University Institute of Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

& ENGINEERING
Bachelor of Engineering (Computer Science & Engineering)
Subject Name:Computer Network
Subject Code: 21CSH-256/ 21ITH-256

DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER

 UNIT-I Syllabus [15h]
Introduction: Introduction to network, types of transmission technologies, Network Categories: LAN, MAN, WAN (Wireless /Wired),
Network Software: Concept of Layers, Protocols, interfaces and services. Reference Models: OSI, TCP/IP and comparison, Concept of
Topologies.
Physical Layer: Bit rate, Baud rate, Bandwidth, Transmission Impairments: Attenuation, Distortion, Noise; Data rate limits: Nyquist
formula, Shannon Formula, Modulation & modems; Transmission Modes, Multiplexing: Frequency Division, Time Division, Wavelength
Division; Transmission Media: Twisted pair, coaxial, fiber optics, Wireless Transmission (radio, microwave & infrared);Message
switching, Circuit Switching & Packet Switching.

UNIT-II
[15h]
Data Link Layer: Design issues, Error Detection & Correction; Flow control & Error Control; Sliding Window Protocols, ARQ: Stop &
Wait , Go Back n, Selective Repeat ; Examples of DLL protocols – HDLC, PPP; Medium Access Sub layer: Channel Allocation; Random
Access: ALOHA, CSMA protocols; Controlled Access: Polling, Reservation, Token Passing; Examples of IEEE
standards(802.2,802.3,802.4, 802.5), Basics of Wi-Fi(802.11).Network Layer: Design issues, Logical Addressing: IPv4 & IPv6; Packet
Formats & their comparison IPv4 & IPv6; Routing Algorithms: Distance Vector, Link State
UNIT-III [15h]
Network Layer(Continue): Congestion Control: Principles of congestion control; Congestion prevention policies, Leaky bucket & Token
Bucket Algorithms.
Transport Layer: Services provided to upper layers, Elements of Transport protocols. Addressing, Flow Control & buffering; Example
Transport protocols: TCP, SCTCP & UDP.
Application Layer and Network Security: Domain Name System, Simple Network Management Protocol, Electronic Mail, World Wide
Web, Basics of authentication, Public and Private Key Cryptography, Digital Signatures and Certificates, Firewalls. 2
 Course Objectives
CO1 Interpret the building block of network and its architecture

CO2 Demonstrate the services of all the layers of network models

CO3 Identify and analyze error and control flow mechanism.

CO4 Explain various routing protocols of network models to ensure robust delivery of messages

CO5 Exemplify the securities of computer network

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Data Link Layer

4
Data Link Layer Design Issues
•Services Provided to the Network Layer
•Framing
•Error Control
•Flow Control
Functions of the Data Link Layer
• Provide service interface to the network layer
• Dealing with transmission errors
• Regulating data flow
• Encapsulation
• De-capsulation
Process of encapsulating one protocol into other
protocol
Process of de- capsulating one protocol into other
protocol
Functions of the Data Link Layer (2)
Relationship between packets and frames.
Services Provided to Network Layer

(a) Virtual communication.

(b) Actual communication.
The data link layer can be designed to offer various
services
•Unacknowledged connectionless service.
•Acknowledged connectionless service.
•Acknowledged connection-oriented service

•Unacknowledged connectionless service consists of

having the source machine send independent frames to
the destination machine without having the destination
machine acknowledge them.
• No logical connection is established beforehand or
released afterward.
• This class of service is appropriate when the error rate is
very low so that recovery is left to higher layers. It is also
appropriate for real-time traffic, such as voice.
• The next step up in terms of reliability is acknowledged
connectionless service.
• When this service is offered, there are still no logical
connections used, but each frame sent is individually
acknowledged.
• In this way, the sender knows whether a frame has arrived
correctly. If it has not arrived within a specified time
interval, it can be sent again.
• When connection-oriented service is used, transfers go
through three distinct phases.
• In the first phase, the connection is established by having
both sides initialize variables and counters needed to
keep track of which frames have been received and which
ones have not.
• In the second phase, one or more frames are actually
transmitted.
• In the third and final phase, the connection is released,
freeing up the variables, buffers, and other resources
used to maintain the connection
• The usual approach is for the data link layer to break the
bit stream up into discrete frames and compute the
checksum for each frame.
• When a frame arrives at the destination, the checksum is
recomputed.
• If the newly-computed checksum is different from the
one contained in the frame, the data link layer knows
that an error has occurred and takes steps to deal with it
(e.g., discarding the bad frame and possibly also sending
back an error report).
Framing

A character stream. (a) Without errors. (b) With one

error.
Framing (2)

(a) A frame delimited by flag bytes.

(b) Four examples of byte sequences before and after stuffing.
Framing (3)

Bit stuffing
(a) The original data.
(b) The data as they appear on the line.
(c) The data as they are stored in receiver’s memory after
destuffing.
• The following character encoding is used in a data link
protocol: A: 01000111; B: 11100011; FLAG: 01111110; ESC:
11100000 Show the bit sequence transmitted (in binary) for
the four-character frame: A B ESC FLAG when each of the
following framing methods are used:
• (a) Character count.
• (b) Flag bytes with byte stuffing.
• (c) Starting and ending flag bytes, with bit stuffing.
• (a) 00000101 01000111 11100011 11100000 01111110
• (b) 01111110 01000111 11100011 11100000 11100000
11100000 01111110 01111110
• (c) 01111110 01000111 110100011 111000000
011111010 01111110
• The following data fragment occurs in the middle of a
data stream for which the byte-stuffing algorithm
described in the text is used: A B ESC C ESC FLAG FLAG D.
What is the output after stuffing?
• A bit string, 0111101111101111110, needs to be
transmitted at the data link layer. What is the string
actually transmitted after bit stuffing?
Error Correction
It can be handled in two ways:
1) receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire data unit.
2) The receiver can use an error-correcting code, which automatically
corrects certain errors.
Single-bit error
Error
Detection
 Basic concepts
 Networks must be able to transfer data from one
device to another with complete accuracy.
 Data can be corrupted during transmission.
 For reliable communication, errors must be detected
and corrected.
 Error detection and correction are
implemented either at the data link layer or
the transport layer of the OSI model.
Types of Errors
Single-bit error
 Single bit errors are the least likely type of errors
in serial data transmission because the noise
must have a very short duration which is very
rare. However this kind of errors can happen in
parallel transmission.
Example:
If data is sent at 1Mbps then each bit lasts only
1/1,000,000 sec. or 1 μs.
For a single-bit error to occur, the noise must
have a duration of only 1 μs, which is very rare.
Burst error
The term burst error means that two or more
bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 or
from 0 to 1.

Burst errors does not necessarily mean that the

errors occur in consecutive bits, the length of
the burst is measured from the first corrupted bit
to the last corrupted bit. Some bits in between
may not have been corrupted.
Burst error is most likely to happen in serial
transmission since the duration of noise is normally
longer than the duration of a bit.
The number of bits affected depends on the data rate
and duration of noise.
Example:
If data is sent at rate = 1Kbps then a noise of 1/100 sec
can affect 10 bits.(1/100*1000)

If same data is sent at rate = 1Mbps then a noise of

1/100 sec can affect 10,000 bits.(1/100*106)
Error detection

Error detection means to decide whether the received

data is correct or not without having a copy of the
original message.

Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which

means adding extra bits for detecting errors at the
destination.
Redundancy
Four types of redundancy checks are used
in data communications
Vertical Redundancy Check
VRC
Performance
It can detect burst errors only if the total number of errors is odd.
Longitudinal Redundancy Check
LRC
 Performance

LRC increases the likelihood of detecting

burst errors.
If two bits in one data units are damaged
and two bits in exactly the same positions in
another data unit are also damaged, the
LRC checker will not detect an error.
Cyclic Redundancy Check
CRC
Cyclic Redundancy Check
• Given a k-bit frame or message, the transmitter
generates an n-bit sequence, known as a frame
check sequence (FCS), so that the resulting
frame, consisting of (k+n) bits, is exactly divisible
by some predetermined number.
• The receiver then divides the incoming frame by
the same number and, if there is no remainder,
assumes that there was no error.
Binary Division
Polynomial
Polynomial and Divisor
Standard Polynomials
Checksum
At the sender
The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits.
All sections are added together using one’s complement to get the
sum.
The sum is complemented and becomes the checksum.
The checksum is sent with the data
At the receiver
The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits.
All sections are added together using one’s complement to get the
sum.
The sum is complemented.
If the result is zero, the data are accepted: otherwise, they are
rejected.
 Performance
The checksum detects all errors involving an odd
number of bits.
It detects most errors involving an even number of
bits.
If one or more bits of a segment are damaged and
the corresponding bit or bits of opposite value in a
second segment are also damaged, the sums of those
columns will not change and the receiver will not
detect a problem.
Error Correction
It can be handled in two ways:
1) receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire data unit.
2) The receiver can use an error-correcting code, which automatically
corrects certain errors.
Single-bit error correction
To correct an error, the receiver reverses the
value of the altered bit. To do so, it must know
which bit is in error.
Number of redundancy bits needed
• Let data bits = m
• Redundancy bits = r
Total message sent = m+r
The value of r must satisfy the following relation:
2r ≥ m+r+1
Error Correction
Hamming Code
Hamming Code
Hamming Code
Example of Hamming Code
Single-bit error
Error
Detection
References
• [Link]
/chapter11/[Link]
• [Link]
work/error_detection_and_correction.htm
• Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan
• [Link]/Forouzan

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