors and the sensor, for example between 0.8 V and 1.6 V.
Verification with the oscilloscope
Connect the oscilloscope between the test terminal (case or plug) and ground. The vehicle being on
bridge and connected contact, run the wheel at about 60 revolutions/min and check the voltage as well as the
shape of the signal. If the shape of the signal does not match the image given in paragraph 2.5
and if the voltage does not match that given by the manufacturer, the conductors and the
wheel rotation speed sensor.
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89
Comfort systems
3. Comfort Systems
3.1. Air conditioning in vehicles
3.1.1. The basic physical principle
A system intended for air conditioning, i.e., for air conditioning, can be compared to a
refrigerator, but with greater efficiency and power. In the air conditioning unit
there is an evaporator in which a refrigerant fluid evaporates under the influence of the decrease
depression. The evaporation heat required for this will be extracted from the environment by the
refrigerant: the temperature of the air in the air conditioning unit decreases therefore. Outside the unit of
In air conditioning, we find the compressor and the condenser. The compressor produces both the low
pressure in the evaporator than the excess pressure required in the condenser. This excess pressure creates
so that the refrigerant can condense in the condenser and that the condensation heat
can be transmitted at room temperature.
In the air conditioning system of a vehicle, the condenser is located right at the front.
of the vehicle so that it obtains a maximum amount of fresh air. The compressor that is driven by
The engine, via a belt, draws in the refrigerant coming from the evaporator, which is cool.
in gaseous form and found under low pressure. The compressor increases the pressure
the refrigerant, which causes its temperature to rise. The hot refrigerant in the form
gas that is pushed towards the condenser is cooled by the outside air that passes over the
condenser. At the outlet of the condenser, the refrigerant will have changed to a liquid state while releasing the
heat. The refrigerant moving from the condenser to the expansion valve is in liquid state and under
pressure. At this point, it atomizes and can relax. As a result, the refrigerant will evaporate from
completely new, which causes significant cooling. In this way, the compressor and
the expansion valve separates the low-pressure circuit from the high-pressure one. In a system
In air conditioning, approximately one kilogram of R134a circulates continuously. Considering the
amount of oil (between 0.2 and 0.3 kilos), the compressor will pump an equal amount every hour
200 times the maximum amount of refrigerant throughout the installation.
Refrigerant circuit with nozzle
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90
Comfort systems
The refrigerant flow is determined by the expansion valve or, more recently, by
more through a nozzle. The refrigerant that flows in the evaporator extracts heat from the air that passes through
through the blades of the evaporator. This cooled air is used to condition the interior of the
vehicle. By extracting heat, some of the moisture in the air condenses, which reduces
the absolute humidity of the air inside the vehicle.
In addition to condensation water, the system also separates fine dust particles as well as
the pollen of flowers. Condensation water and any pollution are evacuated through
from a drainage channel. It is always necessary to avoid that the condensation water can freeze and thus
block
in the refrigerant circuit.
[Link]. Principle structure of an air conditioning system
The image below includes all the parts of an air conditioning system as well as
their layout.
Refrigerant circuit with expansion valve
Evaporator
Cools the air that passes through, cleans it and
dehumidifies.
The refrigerant absorbs heat.
Extract the heat from the ambient air.
Refrigerant in gaseous state:
reduced temperature and pressure
Compressor
Increase the pressure and of this
way the refrigerant temperature at
the gaseous state.
Refrigerant in gaseous state
High temperature and pressure.
Refrigerant in state
liquide : température
average and pressure
high
Valve
of expansion
Reduce the pressure in
the refrigerant so that it
may evaporate.
Dryer
Dry and clean the refrigerant.
Condenser
Liquefy the refrigerant by
cooling through
the ambient air.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Comfort systems
[Link]. Automated temperature conditioning
In the case of a manual air conditioning system, it is necessary to
adjust the temperature and ventilation myself, the intensity of the
ventilation and air distribution. For an automated system
Simple, you will only need to adjust the temperature.
automatic installation set based on the
The temperature ensures that the requested temperature is maintained at all times. The ventilation
and the distribution of air will still need to be adapted to the ambient conditions as well as to the driving.
of the driver.
In high-quality installations, ventilation and air distribution will be automatic.
adapted. Some of these facilities also have a conditioning system
separate air for the right side and the left side of the vehicle. A display screen according to the status
operational indicates the desired temperatures and the distribution of air.
It is also possible to have specific air temperature conditioning for each
seat in the vehicle. To this end, however, it will be necessary to install a second system of
air conditioning at the rear of the vehicle. The control is the heart of this system.
automated temperature adjustment. Here all individual information is gathered and
used to determine the climate inside the vehicle. Several temperature sensors inside
and outside the vehicle as well as an optical sensor that measures the intensity of solar rays,
provide the required data.
The desired climate (temperature, air humidity, air circulation) is then achieved by proceeding
to the automated setting of shutters equipped with motors as well as by activating or deactivating the
fan for bringing in outside air. Through the control buttons and the coupler
magnetic, the pressure in the closed circuit of the refrigerant remains acceptable. If the pressure in the
high-pressure circuit becomes too high or low, the compressor is disconnected to prevent
the installation may be damaged.
3.1.2. Input and output signals
Sensors
Actuators
Photoreceptor
Sunbeams
Servo motor for
lower flap/defrosting
and potentiometer
Temperature sensor
Control Panel
S
I
S
I
Servo motor for
central valve
and potentiometer
G
N
A
U
X
ATC
G
N
A
U
X
Temperature sensor
Outdoor temperature
Servo motor for
temperature valve
and potentiometer
Temperature sensor
Comfort systems
3.1.3. Electrical diagram
[Link].
Electrical diagram of an air conditioning system with expansion valve
System Description
When the contact is on and the air conditioning is activated, the current flows normally.
towards the air conditioning compressor clutch through the defrost switch, the
contact double and the air conditioning relay. The defrost contactor is closed when there is no
no risk of frost (e.g. temperature above 1° C). The double pressure switch opens if the
Pressure becomes too low (e.g., 1.4 bars) or too high (e.g., 30 bars).
The air conditioning system relay opens when the engine management module
connected to the mass. In this way, the air conditioning system can be disabled during
acceleration (e.g., during a 15-second interval) or in case of high temperature in the
motor (e.g. starting from 105°C). Another switch in the pressure switch double branches the
auxiliary fan starting from a pressure of 18 bars.
In order to compensate for the increased load of the engine when the system is activated
air conditioning, the system that controls the idle speed is activated simultaneously.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
93
Comfort systems
[Link].
Electrical diagram of a fixed duct air conditioning system
Description of the system
When the contact is engaged and the air conditioning is activated, the current flows normally.
towards the air conditioning compressor clutch through the low pressure switch,
high pressure switch and the air conditioning relay. The low pressure switch is open if
the pressure is too low (e.g. below 1.6 bars). The high pressure switch opens if the
pressure becomes too high (e.g. 30 bars).
The air conditioning system relay opens when the engine management module
connected to the mass.
In this way, the air conditioning system can be disconnected during acceleration (e.g.
for a period of 15 seconds) or in case of high temperature in the engine (e.g. starting from
from 105° C).
Another switch in the high-pressure manifold connects the fan, and this from a
pressure of 18 bars.
In order to compensate for the increased load on the engine in the event of system activation
Air conditioning, the system that controls the idle speed is activated simultaneously.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Comfort systems
3.1.4. Diagnostic, fault suppression, workshop instructions
[Link]. Correct use of a manual air conditioning system
• First of all, evacuate the accumulated heat by ventilating the vehicle.
• Close the windows and the sunroof (in case of a heatwave, you may optionally open the }
sunroof to improve ventilation.
• In case of high heat, use the recycling mode to increase the efficiency of the system.
air conditioning. After about twenty minutes in recirculation mode, switch to outside air mode
to renew the air in the vehicle. Choose an intermediate air distribution.
• To use the air conditioning continuously, set the fan to a low speed or
average, select the desired temperature and use the outdoor air mode. The temperature
The ideal temperature inside the vehicle ranges between 20°C and 23°C. Do not let it drop below
temperature below 18° C because there is then a risk of catching a cold.
• Direct the nozzles upwards to the maximum since cold air descends and will be by
consequent mixed with hot air.
• In order to avoid condensation on the windows, turn on the air conditioning system.
the air and totally or partially direct the airflow towards the windows. Adjust the
temperature and the intensity of the ventilation and turn on the rear window defrost.
• If the air conditioning system draws in a high concentration of gas
of exhaust, harmful substances and dust, switch to mode functionality
recycling (risk of condensation on windows).
• Turn off the air conditioning system a few minutes before the end of the trip and adjust
the temperature to match the outside temperature. The condensation water
can thus dry in the evaporator due to the circulation of air. The creation of bad
odors in the air conditioning system are thus avoided by the fact that humidity does not
No longer stagnate in the evaporator. Furthermore, this avoids a temperature shock for the occupants.
of the vehicle.
[Link].
Make a diagnosis by measuring the pressure
The measured values for the suction pressure (low pressure) as well as for the pressure of
high pressure condensation demonstrates whether the system is functioning correctly.
The measured values must be compared to the values determined during tests conducted with this
specific type of vehicle, given that the values are significantly different depending on the
different vehicles!
The diagrams below reveal a strong link between these pressures and the temperature
external. These diagrams contain approximate values that can be considered
as indicative and generally valid values for an air conditioning system.
Pressure diagram for a circuit with an expansion valve
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
95
Comfort systems
[Link].
Defect search table for expansion valve systems
Haute pression Basse pression
Possible cause
engine overheating; expansion valve open in
permanence; temperature in the evaporator housing
too high; coolant shut-off valve
does not close properly
elevated
elevated
raised
elevated
normal to high
normal to high
normal
elevated
air in the refrigerant circuit
too much refrigerant (installation too full)
compressor drive to condenser narrowed
blocked
normal to high
normal to high
too much oil for refrigerant; very high humidity
above normal
normal, but
irregular
fluctuating
normal, but
irregular
fluctuating
humidity in the refrigerant circuit affects the
operation of the expansion valve
temperature probe of the expansion valve
defective
normal to low
raised to
compressor, low low
in driving
normal to low
blocked evaporator; insufficient air circulation
narrowing/obstruction in the accumulator/
dehydrator, the condenser or a high duct
pressure
high pressure
weak
weak
high
weak
narrow suction conduit; valves in the
damaged compressor leading to poor efficiency
suction pipe or accumulator/dehydrator
shrunken; frosted evaporator; blocked condenser;
compressor clutch no longer disengages;
defrost contactor remains closed; refrigerant leak
or insufficient filling, temperature probe of
the defective expansion valve; sealing of a
high pressure pipeline
the decompressor clutch does not engage
correctly and skating
the tension of the drive belt
Comfort systems
[Link].
Fault search table for systems with fixed nozzle expansion valve
High
pressure
Bass
Duration of the cycle
operation
Possible cause
pressure
Interval Walk
Stop
raised
elevated
raised
normal to
raised
poor cooling of the condenser
engine overheating
normal at
raised
normal
permanently engaged
too much refrigerant (a); air in the refrigerant
normal
raised
non-sealing toroidal joints of the regulator
or missing
normal
normal
loud or
cut in
lent or
engaged or cut off
normal
humidity in the refrigerant; too much oil
for refrigerant
permanence in perma- In permanent-
nence
long
nence
long
normal
normal at
weak
weak
raised
lent
low pressure switch reacts too late
insufficient compressor power
permanently engaged
normal at
weak
normal at
elevated
suction duct (low pressure) to
the blocked or narrowed compressor (b)
blocked evaporator or too much air circulation
weak
court
normal
Comfort systems
3.1.6. Control organization chart
Respect the regulations in force in the different countries.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
98
Comfort systems
3.1.7. Practical advice
• In most cases, the pressure switch of the air conditioning system can be disassembled.
without needing to open the refrigerant circuit.
[Link].
Security measures
• The work on vehicles equipped with an air conditioning system and the handling of a
refrigerants require certain rules of conduct and certain safety measures to ensure that
no one can be put in danger by a refrigerant leak.
Prohibition of smoking, of doing a
fire, an open light
Protect
the eyes
Wear safety gloves
• General work on vehicles must be prepared and carried out in such a way that the
the refrigerant circuit must not be opened (e.g., disassembly of the radiator or the engine). It
In any case, make sure to avoid contact between the refrigerant and the skin due to the risk of frostbite.
creates on the skin. A refrigerant that flows at a temperature of -26°C!
• Yes, when repairing the vehicle, it proves absolutely necessary to open the circuit of
refrigerant, the vehicle must be transported to a gas station or a garage where the circuit of
Refrigerant can be opened by an expert (in some countries additional instructions
may exist).
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Comfort systems
[Link]. Recycling Station
In order to carry out repairs on the various components of the conditioning system, it is necessary to
first empty this conditioning system.
However, the refrigerant that is found in the components and pipes of the conditioning system
must in no case be dispersed into the environment, it must be sucked up and recovered by means of
special equipment.
At such a gas station, the following services can be performed:
• Draining of the air conditioning system
• Recycling (recovery) of refrigerant
• Vacuum sealing of the air conditioning system
• Refilling (new or recycled refrigerant)
Draining the air conditioning system
• An air conditioning system is generally only emptied when the installation needs to be
opened in view of certain works.
• If you let the air conditioning system run for a few minutes before the
draining, the refrigerant circulates throughout the system and becomes easier to vacuum.
Vacuum sealing of the air conditioning system
After being opened for work, an air conditioning system must always be set up.
sous vide before being filled again.
The air that has entered the system, as well as the humidity and impurities it contains, reduces the
power of the air conditioning system as they can block the fixed nozzle or the
expansion valve.
Filling the air conditioning system
According to the type of equipment and depending on whether it has a filling cylinder or not, which can be
reheated) the system will be filled either with refrigerant in gas state through the low connection
pressure, either refrigerant in liquid state through the high-pressure connection.
Attention: During draining and filling, the instructions in effect in different countries
sont à respecter.
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Comfort systems
3.2. Central locking
The central locking allows you to close, open, and lock the doors, the rear hatch, and the
cap for the fuel tank of vehicles. A switch provided in the driver's door.
or the passenger or in the rear hatch, and for installations remotely controlled by
Infrared, the IR command detected by the control device, serves as control points.
When comfort and safety features are planned, central locking allows for
automatically close the sunroof and the side windows. To be able to operate the locks
doors, the rear hatch and the fuel cap flap, the system needs components
actuation. Depending on how the actuating elements are activated, one
distinguish
electromagnetic systems,
the electric central locking and
the electropneumatic central locking systems.
Electromagnetic systems are no longer used today, among other reasons due to their
high weight and their poor efficiency.
3.2.1. Operating mode of a central locking system
[Link]. Electric central locking
The activation of electric motors and electric actuated elements allows for the execution of
basic functions. Most of the time, the command is carried out through contacts that
one is located in the door lock and the other in the actuating elements.
The simplified circuit diagram shown in figure 1 illustrates the cooperation of individual components. The
Turning the key mechanically operates the lock and the contact S1. This allows the device to
command to activate all electric motors. The switch S1 has two positions of
commutation: locking (V) and unlocking (E). The switch S2 is located in the element
actuation and is actuated by the engine via rods or a transmission. It serves as
end of course contact and connect or disconnect the motor. The control signals
lead to the central locking control unit.
Operating mode
Locking (figure 1)
A rotation of the key connects terminals 30 and V of the switch S1. This control pulse
allows the control device to supply voltage to terminal 83a. The electric motor M1
turns. The motor runs until the locking stroke is completed, and at that moment the connection between the
terminals 83 and 83a of the contact is interrupted by the electric motor.
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Comfort systems
Unlocking (figure 2)
A rotation of the key in the opposite direction connects terminal 30 and terminal E of switch S1.
Borne 83b is thus powered by the control unit. The electric motor is running.
In the opposite direction. Terminals 83 and 83b of switch S2 remain connected to each other.
until the end position of the unlocking is reached. When the terminal link
83 and 83b is interrupted, the engine stops.
[Link]. Electropneumatic central locking
It consists of a control electrical circuit and a pneumatic working circuit.
The use of a so-called bi-pressure pump (which creates both a vacuum and a pressure of +/-
500 mbar) allows to transform the working circuit into a system
switching/on-off
The control electrical circuit operates the pneumatic working circuit through
micro-switches provided in door locks and electro-pneumatic elements
actuation. The control signals are received by a control device and transmitted to
a pneumatic control unit.
The pneumatic work circuit operates the actuating elements by means of depression.
(locking) or by pressure (opening).
The electro-pneumatic actuating elements perform the operations of opening and
closure by push and pull rods arranged on the door locks. In
locked position, the micro-switch delivers a ground signal to the control device.
Security system :
In case of attempted break-in (for example by pulling the locking button), a signal more
is sent to the control device by the corresponding micro-switch. The device of
the command activates the safety coil equipped with locking bolts, and the pull rod
and the actuator thrust element is blocked. Moreover, the depression is activated.
the lock remains locked.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Comfort systems
3.2.2. Double locking
The growing demands for theft protection impose possibilities
additional protection, also at the level of the electrically driven central locking.
In this field, there are fundamentally different possibilities, but they provide the same
result.
In the protected state, unlocking, for example by the protection buttons, is no longer
possible, even in a very violent manner. To do this, training is used for the doors.
d‘actionnement dans lesquels on monte soit un deuxième moteur électrique, soit plusieurs moteurs
électriques, qui peuvent prendre trois positions (déverrouillage, verrouillage, protection) et qui
take a mechanical dead center position in the protected position, so that only the
Possible unlocking is electric.
Additional variants are a mechanical decoupling of the lock or a position.
mechanism for exceeding the dead point of the lock in the protected state.
All variants, however, allow for mechanical emergency unlocking in case of
battery failure, at least through the driver's door lock and using the key of the
vehicle.
3.2.3. Remote command
Most of the time, the central locking still has a remote control for
the actuation of the central locking. An electronic system equipped with an infrared emitter diode or
A radio transmitter is placed in the key or in a separate transmitter.
The transmitter creates a coded signal that belongs to the vehicle (for example an encrypted code).
Receiver placed in the vehicle transmits this signal to the control unit which processes it.
Optionally, a comfort closure signal can also be part of the command to
distance. In this case, it is possible to close the windows as well as the sunroof after having
exit the vehicle by pressing the emission button for an appropriate duration.
3.2.4. Practical work indications
• Visually check for any mechanical or electrical damage.
• Cable break in the doors and the rear hatch (or trunk lid) in the conduits
rubber (accordions).
• Disconnected or corroded plug.
• Contact of the defective lock cylinder position.
• Mechanical defect in door locks or difficulties accessing mechanical components
(corrosion).
• Mass defect: in the case of a mass defect in relation to the body, it is always necessary to
unscrew the screw and completely eliminate the corrosion from the contact surfaces.
• In case of replacement of the electric motors, check if the cause does not originate from a
bad contact in the wiring harness.
• "Drowned" bi-pressure pump due to water infiltration into the vehicle. Check the openings.
water drainage.
• Pinned, clogged, or compromised flexible conduits.
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Security systems
4. Security systems
4.1. Retention System
Current electronics enable restraint systems that complement the ongoing improvement of
the structure of the bodywork, to reinforce passenger protection in case of an accident.
A restraint system (International Designation S.R.S. - Supplementary Restraint System) is
consisting of at least two airbags and seat belts on all seats, as well as a tensioner
of the belt on the seat belt retractor, at least for the front seats.
4.1.1. The airbag
In the event of an accident with a frontal collision, the driver and the passenger may suffer serious injuries.
head and chest injuries if thrown against the steering wheel, the dashboard or the windshield,
without being hindered. A fastened seatbelt reduces the shock, but cannot avoid it.
completely if the speed is higher.
It is for this reason that in the late 1970s the airbag was introduced as a system
additional passive safety. First of all, the airbag was only necessary in the US market,
due to the regulations that exist for the protection of passengers and the fact that wearing the
the seatbelt is not mandatory. In recent years, it has also become more established
even more in Europe.
The airbag is an inflatable bag that is inflated in a fraction of a second in the event of a frontal collision.
The chronological sequence of the airbag deployment is presented in figure 1.
It is first the driver's airbag located in the steering wheel that was developed. Later, the system has
expanded to a larger passenger airbag, which is installed in the dashboard. The airbag of the
the driver and that of the passenger have today become the norm in vehicles of the class
superior.
Representation of the deployment of an airbag (Figure 1)
1 = Driver
2 = Time in milliseconds
3 = Passenger
5 = Airbag activation
6 = Cushion Deployment
7 = Subsidence phase
8 = End of the accident
4 = Start of the accident
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Security systems
[Link]. Components
The airbag system consists of:
an inflatable air bag with openings
a gas generator for inflating the airbag,
an electronic triggering device (control) with built-in acceleration detector,
a capacitor (which serves as an energy reserve) and a voltage converter. The device of
the command has up to six outputs for lighting multiple gas generators for
the driver and passenger airbags and the seatbelt pretensions.
a warning light for system monitoring,
According to the manufacturer, possibly one or two front sensors (acceleration recorders)
additional measures to prevent false triggers,
a spiral spring to ensure a safe transfer of contact between the steering column and the
flying.
[Link]. Operating mode
The figure below shows the arrangement of the airbag components and the triggering range of
the latter in the event of a frontal collision (up to approximately +30° laterally relative to the axis
longitudinal of the vehicle.
After establishing the power supply (position 1 of the key switch), the control indicator
turns on. If it turns off after about 6 seconds, it means that the monitoring electronics of the device
the order found no defects and that the system is ready to operate.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
105
Security systems
In case of an accident, starting from a defined slowing down of the vehicle that corresponds to a speed of
collision of at least about 25 km/h (due to the requirement to wear a seatbelt, the slowdown
the triggering minimum of many ECE vehicles is higher than that of US vehicles), the
The control module is informed by an acceleration sensor. It then sends a signal of
command to the gas generator. In the case of the driver's airbag, to ensure a safe connection,
a spiral spring is often used instead of a normal contact brush. The ignition voltage (approximately
35 V) is delivered by a capacitor from the control device, even if the accident caused a
interruption of the power supply by the vehicle's battery. In case front sensors have
At least one of these must also close an additional contact.
The ignition current triggers the ignition of the solid explosive in the gas generator.
from a ignition pellet. A gas is produced and inflates the airbag.
This gas, called the propellant, is first purified and cooled by the metal filter. After about 30 ms, the bag
the airbag has reached its full volume, which can go up to 80 liters (depending on the manufacturer). The airbag on the side
The passenger holds up to 150 liters and, for this reason, it requires two gas generators to be.
gonflé. Des ouvertures situées sur le côté du sac à air qui n'est pas tourné vers le corps laissent
A portion of the gas escapes; after 100 to 120 ms, the airbag is practically empty.
Cross-section representation of a gas generator
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Security systems
4.1.2. Belt tensioner
To limit the belt play without degrading the comfort of use in normal operation, we have
developed different systems that allow the seatbelt to tighten in the event of an accident. To do this, it
there are two possibilities. On one hand, you can use the seat belt retractor, retract the seat belt and thus the
tighten, or on the other hand pull back the belt loop and thus tighten the belt. In addition to the tensioner
buckle purely mechanical, there are pyrotechnic systems with triggering
mechanical, but also electronic activation by the airbag control device.
Thanks to the belt tensioner, the body cannot sink under the lap belt. It thus prevents
the so-called 'submarine' effect. The head and the upper part of the body are cushioned softly by the airbag.
Mechanical belt tensioner
Pyrotechnic belt tensioner
Belt tensioner
pyrotechnics at
mechanical triggering
4.1.3. Wiring diagram
To transmit the triggering signal, some airbag systems use cables.
yellow special wires without sheathing that are connected directly to the airbag control unit.
Schéma unifilaire simplifié de l'Audi
D
Ignition switch
F110 = Ressort en spirale (feuilles
conductors
J177 = Energy reserve for the airbag
J178 = Airbag triggering device
K75
N95
N96
Airbag control warning light
Airbag unit ignition
Voltage Converter
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
107
Security systems
4.1.4. Diagnostics, fault suppression, and indications for the workshop
Restraint systems have a reliability of at least 10 years. Some vehicle manufacturers
want a replacement of airbag components after 10 years.
The restraint system is equipped with a diagnostic function. During each establishment of
contact, the control device performs a self-test. During this time, the indicator light
control lights up. During the use of the vehicle, the internal diagnostic system monitors while
permanence the wiring and the pyrotechnic elements. In case of a fault, the control indicator is
newly activated. The nature and duration of the defect are retained in a coded manner in the memory of
defects and can be read by a reading device. Causes of defects are associated with
fault codes in the repair instructions.
4.1.5. Practical work instructions
The development and maintenance work can only be carried out by personnel.
specially trained.
For assembly, grinding, and welding work, you must always disconnect the terminal.
negative of the battery. Then wait about ten minutes for the capacitors to
reserve are fully discharged.
Never unplug the control device when the power is on. This could lead to
deployment of the airbag or seat belt tensioners.
Do not use an ohmmeter to check the belt tensioners.
Only use measuring devices approved by the manufacturer.
If the system has been triggered after an accident, all its components must be replaced.
In case of component replacement, only use new parts.
Before assembly, check if the components have no cracks, deformations or
of bosses.
Components that have fallen on the ground can no longer be used.
When dismantling or replacing, always wear safety goggles.
The airbag module cannot be treated with cleaning products or grease.
Never perform repair work on the airbag module.
The airbag module must not be exposed to temperatures exceeding 75° C.
After handling triggered systems, clean yourself thoroughly.
hands in water and soap. The metallic components of an airbag or seatbelt tensioner
The ones that just exploded are very hot and cannot be touched for a few minutes.
Respect the mounting orientation of the sensors and triggering control devices.
Some manufacturers prescribe the use of new screws when replacing components.
No other non-approved steering wheel can be installed.
The airbags and seatbelt tensioners must be treated as pyrotechnic systems.
Respect local regulations in this matter.
The units that have been activated can be sent to the scrap.
Airbag modules must always be installed with the cushion facing up, otherwise the
the generator would be propelled upward in the event of the trigger being activated
For transportation, do not hold the belt tensioner by the guiding tube or by the belt.
Never carry the airbag modules by the cables or the connector located on the upper side.
Before sending a vehicle to the scrapyard, it is necessary to safely deploy the airbags and the
belt pyrotechnic tensioners that have not been activated, while respecting the
manufacturer's instructions and safety guidelines.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
108
Security systems
4.2. Electronic anti-theft
It is an electronic system that prevents unauthorized persons from starting the vehicle.
in motion.
The legal basis for protecting a vehicle with an anti-theft device is defined, among other things, in the Directive.
European R 18. According to this, removing the ignition key and locking the doors does not
constitutes a protection of the vehicle within the meaning of the law.
The anti-theft device consists of a control unit and, depending on the manufacturer, a manual transmitter with
electronic code key, a transponder or a smart card. We describe in more
detail below the anti-theft device with transponder.
4.2.1. Electronic anti-theft device with transponder
The electronic anti-theft system is an installation whose role is to prevent unauthorized people from
not in possession of the programmed key for this vehicle can drive it.
The activation and deactivation of the system are carried out entirely automatically without
the driver notices it by a display or another element.
This system guarantees a high degree of vehicle inviolability because for its operation, we
use only electronic modules.
Electronic anti-theft devices are used on both gasoline-powered motor vehicles and those powered by...
diesel engine.
The anti-theft device ('immobilizer') includes the following components:
• key with transponder,
• transmitter/receiver module,
• anti-theft control device,
• engine control device with coded starting authorization input.
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Security systems
[Link]. Key with transponder
The term 'transponder' is created from 'transmitter (=
transmitter) and "responder(= answerer).
The transponder is a transmitter-receiver that is placed in the key.
and which communicates with the control device of the anti-theft by
the intermediary of the transmitter-receiver module. The chip of
transponder mainly consists of the transmitter-
receiver and a wireless read and write EEPROM.
The transponder chip is powered by the module.
transmitter-receiver via the steering lock ring antenna.
Therefore, no battery is needed to power the key.
tension. Power supply and data transfer
are carried out according to the principle of the transformer. A energy
The periodic function of the data to be transmitted is extracted.
the magnetic field of the coil for the transponder. The range
the writing and reading of data is very low. The memory of
transponder contains key identification data, and at
many manufacturers, an alternative code (BMW). Each individual key contains a chip of
transponder that contains the aforementioned data and thus forms a unique piece. From the outside, it is
impossible to distinguish it from a normal contact key.
The key's chip allows for 100 billion possibilities.
The engine can only start if the code in memory matches that of the vehicle!
In case the key has a defect, the anti-theft system prevents the engine from starting because the
the code he receives is not valid.
[Link]. Transceiver module
The transceiver module is arranged around the
cylinder of the key and establishes the connection between the device of
order of the anti-theft device and the ignition key with
coded transponder. This module has an antenna
and an integrated switching circuit that is installed
in a synthetic material case.
An inductive coupling achieved through
the antenna powers the transponder, which thus emits a
signal received and amplified by the transmitter module
receiver before being transmitted to the central module.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Security systems
[Link]. Antitheft control device
The control device consists of an interface placed between the transmitter-receiver module and
the engine control device, and it performs the following tasks:
• interrogation of the transponder data in the key
• starter command after recognition of correct data
• coded release of the engine command in case the key is valid
• order of a control LED to possibly indicate the status of the system
• memory for the central encryption coding
• memory storage of multiple keys (varies by manufacturer)
• detection of stuck keys.
In many systems, the anti-theft control device is integrated into the control of the
engine and also provides additional protection against break-ins.
[Link]. Engine Management Module
Both for gasoline engine models and for those with electronically controlled diesel engines
(EDC), the engine management module executes essential basic functions for operation.
of the engine.
Compared to modules without anti-theft, significant modifications are made to these devices.
of order and concern the internal electronics and the connector for connecting to the system
vehicle electric.
The modification of the internal wiring is necessary to allow the engine locking and the exchange of
data with the anti-theft control device.
The blocking function is achieved by removing the pulses for fuel injection and
the ignition in gasoline engines, or by controlling a zero fuel flow on the models
diesel with electronic regulation.
The modified connectors prevent the replacement of theft-proof modules with modules without.
anti-theft, which provides additional protection against theft.
[Link]. Key identification and startup procedure
When the key has been inserted and the starter switch is activated, the key sends its code by
un émetteur à radio-fréquence intégré. Ce code est reçu par le module émetteur/récepteur et est
transmitted to the anti-theft module via electrical connections.
The signal is processed in the module, converted into a code, and compared to the value stored in memory.
In case the key code is identical to the code stored in memory in the control module,
the engine may start. If the code is not recognized, the engine may eventually start, but it
stops after a short moment (for example, after 0.7 s). At most manufacturers, an LED
(light diode) connected to the control device indicates the state in which the system is.
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Security systems
[Link]. Initialization Operations
After replacing individual components, initialization must be performed, and in many
manufacturers, a synchronization of the control devices. Most of the time, this initialization does not
can only be carried out at an authorized dealer using a diagnostic computer (in case of
replacement of the transceiver module, an initialization operation is not necessary.
The vehicle diagnostic system also allows you to block a lost key and release it from
new after having found it again. To this end, the client must present all the keys each time.
are still in his possession.
The time when you could quickly go to a locksmith to order a spare key is
I finished. Even though it is possible to copy a mechanical key and open the door, we will not be able to do it.
start the engine. If a transponder key needs to be replaced, in most cases, it will be necessary to
have all the keys reset in a specialized workshop.
[Link]. Anti-theft on diesel engines without electronic diesel regulation
In order to protect diesel engines without diesel regulation as effectively against theft
electronic, significant modifications are made to the shut-off solenoid. The modifications the
more important than the engine stop valve received during the installation of the anti-theft device, include
the assembly of a complex electronic circuit and the protection of the entire module in a casing
armored, which is now called diesel engine stop solenoid DDS (Diesel Theft Protection -
protection against diesel theft). These measures were developed by Bosch.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
112
Security systems
The electronic circuit of the solenoid valve blocks the engine start and ensures the exchange of
data with the anti-theft control device.
Data transfer is necessary for the recognition of the magnetic valve by
through a code previously stored in memory, as well as for the reception of the signal of
release for the engine, which is sent to the DDS solenoid by the anti-theft module.
The blocking function is obtained by disconnecting the power supply to the solenoid valve.
stop, the fuel injection being thus interrupted.
Approximately 2 seconds after receiving the contact signal, this function is activated by the electronics if
The anti-theft control device did not receive the release code.
The shielding of the magnetic valve DDS is necessary to protect it against violent actions.
and prevent any possible external activation of the solenoid valve by unauthorized persons.
The data exchange between the electronic of the magnetic valve and the anti-theft module
is carried out by an appropriate data driver.
The system used by LUCAS has a similar structure.
Currently, modern electronic-controlled injection systems no longer have a solenoid valve.
stop, and just like in the regulation of gasoline engines, the engine control does not deliver
of fuel if the anti-theft release code has not been received.
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Problems encountered in practice
VI Problems encountered in practice
Fuel consumption too high
A customer who came into our garage with his Ford Escort 1.6 l was complaining about a
fuel consumption is too high and poor performance after cold start.
During the 30,000 km service, all electric drivers and all vacuum hoses
were visually checked. As we did not notice anything unusual, we decided
to query the fault memory of the engine control unit regulation EEC IV at
the help of the FDS2000 diagnostic device. This operation brought no indication on the
reason for the customer's complaint, we replaced the data memory of the FDS2000. We-
We are mainly interested in the settings values of the fuel tables.
Indeed, the long-term fuel regulation values (LONGFT1) were relatively
raised to idle, the value was 25%, whereas for this type of engine in new condition, it is a
value of -6.25% which is generally indicated.
Despite this very high value, no fault code was stored because the system
Adaptive allows a control range of up to 30%, which had not yet been reached.
the occurrence.
An exhaust gas test did not teach us anything new, because thanks to the system of
adaptive engine regulation, the mixture that was too lean was completely compensated by adaptation
regulation of fuel in the long term at 25%.
The measurement values of the lambda probe showed a slow working cycle. Although the probe
lambda cannot be the cause of the bad behavior after cold start, as a trial,
we replaced the lambda probe. The new lambda probe did not allow to obtain
of improvement.
Several air intake tests yielded no results, although after erasing the KAM tables,
the rapid rise in short-term fuel regulation (SHRTFT1) clearly indicated that the
the mixture was too poor.
As we have already encountered difficulties in the past with other series of vehicles
with the crankcase ventilation valve, which resulted in poor
engine operation, we have replaced this valve.
An examination of the fuel tables after the replacement showed us a direct decrease.
adaptation values. The two claims from the customer therefore resulted from a defect in the valve
of the crankcase ventilation.
A visual inspection, however, showed no sealing defects through which an air suction could occur.
Parasite could have occurred. The enrichment in oxygen could therefore only come from a defect.
internal in the valve.
Figure 1
Figure 2
Graph with crankcase ventilation valve
defective
Graph with new ventilation valve
of Carter
ENGRPM= Régime moteur;HEGO1= Sonde Lambda;LONGFT1= Régulation de carburant à long terme;
SHRTFT1= Régulation du carburant à court terme;IPWA= Largeur d'impulsion de l'injecteur
Diagnostic techniques in the automotive field
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Problems encountered in practice
2. Defective Epic diesel pump
A customer owning a Ford Transit 2.5 Diesel complained about a lack of power in his engine.
of 100 hp. During a road test, we noticed slight jolts and a release of smoke.
white by the escape.
A first reading of the defect memory using the FDS 2000 diagnostic device revealed
no electronic error appears.
The 'complete diagnosis' performed afterwards with the FDS 2000 did not indicate any defects either.
As this vehicle used a Lucas electronic control distribution injection pump, we
we decided to take a closer look, using the SDS 2000, at the measurement values of the sensor
position of the rotor (ROTFBK) and the cam position sensor (CAMFBK) in memory of
data.
In the EPIC diesel pump (Electronically Programmed Injection Control), the regulation of the quantity
injection and the command for the moment of injection are carried out by electronic means. The
the rotor's position ensures the regulation of the amount of fuel, the cam ring adjusting the timing to
the injection.
Under different regulations, we were able to observe on the screen that the measurement values of the sensor
cam position (CAMFBK), which checks the regulation of the start of the supply, did not match
not to the values calculated by the control device (CAMDEM).
The differences were not large enough for an error code to be stored in memory, but
were most likely the source of the customer's complaints.
To rule out that any air bubbles in the fuel supply line cause the
gaps, we connected a pressure gauge with a transparent flexible hose. The pressure of
the pre-feed pump was 0.1 bar, which can be considered sufficient. Likewise,
we did not observe any air bubbles on the suction side, which allowed us to conclude that the
devices were in order and that the defect came from the Epic pump. It was probably
wear of the control piston housing of the cam ring, which made it impossible to
correct regulation of the start of the injection.
After replacing the injection pump, a new check of the camshaft position sensor
The (CAMFBK), with the prescribed start of injection (CAMDEM), confirmed to us that the regulation of the start
the injection was working correctly (Figure 1).
CAMDEM = Début d'injection calculé
CAMFBK = Return of the cam position
ROTDEM = Quantité de carburant prescrite
Return of the cam position
Figure 1: Measured value indicated for the
regulation of the injection quantity and the
distribution of the start of the injection at different
regimes
(small variations are allowed)
We were able to deliver to the client a 100 horsepower vehicle that was producing all its power.
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Final remark
Final remark
Some of the data provided in this brochure is associated with defined products and does not
can be generalized. The data all have a sample character.
The team of authors thanks the German-speaking Community of Belgium, the state of Rhineland of
North Rhine-Westphalia and EDUCAM, who supported this project through the Initiative
Interreg-II community of the European Union. We also thank the companies listed below,
we used the material:
Bosch, Stuttgart
VAG, Wolfsburg
Ford, Cologne
Audi, Ingolstadt
Hubertus Günther, BBZ Grevenbroich
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