Summary: VRD Prof: Mrs.

Fatima Ezzahra EL ABBASSI

I-Criteria for a roadway:
Serve each dwelling and each group of dwellings with a section of roadway.
Ensure sufficient traffic flow to avoid traffic problems.
Arranged in such a way as to protect pedestrians and parked vehicles.
II- Types of ways:
Privately:
Private ways are paths that belong to private individuals or legal entities (individuals,
associations, companies...). They can be open to public traffic, this is the case for subdivision roads.
b- Public:
According to usage:
A public way is a way open to public travel. This way can be: path, street, road.
national, highway, rural road. This use may be free or subject to a usage fee (toll) and may
reserved for certain categories of users, e.g.: Pedestrian pathways, Fast lanes reserved for vehicles
automobiles, Prohibited routes for certain categories of vehicles (heavy trucks, two-wheelers...)
According to the legal status:
The public road is a road whose ground belongs to a public community:
To the State: national roads and highways
To the municipalities: communal roads, rural paths.
III- Classification of a route:
According to Traffic:
Traffic is an essential element in the design of roadways. The weight of vehicles is transmitted to the pavement.
in the form of pressures from tires: ≈ 0.2 MPaand ≈ 0.66 MPa.
Peak traffic hours: the nth busiest hour
Transit traffic: origin and destination outside the studied area;
Exchange traffic: origin at the inside of the studied area and destination at the outside of the exchange area and vice versa.
Local traffic: traffic that moves within the studied area;
Traffic classes: Traffic classes are defined by the TMJ of heavy goods vehicles (payload > 5t) that circulate on the
roadway.
Class T6 Class T5 Class T4 Class T3- Class T3+ Class T3 Class T2 Class T1 Class T0
0 to 10 PL/day 10 to 25 PL/day 25 to 50 PL/day 50 to 100 PL/day 100 to 150 PL/day 50 to 150 PL/day 150 to 300 PL/day 300 to 750 PL/day 750 to 2000 PL/day

Low to Medium Traffic Medium to Heavy Traffic

Traffic Study:
It is necessary for:
Characteristics of the roads: Route selection % in urban areas, and position of the exchangers, Geometry
intersections, Cross-section types.
Pavement characteristics: Pavement sizing (f(PL), Width of pavements (drivable lane,
BAU, TPC…)
Characteristics of operating infrastructure: Toll system (closed, open, or mixed), of ways to
level of toll stations
Capacity of the lanes: Hourly traffic beyond which the risk of congestion formation becomes very high. It is
fonction de :Distance de sécurité, Conditions météorologiques, Caractéristiques géométriques de la route,Vitesse
vehicles.
Saturation threshold: 2 ways 3 ways 2x2 lanes 2x3 lanes
15000 UVP/j 20000 UVP/j 45000 UVP/j 65000 UVP/j
Discomfort threshold = 55 to 60% of the saturation threshold.
Steps:
Analysis of the existing: Road network, Competitor network, Evolution of traffic over the last few years
Les enquêtes de trafic :Enquêtes routières, Enquêtes sur les autres modes de transport
Traffic estimation: 2=1 ⁄( 2 1 ) as such
⁄ :10• = 1 × + 2× + ;
• = 1× + 2× ;
[28.32 ]DHℎ⁄ ; ;
• 2 ={ 1,12 Hello, how are you today?
2.3The camera captures plus 2 seconds;
b- According to the serviced area:
The design of the roadway depends on the nature of the route: main, secondary, service, branch, square,
pedestrian.

Oumayma BEKKALI
GC II
Summary: VRD Prof: Mrs. Fatima Ezzahra EL ABBASSI
c- According to the typology:
The typology of roads mainly takes into account their geometric characteristics: configuration,
width of roadways, central median, presence of sidewalks, parking lane, etc.
The routes can fall into one of the following categories:
independent lanes separated by a central median: each lane is reserved for one direction of traffic
with or without a sidewalk on either side and central or lateral parking
with a dual carriageway: each reserved for a direction of traffic with or without a sidewalk on either side and
side parking
two-way street with or without sidewalk and lateral parking
one-way road with or without sidewalks on either side and lateral parking
narrow roadway with or without a sidewalk and side parking
IV- Different parts of the road:
The right-of-way: part of the land that belongs to the community and is allocated for the road and its dependencies.
The footprint: surface of the land actually occupied by the road.
In urban areas: footprint = footprint = platform / In rural areas: footprint = roadway + shoulders + embankments
Platform: surface of the road that includes the roadway and the shoulders.
Roadway: a surface laid out on the road on which vehicles travel with one or more lanes.
Shoulders: lateral zones of the platform that border the roadway externally.
In urban areas: shoulders = sidewalks (= hard shoulder on highways) + water drainage ensured by a gutter
In rural areas: shoulders = additional part of the roadway + drainage of water ensured by ditches
The gutters: are structures intended for the evacuation of water at the edge of the roadway, generally in
curb limit and at the same level to prevent water stagnation and ice formation.
The separator refers to an area or a device between two rolling widths used by...
circulations in the same direction or in opposite directions and designed to discourage or prevent the passage of
vehicles from one roadway to another.
A refuge is a widening of the roadway intended for the parking of broken-down vehicles.
Remarks
Long profile: indicates the values of slopes and ramps, and the radii of the tops of hills and points.
It shows how the road develops in a Z profile.
Cross profile: cross sections perpendicular to the project axis allow for the calculation: the position
theoretical points of entry into the ground for earthworks, the project site and its footprint on the land
natural, the volumes (excavation and backfill volumes).
Cross-section profile type: It defines the typical cuts of the road according to different scenarios encountered on the
Project and specify: The dimensions of each road element (carriageway width, shoulder, position)
of ditches,...), The embankment slopes by homogeneous section, The excavation slopes by section
homogeneous.
Surveyed plan: it is the representation on a plan of the natural terrain in the project study area: Surveyed points,
Contour line, Details
Axis in plan: defined in the coordinate system of the study how the road develops in plan (x, y).
It highlights the lengths of the straight sections and the value of the radii of curvature in the curves.
Bike paths: are set up on the shoulders in the countryside, or on the right side of the roadway.
In urban areas for the circulation of mopeds, the width of a one-way bike lane is 1.5m to 2m.
Camber: it is the transverse slope of the roadway that ensures water drainage and stability.
vehicles on the roadway (double or single slope).
V- Constructive provisions of the road and its annexes:
The roadway and the different layers (surface, base, foundation) that make it up are intended to
transmit to the soils that support them the forces exerted by the vehicles. Depending on the mode of operation
road mechanics distinguishes:
a- Flexible pavements:
It is a pavement structure in which all the bound layers that constitute it are treated with
hydrocarbon liants. The foundation layer and/or the base layer (sub-layer) can be
made up of untreated gravel.
b- Semi-rigid pavements:
They consist of a bituminous surface layer resting on a base made of binder-treated materials.
hydraulics arranged in a layer (base) or two layers (base and foundation).
c- Rigid pavements:
A rigid pavement consists of a layer of vibrated or fluid cement concrete. As a general rule,
a concrete pavement consists, from the ground up: a base layer, a foundation layer, and a layer
of cement concrete. In the case of a new low-traffic roadway, the foundation layer is not
not necessary. The cement concrete slab can thus be made directly on the leveling or on
the road support platform.

Oumayma BEKKALI
GC II
Summary: VRD Professor: Mrs. Fatima Ezzahra EL ABBASSI
VI- Traffic moderation measures:
a- Concept :
Group of techniques and measures that modify the perception and behavior of the driver which
several types: horizontal, vertical, transverse, superficial, and others.
b- Definitions :
Traffic calming involves physical measures to reduce traffic speed and/or
volumes, in the interest of street safety, livability, and other public purposes.
Traffic calming involves changing the behavior of drivers on a street or in an area.
street network. It also includes traffic management, which involves changing roads or flows.
traffic in a neighborhood.
It takes into account in order: pedestrians, sidewalk width, lane width, compromises.
c- Objectives :
["Reduce vehicle speed","Reduction of car traffic flow","Improvement of safety","Improvement"]
On the quality of life, sharing the street between urban vehicles and pedestrians and cyclists.
d- Vision Zero (1996) :*
The responsibility of the
No one should die The roads, the streets and the
security is shared between
or be serious vehicles must be
those who designed and
injured for life in traffic adapted to the capacity of
those who use this
roadway people and their tolerance
route

e- Horizontal measures:
They force drivers to reduce speed by preventing end-to-end movements: Driver must
suivre une trajectoire courbe (le rayon joue un rôle principal)et par la suite sentir l’effet de la force centrifuge
by causing a speed adjustment.
Types Geometry Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Roundabouts é = 3.5 to 4m Efficiency: Management reduce speed, shocks High cost; Maintenance;
é = 15 to 30m operational frontal speeds and accidents, number Spaces; Cyclists
é 20 to 60° [30;40] (km/h) of points of must adapt to
between 4.5 and 5mLifespan: long conflict at an intersection; pass models
= 25 to100m term Provide an orderly flow and less traditional
R ≤ 4m Comfort and safety continue; clarify and simplify increase the noise in
Flow rate: 24000 vehicles/day the priority reason for change
é é 25 to 50 m
= 1à 10.75m Parking inconvenience decision making; Increase speed; restrict
= 5 to 8m visibility at the intersection; vehicle movement
= 8.25 - 2d Offering opportunities emergency or of
landscaping public transport
reduce capacity.
• of way By expanding in
reduced General TPC
Deviation = 3; 3.25; 3.5 For one way Parking disturbance
lateral = 5 to 20 m even if 2 ways
Turning é 2 to 4m
f- Vertical measurements:
Types Geometry Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Donkey's back H = 3 to 5 cm Slight lapse of time Low cost; Place where very Comfort: Shakes
= 60120 cm where vehicle has none low speeds are desired; severe pain for
= ℎ é - 60/côé contact with the roadway Alert next to intersections; those suffering from
Spacing = 90 to 120 m Pedestrian crossing at the Efficiency: speed reduction certain disabilities
minus 20m [25; 35%]-reduction of volume skeletal; duration of
Signaling [15; 20%]; easy to put on short life; Prevent the
speed function: work; does not disturb cyclists circulation PL especially
[20; 40] (km / h) neither the parking; Move it emergency vehicles;
traffic to the arteries and reduce increase noise and
transit traffic pollution; transfer it
traffic parallel to the streets
residential
Cushions H = 610 cm Signage: e.g. Long, efficient lifespan, More expensive than backs

Oumayma BEKKALI
GC II
Summary: VRD Prof: Mrs. Fatima Ezzahra EL ABBASSI
3.5 to 4.5m dragon's tooth security, more comfortable than of donkey
= ℎ é If continue then donkey ears
think about evacuation
of waters
Speed table = 7.5; 10; 12.5 cm Long speed bumps with places where low speeds
bosses plates = 2.5 to 4m a flat section at desired; a little smooth turn
top speed s = 411% ± 0.4= f(v) middle and railings on for emergency vehicles;
bosses = 1at 3.1 =f(H,v) the extremities Proximity alert of a
trapezoidal Spacing = 90 to 120m raises passages passage piéton; décourager
pedestrians or certain traffic volumes;
crossings higher design speeds
elevated (flat section); < PL
Cushion of = 6; 7.5 The buses and the vehicles Cars are driving
speed = = 2 to 3.7m emergency do not need to much faster;
= 10 to15% slow down; More efficient than the noise; vibrations;
horizontal measures; does not disturb questionable aesthetic
= = 1.2 to1.4m
= 15 to 20% not the cyclists; drainage no or textured materials
é
= = 2 to 2.4m affected; inexpensive costly
Speed Kidney Spacing: 90 to 120 m
= 130 to140cm
= 10 to 20m
= 6; 8
= 10 to15%
é = 15 to 20%
g- Cross-sectional measures:
Types Geometry Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Chokers 2.5 to 3 m1 Signaling:
é ={
4 to 5 m;2v⊥∩s panels
= 5 to10m
a angle = 45 to 60°
= 0.3 to 0.7m
Spacing: 90 to 120 m
Center island 2.51 Signage:
é ={
narrowing 3m; 2vᐴᐊᐉs panels
= 5 to10m
l > 2m
VII- Provisions regarding parking:
a- Types :
Residential parking: This is characterized by a long duration, in general, this parking is ensured.
outside of traffic roads, except in old neighborhoods. Private garages tend to be lacking.
Parking is then carried out on the public road.
Work parking: This parking is also long-term except in industrial areas.
modern, where it is provided by the employer. In densely populated areas, this parking affects several lanes.
around the establishment.
Business parking: Unlike the first two, this parking is for a short duration, it is
the order of ¼ hour to 1 hour.
b- Parking request:
Two methods can be used to assess demand. The first involves forecasting the
users' behavior to extrapolate.
The first method is based on statistical processes and the first method is based on processes.
statistics and surveys that depend on certain parameters which can be distinguished:
The total population of the urbanized area.
The motorization rate of the area under consideration.
The rate of vehicles during peak hours.
Parking-housing demand: For each zone i, and at peak hour, the residual demand Di
The parking-housing ratio is given by the expression: = × × × 1− ( )
Work parking demand: For each zone i, the work parking demand at the hour of
∑ −∑
the point is given by the expression: = × 1−[ ] ( −∑ )
0 ∑ −∑
Parking demand estimation:
H.L.M housing.......................... 0.5 to one place / apartment

Oumayma BEKKALI
GC II
Summary: VRD Prof: Mrs. Fatima Ezzahra EL ABBASSI
High-end housing ……………………... 1.5 to 2 places / apartment
Laboratory offices... 1 space / 20m2
Offices.................................1 place / 4 employees.
Shopping center …………………………1 place /50 m² of surface.
Hotel ………………………………………...1 place / room.
Industrial zone …………………………….0.7 place / workers.
Hospital ………………………………………1 place / 5 beds.
Cinema ………………………………………1 seat / 10 spectators.
Restaurant ……………………………………1 place / 10 clients
Game room, performance hall, dance floor……: 1 place for 20 m2 of space.
Educational establishments of the 1ercycle: one parking space per class
Educational institutions of the 2ndcycle: two parking spaces per class
Higher education institutions of places must meet the needs created by the equipment
en tenant compte deson lieu d’implantation et des possibilités de stationnement existantes àproximité.
c- Parking offer:
Types :
On the public road
Private off-street
Public off-street parking
Dispositions:
The width to be given to the parking strip depends on how the vehicles are parked:
Alongside the lane (longitudinal parking): = 2.5 mÉ é l = 2m.
At an angle to the path (in a row): = 45°; l = 2.3 to 2.5; pXYZABC way = 5.5m*
Perpendicular to the track:l = 2.5 to 3.3 ℎ ( é ;) pÖFçKÇgKÇtFfJ = 5.5 to 6m; l ′ è 6m

VIII- Provisions relating to sidewalks:

Capacity:
The sidewalks are reserved for pedestrian traffic whose walking speed without obstacles is:
At level: 5.8 km/h
Upward slope: 3.5 km/h
On ramp: 2.9 km/h
The hourly flows are as follows, per meter of width:
Shopping street: 2000 pedestrians
Voie non commerçante : 1000 piétons
b- Width of the sidewalks:
The minimum width is:
1.5 m in absolute absence of obstacles.
2 m otherwise.
The layout of the sidewalk, such as planting rows of trees, can increase the width up to 9 m.
c- Sidewalk edge:
The physical separation between the roadway and the sidewalk is marked by curbs against encroachment.
through the vehicles when parked, the curb height is set according to the location of its installation:
On the right of a garage 7 cm.
On the bridge 18 to 20 cm.
In a tertiary road, this height is taken at 14 cm.
d- Constructive dispositions:
The cross slope will be directed towards the gutters as follows:
Nature of the sidewalk Transverse slopes
Unpaved sidewalks 4%
Paved sidewalks 3%
Sidewalks other than paved 2%
Sidewalks with hydrocarbon surfacing (except asphalt) 2%
Asphalt sidewalks 1.5%
Paved sidewalks generally consist of:
A lean concrete foundation should have a mix no less than 200 kg of cement/ 3

A surface layer (consisting of: Cement mortar screed, bituminous concrete, poured asphalt)
e- Channels:
They can be single or double-pitched and usually have the following dimensions:
Width: 0.4 to 0.5 m
Transverse slope: 4%
Longitudinal slope 2% minimum
Oumayma BEKKALI
GC II
Summary: VRD Prof: Mrs. Fatima Ezzahra EL ABBASSI

IX- Roadway equipment:

The urban road network includes, whether above ground or underground, the networks necessary for these activities. The equipment of the
Public works include: signage, public lighting, various networks, among which we can mention:
The supply of electrical energy at medium or low voltage
The distribution of gas, compressed air, hot water
The distribution of drinking water and industrial water
Telecommunication networks (telephone, television cables)
The drainage networks for rainwater and wastewater
X - Cost of the road:
The cost of the road infrastructure consists of two elements:
The cost of initial investment
The annual maintenance and operating expenses during the service life of the roadway and of the
annexes to this one
The service duration: period during which, for a given traffic and a defined quality of work, none
Major repair affecting the road structure will be necessary. It may vary between 5 to 25 years.
XI - Road surface degradations:
Types Description Probable causes
Transverse fissures Breakage of the coating relatively Thermal withdrawal, Aging and
perpendicular to the direction of the road, fragilization of asphalt, Rise of
generally across the entire width of the fissures after resurfacing work,
roadway. Poorly executed construction joint,
Reduction of the coating section
(for example: with respect to the gazes).
Wheel track cracks Rupture of the coating parallel to the Coating fatigue (heavy traffic),
road direction and located in the Insufficient structural capacity of the
wheel tracks pavement, Poor drainage of layers
granular (e.g.: during thawing).
Longitudinal fissures Rupture of the coating relatively Poorly executed construction joint along
(off-road wheels) parallel to the direction of the road, in from the adjacent span, Segregation of
off the wheel tracks the coating at installation, Aging of
coating.
Frost fissures Break in the coating generating a Gelive infrastructure and uprisings
fissure active under the effect of frost, either differentials, Frost behavior
rectilinear and located at the center of the roadway ["differential","unstable fill","drainage"]
or of the roadway, either appearing inadequate
lizard without precise location.
Cracks in tiles Breakage of the coating on surfaces Fatigue (e.g.: coating thickness)
more or less extensive, forming an insufficient pattern), Aging of the
of fine mesh cracking pavement (oxidation and embrittlement of
polygons whose average dimension bitumen in the asphalt), Load-bearing capacity
is on the order of 300 mm or less. insufficient
Low radius groove Simple, double longitudinal depression Reduced stability asphalt in hot weather
and sometimes triple, on the order of 250 mm of (ex.: too soft bitumen or overdose)
width, located in the wheel tracks. The Coating too weak to withstand well
the cross-sectional profile of these depressions is heavy traffic, insufficient compaction of
often similar to tire tracks the coating during installation (post
simple or paired. compaction), Wear of the surface coating
abrasion
Large radius bend Simple longitudinal depression located Aging (accumulation of
in the wheel tracks. The shape permanent deformations), Compaction
the transverse of the depression corresponds to insufficient in the layers of granular
that of a very parabolic curve at the construction, Structural capacity
spreading out. insufficient road, Poor
drainage of granular materials (e.g.:
thaw period), Wear (urban environment or
sector with little controlled traffic
Differential uprising Localized swelling of the roadway in Gelive infrastructure, sensitive materials
frost period, both parallel and to humidity, a permanent phenomenon,
perpendicular to the road axis. High groundwater level and presence of water
at the edge of the roadway, Heterogeneity
inadequate materials or transition
Oumayma BEKKALI
GC II
Summary: VRD Prof : Mme Fatima Ezzahra EL ABBASSI
in the roadway, Underground conduits to
shallow depth (urban area)
Profile disorder Slopes and inappropriate geometry Points bas non drainés, Affaissement le
favoring the accumulation of waters of long borders (urban area)
puddles flowing on the surface of
the roadway.
Alopecia Tear-off of the pavement due to poor adhesion of the layer
surface layer surface (e.g.: lack of binder)
of attachment), chemical incompatibility,
dirt between the layers, Thickness
insufficient surface layer,
Road heavily used by traffic.
Chicken coop Localized disintegration of the coating on Temporary weakness of the foundation,
its entire thickness forming holes of Insufficient coating thickness,
generally rounded shape, with contour Road heavily used by traffic
well defined, of size and depth heavy
variables.
Cracks around the manholes Break of the coating along a trace Consolidation or settlement of the
circular and/or radial. pavement, freeze-thaw cycles,
Dynamic impacts, Material loss
around the structure.
Elevation of looks Discrepancy between the surface of the coating and Consolidation or settling of the
the top of a glance. pavement, Freeze and Thaw Cycles
causing permanent deformations,
Dynamic impacts accumulating of
permanent deformations, Loss of
materials around the structure.
XII-Constraints of a road project:
Geographical, Topographical, Hydrological, Geological, Environment

Terrassement :
I- Generalities:
a- Ground movement:
The construction of any civil engineering structure begins with earthworks (some
earth movements: stripping of topsoil, execution of excavations or
embankment according to the nature of the project. E.g.: Construction of a road platform.
The long profile as well as the cross profiles of a roadway impose significant movements.
of earth. For this type of site, we try to balance the excavated material and the backfill, provided that
The materials extracted from the site are suitable for the construction of embankments.
Remarks:
In a construction project, excavation is primarily carried out. There is therefore no balance.
possible.
It may be more advantageous to open a borrowing area near certain embankments, rather than
to transport debris from a distance.
b- Abundance of the soil:
Initial abundance: After extraction, (volume of excavated material) (volume of borrowing) that occupied
−
the soil in place, before swelling, the percentage is equal to: = → = (1+ )
The swelling of the soils is very variable depending on its nature, it ranges from about 10% to 40%, one can
account for an average of 15% to 25% for clays.
Residual swelling (settlement): If we used all of the extracted soil in fill, the volume
reconstituted after compaction would be different from the borrowing volume Percentage of
−
residual swelling (against swelling) = = → = (1+ )
The subsequent settling of freshly disturbed and replaced soils causes their volume to decrease by 15.
approximately 20% and generally, the backfill settles naturally over time under
the effect of their weight, adverse weather conditions (water, rain) and external loads (traffic
vehicles). The settlement rate ranges from 15 to 20%.
A ground movement is balanced when: R = D×(1+ )
Oumayma BEKKALI
GC II
Summary: VRD Professor: Mrs. Fatima Ezzahra EL ABBASSI
II- Execution of excavations:
Types Width Height
Rills l ≤ 2m ℎ≤1
Trench l ≤ 2m ℎ >1
l > 2m ℎ> ⁄2
Shallow excavation l ≥ 2m ℎ≤ ⁄ 2
Remarks:
•Trench: When h > 1 m and the length L is of the same order of magnitude as the width ℓ, the
digging is said in wells.
• Forage: cylindrical excavations of small diameter (0.1 to 0.5 m²) in relation to the depth that can
reach several tens of meters.
• Gallery excavations: carried out underground in large sections and require the installation of bracing and
shoring // in the progress of the work.
III- Different phases of earthworks:
a- 1eraPhase :
The preparation of essential documents such as the representation of the terrain's relief on a survey.
topographic without neglecting any detail that could serve as information.
The site plan on which all the details concerning the future project are located (implementation plan
buildings and roadways) not forgetting the geotechnical study of the soil presented in a complete report
of the ground.

It should be noted that the accuracy of the information provided by these documents is crucial for the
execution quality of the 2thphase.
b- 2thphase :
Allow the best possible forecast of performance conditions, technical difficulties,
the quality of the land to be borrowed for filling, and to be deposited for excavated material, the equipment
appropriate to engage and the cost that comes with this operation.
c- 3ohphase :
The main purpose of this phase is to create foundations that will support the structures for the
urbanization operations or general earthworks.
IV-Estimation of a work cycle:
Loading time:
chargeeoutIlet ( )
ℎ= 3⁄ ) ( ⁄ 3)
ℎé ( ℎ× ′ ×
distanceealler (km)
Transport time under load: =
ℎ ⁄ ( ℎ)
Unload time:t ddepends on the congestion, the space available on the site.... and
is provided flat-rate.
distanceeretour (km)
Empty transport time: =
à ⁄ ( ℎ)
Number of trucks: The number of trucks to assign to the excavation equipment is equal to the time of
ℎ+ +t+ d
cycle of a truck divided by its loading time : = =
ℎ ℎ
Remarks:
Theoretical yield of the shovel ( This ⁄ ) yield is theoretical because it does not account for the
site conditions. Indeed, the obstacles, the working depth, the driver, the presence of
personnel in the work area and many other factors can slow down the pace of the
shovel. For a 1m3 bucket shovel, completing a cycle in 25s under working conditions
normal and excavating heavy ground, the theoretical yield is: ℎ = 1x3600/25=144m3/h
(3600 represents the 3600 seconds in an hour to obtain a yield in m3/h).
Efficiency coefficient is a function of working conditions or actual working time.
Filling factor that depends on the nature of the soil

Oumayma BEKKALI
GC II