People's Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Yahya Fares University
Faculty of Technology

Course Construction
Materials

Chapter 03:
Binders
2nd year Civil Présenter par :
Engineering 2022/2023
[Link] Mohamed
 Sommaire
1. Introduction

2. Classification

3. Air binders (air lime)

4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)

5. Main constituents and additions

 [Link]

------Definition of Binders:

A binder is a product that serves to

agglomerate solid particles in the
form of powder or aggregates (also
called aggregates.

Binders are used in the

manufacture of paints, glues,
sealants, mortars, etc.
 [Link] of binders
Binders

Mineral binders (≠C) Organic binders (C)

Aerial Hydraulic
hydrocarbon Resins and
binders: especially
Takes its Takes its hardening bitumen, tar polymers, Glues
hardening in in the air and in
the air the water

aerial lime,clays hydraulic cement

 3. Air binders (air lime)
Air lime is the product of the calcination of limestone stones, which are therefore
almost exclusively made up of calcium carbonate CaCO3.
The oldest binder developed by man is lime. It is obtained by calcining limestone to
amedium temperature (around 800°C) in an oven.

CaCO3 firing at 800° C CaO + CO2

limestone calcination quicklime + carbon dioxide
Air lime
 3. Air binders (air lime)

By hydration we obtain slaked lime, less dangerous to handle than quicklime :

CaO...........+........ H2O Ca (OH)2 + heat release
Quicklime..............water....... Slaked lime
3. Air binders (air lime)
 3. Air binders (air lime)

-Hydraulic lime :
a commercial lime binder, close to a lime cement which sets and hardens with
water, also contains silicates and aluminates, because it is made from clayey
limestone. It is called “hydraulic” because of its rapid setting on contact with
water following hydration reactions; then it continues to hydrate and harden in
the presence of water. In contact with the CO2 in the air, it ends up carbonated;

What is the difference between air lime and hydraulic lime?

In summary, hydraulic lime is used outdoors for its solidity and aerial lime indoors for
finishe.
 3. Air binders (air lime)
-Fabrication of air lime :
a) Extraction :
Limestone is extracted from quarries. Traditionally, the extraction was done by
manual means (picks, pickaxes,…) as shown in figure:
 3. Air binders (air lime)

b) Crushing, screening and grading:

The first operation consists in crushing, then sifting the blocks, so as to acquire a
caliber of stone compatible with the type of oven used.
 3. Air binders (air lime)

c) Cooking or calcination :

Two types of kilns are used in industry

for the firing of limestone.

-1- Vertical oven or straight oven,

on the model of primitive ovens, is

generally in the form of a steel
cylinder (dim. Avg.: diam. 2m and
H. 8m), internally lined with a
refractory material, resistant to
abrasion and corrosion (See
Figure).
 3. Air binders (air lime)
c) Cooking or calcination :
2-The rotary oven has the characteristics of those used in the cement industry (see Figure
3.4). To make lime, he bakes the material between 1000°C and 1300°C, depending on the
type of lime produced. The limestone is introduced from one of the sides. It passes
through a preheating zone before undergoing calcination.
 3. Air binders (air lime)

d) Extinction:
This is the operation that allows the change from quicklime to slaked lime; it is
accompanied by an increase in volume: the expansion.

CaO...........+........ H2O Ca (OH)2 + heat release

Quicklime.............water....... Slaked lime
 3. Air binders (air lime)

-Properties of Air lime :

- The refusal on the 800μ sieve is zero and the refusal on the 80μ sieve must be
less than 10%.
- The overall fineness must be in the range of 8,000 to 20,000 cm2/g.
- The apparent density varies from 500 to 700 kg/m3 and the absolute density
varies from 2200 to 2500 kg/m3.
- Quicklime is very thirsty for water, it goes out when hydrated with a strong
release of heat (absorbs for 1kg of lime, 3 liters of water). This property is used
to dry out and treat heavily waterlogged soils.
- The refractory resistance of aerial lime varies between 1800 to 2000°C.
- Air lime sets slowly. Onset time is 600 minutes (10 hours).
- Aerial limes find their applications in construction in the preparation of mortars
and wall.
 3. Air binders (air lime)

Use of air lime:

1- Plaster : There are mainly two functions: protection and aesthetics.

2- Laying and jointing mortars :

3-The protection of wood:

Wooden beams (unpainted)
can receive a whitewash.

4- Land stabilization

5- To absorb moisture
 3. Air binders (air lime)

-The plaster :
Plaster is obtained from gypsum (CaSO4), a calcareous rock which, when powdered
and mixed with water, produces a muddy paste that is easy to work with.
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)

- Introduction

The Romans and Greeks already knew how to

make hydraulic binder by reacting slaked lime and
volcanic ash. Research on the hydraulicity of lime
began at the end of the 18th century, culminating
around 1840 in the manufacture of modern
cements. The Frenchman Louis Vicat discovered in
1817 the principle of hydraulicity of lime -
concerning the proportion of clay and the firing
temperature - and published his work without
taking out a patent. In 1840, Louis Vicat discovered
the principles of hydraulicity of Portland cements,
by firing at a temperature of 1450°C which made it
possible to obtain clinker.
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.1-Portland cement :
Portland cement is a mineral powder
whose property is to harden under
water, forming a paste which
hardens following a reaction and a
process of hydration.
4.2 constituent of cement

The main constituent of cement is

clinker, obtained from the calcining
of an appropriate mixture of 80%
limestone and 20% clay.

Cements are obtained by calcining

more or less clayey limestone.
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.3 cement manufacturing
The manufacture of cement involves the following operations:
1- Extraction and crushing,
2- Preparation of the raw,
3- Cooking or calcination,
4- Grinding,
5- Expeditions.
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.3 cement manufacturing
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.3 cement manufacturing
4.3 cement manufacturing
4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
1- Extraction and crushing:This stage consists of extracting the raw materials (limestone and clay) from
natural open pit quarries (figure). These raw materials are extracted from the rock walls by blasting or
mechanical shoveling. The blocks of rock obtained are transported and crushed into elements with a
maximum size of 50 mm.
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.3 cement manufacturing
2- Preparation of the raw
The grains of limestone and clay are infinitely mixed by grinding and mixing, in the defined proportions,
into a very fine mixture called “raw"
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)

4.3 cement manufacturing

3- Cooking or calcination : The cooking installations are similar and comprise two parts: a heat exchanger,
comprising 4 to 5 cyclones in which the powder poured into the upper part progresses to the inlet of the
oven, which heats up on contact with the hot gases leaving this oven and partially decarbonates. The
second part is firing in a cylindrical kiln 60 to 150 meters long and 4 to 5 meters in diameter, slightly
inclined and rotating at about 1 rpm (figure 3.8). The raw material enters upstream of the kiln where
decarbonation is completed and progresses to the clinkering zone (1450°C). Under the effect of heat, the
constituents of the clay (alumina and iron oxide silicates) combine with the lime from the limestone to give
lime silicates and aluminates.
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)

4.3 cement manufacturing

4- Grinding : The clinker obtained is transported to the crusher hoppers where it is finely ground and mixed
with 3 to 5% gypsum, which serves as a setting regulator. In some cases, other constituents such as slag,
pozzolan, fly ash and limestone fillers are added to obtain various types of cement. The chemical
compositions of the clinker are mentioned in Table 3.

Table: Chemical composition of clinker

 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)

4.3 cement manufacturing

5- Expeditions :
The cement grains are collected at the outlet of the crusher and sent to storage silos. These silos are cylindrical in shape and
have a capacity of up to 10,000 tons (figure ).
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.4 Chemical composition of cement
Portland cement is made up of four main compounds:

C3S: Alite (3CaO·SiO2) tricalcium silicate (50-70% of clinker)

C2S: Belite (2CaO·SiO2); dicalcium silicate (10-30% du clinker)
C3A: Tricalcium aluminate (3CaO·Al2O3) tricalcium aluminate (2-15% du clinker)
C4AF: Brownmillerite (4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3) tetra-calcium aluminoferrite (5-15% du clinker)

Where :
C stands for calcium oxide (lime) (CaO), S for silica (SiO2), A for alumina (Al2O3), and F for iron
oxide (Fe2O3).

4.5 Hydration of cement :

The Chemical reaction that takes place between cement and water is called as hydration of
cement. This reaction is exothermic in nature, due to which considerable amount of heat is
released during hydration of cement. This is called as ‘heat of hydration’. This reaction is faster
in early period and continues indefinitely at a decreasing rate. The products formed as a result of
the hydration of cement plays an important role in the strength gaining of concrete.
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.4 Chemical composition of cement
4.5 Hydration of cement :
During hydration of cement, C3S and C2S react with water and calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) is
formed along with calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)₂.

With :
Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) (50-70%)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) (25-27%)
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.4 Chemical composition of cement
4.5 Hydration of cement :
5 Phases of the hydration process

1. Phase: Initial mixing reaction.

2. Phase: Dormancy
3. Phase: Strength acceleration
4. Phase: Speed reduction
5. Phase: Steady development
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.4 Chemical composition of cement
4.5 Hydration of cement :

C3S: responsible for initial set and early strength

(short term).
C₂S: responsible for strength increases beyond
one week (long term)
C₃A: contribute very largely to the development
of heat of hydration.
C₄AF: Responsible for the color of the cement

--Products of Cement Hydration

The products of hydration of cement are:
calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H)
calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂)
When water is mixed with anhydrous cement compounds, they form hydration compounds.
Products formed by hydration have low solubility.
Mechanical properties of concrete depend on the physical structure of hydration products,
rather than the chemical composition of cement.
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.4 Chemical composition of cement
4.5 Hydration of cement :
Calcium Silicate Hydrates (C-S-H gel)
Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H gel) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) is formed during the reaction of C3S and
C2S with water.
Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H gel) is the most important hydration product of Portland cement.
50-60 % of the volume of solids in fully hydrated cement paste comprises C-S-H gel alone.

 Calcium Hydroxide
20-25 % of the volume of solids in fully hydrated cement paste comprises Ca(OH)2.
Ca(OH)2 is not advantageous owing to the following reasons-
It is soluble in water
It undergoes leaching making concrete porous (especially in hydraulic structures)
It decreases the durability of concrete
It causes the deterioration of concrete
It promotes sulfur attack on concrete
As seen above, Ca(OH)2 is disadvantageous to concrete. The harmful effects are overcome by the use of
blending materials like fly ash, silica fume, and other pozzolanic materials.
Advantage: Ca(OH)2 is of alkaline nature so the pH is maintained around 13, hence it can provide corrosion
resistance.
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.5 Properties of cement
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.5 Properties of cement

[Link] properties
1. Fineness
It is the biggest factor in the strength of cement.
Higher fineness leads to higher strength.
The rate of hydration therefore depends on the
fineness of the cement grains.
To have rapid hydration and high short-term strength,
a high fineness of the cement is required.
The method used to measure the specific surface area
of cement is Blaine's method (Fig.).

Figure : Measuring specific surface

area of cement using Blaine's
apparatus.
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.5 Properties of cement

[Link] properties
2. Specific gravity
The specific gravity of cement is the ratio of the weight of cement to the weight of volume
displaced by it. Mathematically, it can be expressed as;

The specific gravity of cement may be quickly and readily calculated using the Le Chatelier Flask
technique. This experiment is a simple way to find out the specific gravity of cement on the job
site. The following is a list of the materials and equipment used for the specific gravity test:
Kerosene
Ordinary Portland Cement
250 ml Le-Chatelier flask or 100 ml Specific Gravity Bottle/Pycnometer
Weighing balance
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
[Link] properties
2. Specific gravity

The portland cement have a specific gravity

of value around 3.1 to 3.15.
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.5 Properties of cement

[Link] properties
3. Consistency
Consistency is the optimum percentage of water
which makes it possible to obtain a cement
paste of normal consistency. The "Vicat" device
is generally used to measure this consistency
and according to standard NF EN 196-3.
Figure shows a photo of the normal consistency
meter.

Figure: Measuring the Consistency of cement

using Vicat apparatus
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
[Link] properties
4. Setting time
Setting is defined as the change from a fluid state to a solid state. The onset of setting
corresponds to the sudden increase in the viscosity of the cement paste and a rise in its
temperature. The end of setting corresponds to the regular and progressive transformation of the
cement paste into a rigid block. To measure the flow and end of setting time, the "Vicat" test, NF
EN 196-3, is generally used. Figure 3.12 illustrates the apparatus and summarizes the method for
determining setting time.

Figure: Measuring
cement setting time
using the Vicat
device
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
[Link] properties
5. Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the decrease in the apparent volume of the material; it is measured on 4×4×16cm
test specimens, stored in air at temperature T = 20°C and relative humidity.

Figure: Measuring
shrinkage of the
cement using the
Retractometer
device
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
[Link] properties
6. Expansion
The volumes of cement pastes, mortars and concretes swell in the presence of humidity or
water. The main causes of expansion are: - excess gypsum, - excess free lime CaO. - excess free
magnesium MgO. The expansion is measured according to NF EN 196-3, we use the same device as
that of shrinkage.

Figure: Measuring shrinkage of

the cement using the
dilatometer device
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
[Link] properties
The mechanical resistances (compressive and flexural strength), in tension and in compression of
the cements, are determinedon 4x4x16 cm test specimens in normal mortar at 28 days of age.
Mortar strengthis then considered significant for the strength of the cement.

Figure: Measuring mechanical resistances (compressive and flexural strength)of the cement
using the hydraulic press device
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)

4.6 Classification of cement

Cements can be classified according to their composition and normal strength

1- Classification of cements according to their composition

Cements made up of clinker and secondary constituents are classified according to their
composition, into five main types by standards NF P15-301 and ENV 197-1. They are noted CEM
and numbered from 1 to 5 in Roman numerals in their European notation (the French notation is
indicated between brackets):

CEM I: Portland cement (CPA - in the French notation),

CEM II: Composite portland cement (CPJ),
CEM III: Blast furnace cement (CHF),
CEM IV: Pozzolanic cement (CPZ),
CEM V: Slag and Ash Cement (CLC).

The proportion (by mass) of the different constituents is shown in Table 2.2. The constituents
marked with a star (*) are considered as secondary constituents for the type of cement
concerned; their total must not exceed 5%. (Fillers are considered secondary constituents).
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.6 Classification of cement
1- Classification of cements according to their composition
 4. Hydraulic binders (Portland cements)
4.6 Classification of cement
2- Classification of cements according to their normal strength
Three classes are defined based on normal strength at 28 days; “R” subclasses are associated
with these 3 main classes to designate cements with high early strength. These classes are noted,
class 32.5, class 42.5, class 52.5. They must meet the specifications and guaranteed values in
Table 2.3. Values in parentheses are guaranteed values where they may be less than specified
values.
 [Link] constituents and additions
5.1 Cement additives
Cement additives are materials added to cement for the optimization of the cement properties
and the cement grinding process. Cement additives are classified into different product groups
such as grinding aids, strength enhancers and performance enhancers.

----------Advantage-----------------
Positively affect the production process and the quality of cement.
Improve defined cement properties, e.g.
powder flowability, strength development, mortar workability and durability.
Adjust the cement quality to meet the demands set by relevant standards and cement
customers.
Contribute to the profitability of cement plants.
Ensure less environmental impact by reducing utilization of energy and resources combined
with minimized carbon footprint
 [Link] constituents and additions
5.1 Cement additives
---Types of cement additives (clssification)
Mineral additions replacing cement can be classified in active fines such as silica fume and
natural pozzolan and inert fines such as limestone. Another classification is based on the source
of each product where we find:

a) Artificial products
 Blast furnace slag,
 fly ash,
 silica fume,
calcined clay (meta kaolin),
 incineration waste,
 crushed brick waste.

b) Natural products
 natural pozzolan (volcanic ash, slag)
 limestone
opaline clay
 siliceous additions (sand)
 [Link] constituents and additions

5.1 Cement additives

a) Artificial products
 Blast furnace slag (BFS):

Blast furnace slag (BFS) is a nonmetallic coproduct produced

in the process. It is a co-product resulting from the manufacture
of cast iron in a blast furnace .it is essentially composed of four
minerals: Lime (CaO), magnesia (MgO), silica (SiO2)
and alumina (Al2O3). There are two different mineralogical forms
of slag according to their mode of cooling.

1-Granulated slag (vitrified):

obtained by rapid cooling.
2-Crystallized slag:
obtained by slow cooling in the open air
of the liquid slag
 [Link] constituents and additions
5.1 Cement additives
a) Artificial products
 fly ash
Fly ash is the non-combustible particles entrained by flue gases during the
combustion of pulverized coal in the boilers of thermal power plants.

Mineralically speaking, fly ash is made up of vitrified alumino-silicates

including lesser proportions of calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium,
sodium and titanium, associated with phases of quartz, mullite
(aluminum silicate) and magnetite.
 [Link] constituents and additions
5.1 Cement additives
b) Natural products.
 natural pozzolan

Pozzolans are a broad class of siliceous and aluminous

materials which, in themselves, possess little or no cementitious
value but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence
of water, react chemically with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) at
ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious
properties.[The quantification of the capacity of a pozzolan
to react with calcium hydroxide and water is given by measuring
its pozzolanic activity. Pozzolana are naturally occurring pozzolans
of volcanic origin.
Thank you for
your attention