World Energy

Employment 2025
INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

The IEA examines the full spectrum of energy IEA Member countries: Spain
issues including oil, gas and coal supply and
demand, renewable energy technologies,
Australia Sweden
electricity markets, energy efficiency, access to Austria Switzerland
energy, demand side management and much Belgium Republic of Türkiye
more. Through its work, the IEA advocates Canada United Kingdom
policies that will enhance the reliability,
affordability and sustainability of energy in its 32 Czech Republic United States
Member Countries, 13 Association countries and Denmark
beyond. Estonia The European Commission
Finland also participates in the work
France of the IEA
Germany
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IEA Association countries:
over any territory, to the delimitation of Hungary
international frontiers and boundaries and to the Ireland Argentina
name of any territory, city or area.
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Netherlands Senegal
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Source: IEA.
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International Energy Agency Poland Thailand
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World Energy Employment 2025 Abstract

Abstract
The World Energy Employment (WEE) report series provides
comprehensive tracking and analysis of the global energy workforce,
including estimates of its size and distribution across regions,
sectors, and technologies. It also assesses how energy labour
requirements evolve to 2035 across all IEA scenarios.

The WEE 2025 – the fourth edition – examines how skilled labour
needs and shortages have changed since the series first highlighted
these issues in 2022, and explores their implications for education
and training systems, wages, policy, and the global buildout of energy
infrastructure. This year’s report introduces, for the first time, detailed
occupation-level estimates that offer new insights into the skills and
education requirements shaping the energy workforce.

The analysis draws on the IEA’s annual Energy Employment Survey,

which gathered responses from more than 700 energy firms, trade
unions and educators, providing fresh perspectives on labour
dynamics, shortages, and evolving skill needs. The report also
includes sectoral deep dives that offer granular analysis of trends
across different parts of the energy sector.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Table of content

Table of contents

Abstract ..................................................................................................................... 2 Reskilling, upskilling, and specialised training strategies......................................... 66

Table of contents ....................................................................................................... 3 Attracting youth and underrepresented groups........................................................ 70
Executive summary ................................................................................................... 5 Wages ..................................................................................................................... 78
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 9 Informal work ........................................................................................................... 79
Chapter1. Overview ...................................................................................... 10 Social dialogue ........................................................................................................ 80
Global energy employment growth .......................................................................... 11 Chapter 4. Fuel supply, power sector and end uses ................................. 82
Energy employment trends in 2024 ......................................................................... 15 Fuel supply and critical minerals ......................................................................... 83
Total energy employment by subsector and region................................................. 19 Oil and gas supply .............................................................................................. 84
Occupational trends ................................................................................................ 20 Coal supply ......................................................................................................... 89
Wages ..................................................................................................................... 24 Bioenergy supply ................................................................................................ 91
Gender .................................................................................................................... 26 Low-emission hydrogen ...................................................................................... 93
Outlook .................................................................................................................... 28 Critical minerals .................................................................................................. 94
Chapter 2. The future of energy skills ........................................................ 30 Power sector .......................................................................................................... 96
Skilled workers shortages ....................................................................................... 33 Power sector overview ........................................................................................ 97
An ageing workforce and lower youth entry ............................................................ 37 Solar PV ............................................................................................................ 100
Vocational education levels ..................................................................................... 42 Wind .................................................................................................................. 103
Digital skills and AI .................................................................................................. 43 Nuclear.............................................................................................................. 105
Education ................................................................................................................ 45 Hydropower....................................................................................................... 109
Investment............................................................................................................... 49 Gas-fired power generation............................................................................... 111
Workforce planning ................................................................................................. 51 Coal power generation ...................................................................................... 113
Competitiveness and energy security...................................................................... 52 Grids ................................................................................................................. 114
Upskilling and reskilling ........................................................................................... 55 End-use sectors: Vehicles and efficiency technologies .................................. 119
Chapter 3. Policy responses to address labour shortages ...................... 57 Vehicles ............................................................................................................ 120
Policies options to attract and train more workers ................................................... 59 Energy efficiency ............................................................................................... 123
Typical education and training pathways for low-emissions energy occupations .... 64 Heat pumps....................................................................................................... 126
Policy options to expand vocational education and training in EMDEs ................... 65

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World Energy Employment 2025 Table of content

Annexes ....................................................................................................... 127

Methodology – the World Energy Employment model........................................... 128
Methodology – IEA Employment Surveys ............................................................. 134
Definitions and classifications ............................................................................... 136
Types of qualifications: Degrees, certificates, certifications, and licenses............. 139
Occupations, skill levels and typical educational requirements ............................. 141
Glossary ................................................................................................................ 142
Abbreviations and acronyms ................................................................................. 146
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... 148

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World Energy Employment 2025 Executive summary

Executive summary
In 2024, global energy employment growth outpaced job gains in The shift to electrification is also changing the nature of
the wider economy for the third year in a row. Continued strong employment in related sectors. Vehicle manufacturing employment
investment in energy infrastructure underpinned expanding energy continued to rise, driven by strong gains in jobs related to electric
employment, up by 2.2%, nearly double the economy-wide rate of 1.3%, vehicles (EV), which rose by nearly 800 000 last year. In China, almost
bringing total energy sector jobs to 76 million. Since 2019, 5.4 million 40% of all jobs in vehicle manufacturing are now tied to EVs and their
energy workers have been added – about 2.4% of all new jobs globally. batteries. Employment in other energy end-uses rose by 2%, with
In some countries, its contribution is far larger, reaching one in five new electrification in buildings and industry contributing to a sizeable portion
jobs in China and one in ten in the United States since 2022. The pace of the increase. In both vehicles and efficiency employment, part of this
of the expansion in recent years marked a step change from pre- growth is met by workers in related segments retraining and shifting
pandemic trends, when the energy sector added less than a third as roles – such as heating technicians learning to install heat pumps or auto
many jobs annually than during the years between 2019 and 2024. workers moving to EV assembly lines – but it also reflects the creation
of new jobs in areas like manufacturing batteries and installing electric
The electricity sector is now the largest energy employer,
industrial equipment.
surpassing fuel supply for the first time, as the Age of Electricity
gathers pace. Over the last five years, employment in the electricity Demand for workers is increasing across all parts of the energy
sector – including generation, transmission, distribution, and storage – system, not just electricity, as the world remains thirsty for energy.
has risen by 3.9 million, representing nearly three-quarters of all energy Coal supply jobs have seen a resurgence in India, China and Indonesia
job additions. Solar PV has been the principal driver of demand, in recent years, leading to global employment levels 8% higher in 2024
accounting for half of the job additions in the electricity sector since than in 2019, despite a 20% decline in advanced economies over that
2019. Nuclear power, grids and storage accounted for another quarter period. Oil and gas supply has recovered most of the jobs lost in 2020,
of new power sector jobs seen since 2019, despite facing multiple as global production capacity continued to expand. However, it now
headwinds such as increased component costs and shortages of skilled appears that many firms are entering a new period of retrenchment in
workers. Persistent challenges in the offshore power market have also the face of lower oil prices and revenues, with a number of major oil
slowed wind employment growth, with layoffs in turbine manufacturing, companies announcing job cuts in 2025.
where jobs declined by 6% in 2024.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Executive summary

Emerging market and developing economies (EMDEs) led energy unions, and educators participated in IEA’s annual Energy Employment
job growth in 2024, reflecting their status as rapidly rising centres Survey, and more than half reported critical hiring bottlenecks – a steady
of global energy demand. Overall, employment growth was strongest increase over previous years. These shortages are most acute in
in emerging economies, led by India (5.8%), Indonesia (4.8%), and the applied technical roles, which account for over half of the energy
Middle East (3.5%), compared with 2.2% in China and just 0.4% in workforce – more than double their 25% share in the broader economy.
advanced economies. Still, employment remains more concentrated in Employment in these roles has grown by 2.5 million since 2019. Most of
economies with well-established energy firms and energy-related supply the top energy occupations facing constraints within energy are
chains. For instance, in the Middle East, Korea, and Canada, more than considered applied technical roles, including electricians, pipefitters,
4% of the workforce is employed in energy – nearly double the global electrical power-line workers, and engineers, particularly in nuclear.
average of 2%. Many of these broader categories are already in short supply across the
wider economy.
Employment demand is expected to continue rising across all IEA
scenarios. Energy-sector job growth is on track to moderate to 1.3% in An ageing energy workforce is deepening labour and skills
2025, reflecting slower, though still positive growth in energy investment shortages. The energy workforce is older than the economy-wide
amid continued economic and energy market uncertainty. This average, and too few qualified workers are entering the sector to replace
moderated pace of growth is set to continue under today’s policy retirees and meet rising demand. Certain subsectors face more severe
settings, leading to energy employment growing by 3.4 to 4.6 million by challenges than others. In nuclear and grid roles, for every young worker
2035, depending on the pace of energy infrastructure build out. The entering, there are 1.7 and 1.4 workers approaching retirement,
power sector continues to be the main source of net job growth, however respectively, compared to an economy-wide average of 1.2. The
sectors like oil supply face divergent trajectories depending on the pressure is greatest in advanced economies, where across the whole
direction of future policy and market conditions, underscoring the energy sector there are 2.4 workers nearing retirement for every worker
importance of flexible approaches to workforce planning, hiring and under 25, compared with a ratio of about 1:1 in EMDEs. Imbalances are
retention. All scenarios ultimately depend on firms’ ability to secure the set to worsen – between today and 2035, two out of every three new
skilled labour they need – a constraint that requires greater attention in hires will be needed just to replace retiring energy workers.
a scenario aligned with net-zero emissions by 2050, where total energy
Building a pipeline of skilled workers is a strategic priority for
workforce needs would increase by nearly 15 million by 2035.
energy security. The ability of countries to maintain energy security,
Skilled worker shortages have emerged as a top concern for firms, expand grids, scale clean energy manufacturing, refurbish nuclear
particularly in applied technical roles. Over 700 energy firms, trade plants, or attract investment increasingly depends on having the right

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World Energy Employment 2025 Executive summary

workforce in place. Today, shortages are already having tangible transfer pathway. With targeted retraining, around two-thirds of oil and
impacts: around 60% of companies reported labour shortages, putting gas supply workers have the base skills needed to move readily into
timelines, system reliability, and cost control at risk. other parts of energy, the same is true for about half of workers
connected to fossil fuel power supply chains. By contrast, a smaller
Graduates with energy-relevant training are not keeping pace with
share of coal miners can be quickly reskilled, particularly those in
rising needs for skilled workers. Economy-wide demand for applied
markets with high levels of informality. Coal workers and communities
technical workers grew 16% between 2015 and 2022, yet graduations
therefore require more specialised support to ensure a just, people-
from relevant vocational programmes increased by only 9%. This
centred transition.
broader shortage is now directly affecting the energy sector, making it
harder for firms to hire and retain the skilled workers they need. Nearly Artificial intelligence (AI) is emerging as a powerful productivity
50% of companies reported recruiting from neighbouring industries or tool in energy, but today’s applications do little to ease the acute
increasing in-house training to fill gaps. To prevent the skills mismatch shortages in applied technical roles. Companies see the biggest
from worsening by 2030, the number of graduates entering energy long-term gains from AI in administrative efficiency and system
would need to rise by around 40% globally, and even more in a pathway performance, with early uses already streamlining permitting, improving
aligned with net-zero emissions by 2050. Expanding training capacity to safety, and enhancing training through virtual reality (VR). Yet energy
this level would cost roughly USD 2.6 billion per year worldwide – less firms lag other sectors in artificial intelligence capabilities, with
than 0.1% of global public education spending. Some regions have concentrations of AI-skilled workers about 40% lower than in
already made significant progress in drawing more young people into technology, finance, education, and media. And while investment in AI
relevant vocational education. In China, Indonesia, and North Africa, the skills and capabilities is rising in the energy sector, current use cases do
share of young people entering energy-relevant degrees grew by 25% not significantly reduce demand for applied technical workers in
over the past decade, while Europe already has one of the highest construction, operations, and maintenance, which are mostly manual
shares of youth pursuing these programmes. roles dominated by tasks that AI is not currently well suited to replace.

Reskilling workers within the energy sector could help address Policy makers have a range of tools to attract more workers into
skilled labour gaps. Previous IEA analysis has shown that over 40% energy-related education and training. The IEA Energy Employment
of energy firms surveyed prefer to recruit internally to retain sector- Survey identifies training costs, lost wages, and low awareness of
specific know-how, while this year 50% of fossil fuel workers said they programmes as the main barriers to entry. Policy responses that have
would prioritise staying within the energy sector if seeking alternative been effective include targeted financial incentives, apprenticeships,
employment. Not all workers facing redundancy have a straightforward and campaigns promoting vocational careers in energy. Targeted efforts

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World Energy Employment 2025 Executive summary

to attract more women into technical and vocational fields – where they Energy employment is expected to remain a major source of job
currently make up less than 5% of workers – are among the most growth and an important foundation for public support of energy
impactful levers to increase overall female participation in the energy policies. As energy security moves higher on national agendas, a well-
sector, currently around 20%. Firms are turning to direct engagement trained workforce is becoming essential for attracting supply chains,
with educational institutions to help address skills gaps, by sponsoring deploying new assets, and ensuring reliable operations. Co-ordinated
students or providing training for hard-to-fill roles, particularly in action by governments, industry, and labour representatives can help
vocational programmes and advanced degrees. Collaboration on prevent skilled-labour shortages from becoming a defining bottleneck,
curriculum development remains limited, with fewer than 25% of firms and instead enable the energy sector to deliver high-quality, well-paid
reporting involvement in such efforts, though many express interest in jobs, strengthen competitiveness, and support countries in meeting their
deeper engagement. security and sustainability goals affordably.

Attracting workers also depends on competitive wages and

improved job quality. In the IEA Energy Employment Survey, workers
and representatives cited pay, job security, and a safe working
environment as the top factors in evaluating a role and these issues
have been a frequent focus area of tripartite social dialogue and
collective bargaining in the energy space. Energy-specialised roles
generally pay more than comparable non-specialised roles, but wages
vary widely across the sector. Oil, gas, and nuclear offer the highest pay,
reflecting higher skill requirements and a stronger ability to compete for
talent. In 2025, oil and gas saw the largest wage increases across most
regions, averaging 3.7%, followed by nuclear at 3.2%, while coal and
renewables grew 1.2% and 0.8%, respectively.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Introduction

Introduction
The World Energy Employment 2025 (WEE 2025) report provides a along with other model refinements and updated data inputs, has
comprehensive overview of the current state of the global energy resulted in an upward revision of 6.7 million to our estimate of the
workforce, a forward view of employment demand to 2035, and an global energy workforce in 2024, compared to estimates published in
analysis of the opportunities and challenges that these trends pose WEE 2024. More details on these revisions, and the Methodology
for policy makers and other stakeholders in the energy sector. and definitions used for this model are provided in the Annexes.

The energy employment outcomes presented in this report are This year’s report also draws on a set of three dedicated surveys
produced using a quantitative model, which estimates employment conducted by the IEA to gather new insights on workforce dynamics
as a function of major demand drivers in the energy sector such as across the energy sector, each targeting a different set of
investment, capacity and production. Model calibration uses official stakeholders: the IEA Industry Employment Survey, the IEA Labour
labour statistics, industry reports and observed employment at the Employment Survey, and the IEA Educators’ Employment Survey.
firm and project level to inform the model. Future projections of
The WEE 2025 report features an in-depth analysis on the Future of
employment are aligned with scenario outcomes from the IEA’s
Energy Skills in Chapters 2 and 3. This analysis was supported by
flagship World Energy Outlook 2025 (WEO 2025) report.
results from the aforementioned employment model and surveys, as
As in previous years, these employment estimates are disaggregated well as insights generated from discussions with industry, labour,
by energy technology (e.g. nuclear power generation), as well as by educational and policy representatives at the Workshop on the
economic activity (e.g. construction), region, and year. New model Future of Energy Skills, hosted at the IEA’s headquarters in May
developments this year include an extension of the model results 2025.
backward to 2015, and forward to 2035. For the first time, the WEE
This year’s report also includes new in-depth analysis of trends in
2025 report provides a breakdown of our employment estimates by
occupational employment demand, and educational capacity, and
occupation, based on international labour force statistics on
more. These analyses build on deep bodies of work and data made
occupational employment by sector.
available by organisations such as the ILO, OECD, and UNESCO.
The scope of the workforce covered by the model has also been Please refer to the Annexes for more details on the formal definitions
expanded to include new workforce categories in end-use sectors, and the analytical approaches used.
including in efficient lighting and renewable heating and cooling. This,

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World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

Chapter 1. Overview

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World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

Global energy employment growth continues to outpace the rest of the economy
Energy employment growth was nearly double the economy-wide year between 2015 and 2019, but since then it has surged to an
rate in 2024, rising by 2.2% to reach 76 million workers. The energy annualised rate of 4%, driven mainly by the expansion of solar PV
workforce, which includes jobs in the power sector, fuel and critical technology.
minerals supply, end-use efficiency and vehicle manufacturing,
Other parts of the energy system also saw continued job growth in
accounted for one in every fifty jobs globally. In all, the energy sector
2024. Fuel supply employment has recovered the steep job losses
has created more than 5 million jobs since 2019, or 2.4% of the total
suffered in 2020, while jobs in energy end-uses such as EVs
jobs added across the global economy during the five-year period.
continued their steady growth. The majority of job additions across
Concurrently, economy-wide employment growth slowed to just 1.3% the energy sector were concentrated in construction, manufacturing
on a global basis in 2024, compared with 2% a year ago and the and other roles tied to rising investments in the development of new
recent high of 2.9% in 2021, as global employment levels normalised energy infrastructure, where employment rose by 2.5% in 2024.
following the sharp post-pandemic rebound. This slower growth was
Policy developments in 2025 have significantly altered market
partly a consequence of tight labour markets in many regions, as
expectations, however, with the economic outlook clouded by
global unemployment rates remained at historically low averages of
growing uncertainty over tariff regimes, their broader economic
5% in 2024, reducing employers’ ability to draw on untapped labour
impacts, and elevated geopolitical instability that could directly affect
capacity. Even as inflationary pressures and interest rates continued
parts of the global energy supply chain. As a result, IEA estimates
to subside, economic growth was more muted than expected,
show that growth in energy-related employment is expected to slow
including in the People’s Republic of China (hereafter, “China”), India
to 1.3% in 2025 – the lowest rate seen since the Covid-19 pandemic
and Europe, with the notable exception of the United States.
in 2020.
The post-pandemic boom in the energy workforce, driven by a sharp
Exceptionally, the power sector is set to remain unaffected by this
rise in investment, represents a step change from previous trends,
broader slowdown, with employment expected to maintain a 3.4%
with the energy sector adding less than a third as many jobs annually
growth rate in 2025, barely dimming from 2024’s pace. Growth is
between 2015 and 2019 as between 2019 and 2024. The power
supported by a sustained surge in demand for electricians, line
sector has been the standout performer, as the energy sector entered
workers, engineers, and technicians needed to deliver and operate
the Age of Electricity. Power sector job growth accelerated in every
new projects.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

The power sector has underpinned strong energy employment growth since 2020, as the
energy sector entered the Age of Electricity

Annual global growth of economy-wide, energy, and power sector employment, 2016-2024
8% Economy-wide
Energy
6%
Power

4%

2%

0%

-2%

-4%

-6%
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024

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Note: Power includes employment in power generation and transmission, distribution and storage.
Source: IEA analysis of economy-wide employment based on data from the International Labour Organization (ILO).

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World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

Employment in almost all energy-related subsectors bested economy-wide growth in 2024

Growth in energy employment by technology and region, 2023-2024

4%
Other EMDEs

China
3%
Advanced economies

2% Global net change

Economy-wide average
1%

0%

-1%
Fuel supply Power Vehicles Efficiency

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Notes: Power includes power generation and transmission, distribution and storage. Fuel supply includes fossil fuels, bioenergy, nuclear fuels, hydrogen, and critical minerals. Vehicles
includes the manufacture of internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, electric vehicles, and electric vehicle batteries. Efficiency includes industrial efficiency, building retrofits, heat
pumps and other efficient heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), efficient appliances, efficient lighting, and buildings renewables.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

Globally, one in every fifty jobs economy-wide is in the energy sector

Energy jobs per thousand employed people by region, 2024
60 Energy total
Energy jobs per 1000 employed people

Clean energy
50

40

30

20

10

0
Middle Korea Canada EU AUNZ United Japan China South Brazil India Indonesia
East States Africa

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Note: EU = European Union; AUNZ = Australia and New Zealand.
Source: IEA analysis based on ILOSTAT data.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

Employment rose across all energy subsectors in 2024, with power growing at almost double
the pace of others
The power sector – including generation, transmission, distribution, equipment manufacturing specialists, and experienced project
and storage – has overtaken fuel supply segments to become the engineers at original equipment manufacturers (OEMs).
largest employer in the energy industry, reaching 22.6 million jobs in
Energy supply employment – coal, oil, gas, bioenergy, hydrogen, and
2024. The construction of new power generation was the primary
nuclear fuels – continued to rebound steadily from the pandemic-era
driver of growth. Since 2019, construction-related jobs in the sector
dip. Fossil fuel supply jobs grew by 220 000 in 2024, reaching
have increased by 5.3% annually. In 2024, nearly a third of all
18.4 million, and are now above pre-pandemic levels but still below
generation jobs were linked to the construction of new infrastructure.
the peak seen between 2010 and 2015, when oil and gas exploration
Low-emissions technologies dominated new builds and now support
investment was at its highest. Coal supply posted an unexpected
nearly three times as many jobs as unabated coal, gas, and oil-based
resurgence, driven by new mine openings in India and Indonesia, and
generation combined. Solar PV accounted for over 60% of new
strong demand in China. Approximately 470 000 jobs have been
power generation capacity added in 2024, reaching a new record-
added to coal supply since 2019, to 6.1 million in 2024. Oil and gas
high, adding 310 000 jobs – roughly half of the increase in total power
employment also continued its post-pandemic rebound and has
generation employment. The revival of nuclear power also
recovered most of the jobs lost in 2020, leaving the sector with
contributed, with around 70 000 jobs added in 2024, a 6% increase
around 12.4 million workers in 2024. Global oil production capacity
on the previous year.
continued to expand despite a tepid demand outlook, with much of
Power transmission, distribution, and storage accounted for the increase in capacity led by producers in the Americas, which have
8.5 million jobs globally in 2024, though growth in these segments accounted for two-thirds of the increase in oil and gas employment
was more modest, with employment rising just 2.6% y-o-y. While since 2020. However, lower commodity market prices this year have
critically-needed investment in grid infrastructure has increased led major international oil companies to increase layoffs, which
significantly in recent years, the sector has been straining against contributes to an expected 0.8% decline in oil and gas employment
economic headwinds, as prices for both cables and transformers in 2025. Low-emissions energy supply – including modern bioenergy,
have nearly doubled since 2018. Labour shortages are compounding hydrogen and nuclear fuels – has steadily grown, with total
these challenges, with acute gaps in high-voltage electricians, skilled employment rising by 3% annually since 2019, to 2.3 million in 2024.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

Energy-related employment in end-use technologies, which include offset a decline in coal sector employment in 2024. China also made
vehicles, heat pumps, and energy efficiency measures, added continued progress in areas where other regions lagged, such as
approximately 570 000 jobs in 2024. The vehicle manufacturing electricity grids and storage, with employment rising by 4% compared
workforce stood at around 17.5 million globally, rising in tandem with to just 2% elsewhere. It also strengthened its clear lead in clean
higher vehicle sales. Many OEMs continued to transition their line-up energy manufacturing, accounting for nearly three-quarters of the job
to EVs, which reached 20% of global car sales in 2024, up from 4% growth in that category in 2024. China now represents over half of
in 2020. The shift has had a limited impact on the majority of vehicle global manufacturing employment in heat pumps, electrolysers and
manufacturing jobs, which are concentrated in general car parts such wind, two-thirds in EVs, 80% in solar PV, and more than 90% in
as seats and windows, however firms producing internal combustion batteries.
engine (ICE) components are beginning to show structural shifts in
In advanced economies, 125 000 jobs were added in the power
their staffing decisions.
sector in 2024 (+2.4%), offsetting a loss of 50 000 in fossil fuel supply
In buildings and industry, global energy efficiency job growth has (-1.7%). Advanced economies also posted a solid increase of 1.2%
slowed from recent highs of 2.6% to 1.9% in 2024, to around in vehicle manufacturing employment, with EVs and EV batteries now
14.3 million workers. Almost all of the increase was accounted for by accounting for 13% of jobs in the sector in these regions. The
emerging market and developing economies (EMDEs) as major slowdown of energy efficiency improvement rates in advanced
economies rolled back some incentives for efficiency upgrades, economies was also reflected in employment outcomes, as efficiency
contributing to a slowing of the global rate of energy efficiency jobs fell by 1.5% in 2024.
improvement to just 1%.
Fossil fuel supply remained the main source of energy job growth in
Energy employment trends in 2024 showed a marked divergence 2024 for many EMDEs outside of China, accounting for half or more
between advanced economies and developing economies. EMDEs of net job creation in the Middle East, Africa, and Central and South
added 1 million jobs in the fuel supply and power sectors combined America. Low-emissions power added a smaller 210 000 jobs,
– a 3% increase over 2023 – while advanced economies saw much primarily in construction, as many of these regions continued to face
slower growth of 1%, up by just 90 000 workers. A major driver of challenges in attracting investments to transition to clean energy
growth in EMDEs was China, whose gains in solar PV jobs more than manufacturing.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

Energy employment has rebounded from the pandemic across all major energy subsectors
Global energy employment by technology, 2015-2024

Fuel supply Power Vehicles Energy efficiency

25 25 25 25
Million workers

20 20 20 20

15 15 15 15

10 10 10 10

5 5 5 5

2015 2020 2024 2015 2020 2024 2015 2020 2024 2015 2020 2024
Critical minerals extraction Other low-emissions PG EVs and batteries Heat pumps
Low-emissions fuels Wind ICE vehicles Other efficiency
Oil and gas Solar PV
Coal Unabated fossil PG
Grids and storage
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Notes: PG = power generation; ICE vehicles = internal combustion engine vehicles; EVs = electric vehicles; and solar PV = solar photovoltaic. Grids and storage includes power
transmission, distribution and storage. Low-emissions fuels include the supply of bioenergy, nuclear fuels, and hydrogen. Other efficiency includes building retrofits, efficient and
renewable heating, ventilation and air conditioning (other than heat pumps), and efficient appliances and lighting.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

China and other emerging market and developing economies saw job increases across almost
all energy subsectors, while the picture for advanced economies was more mixed

Employment growth by technology and region, 2023-2024

Other emerging market and
Advanced economies China
developing economies

Fossil supply Economy-wide

Low-emissions fuels

Critical minerals supply

Unabated fossil power

Low-emissions power

Grids and storage

Efficiency

Vehicles

-5% 0% 5% 10% -5% 0% 5% 10% -5% 0% 5% 10%

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Notes: Grids and storage includes transmission, distribution and storage. Low-emissions fuels include the supply of bioenergy, nuclear fuels, and hydrogen. Efficiency includes building
retrofits, heat pumps and other renewable and efficient heating, ventilation and air conditioning, and efficient appliances and lighting.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

Fuel supply, power and end-use sectors are key sources of employment in every region
Energy employment by region and sector, 2024 (thousand workers)

Central and
North Other Asia Middle
South Europe Africa China India Eurasia Global
America Pacific East
America

Supply: Coal 100 <50 100 200 2 800 1 500 1 000 <50 300 6 100

Supply: Oil and gas 1 700 1 100 600 1 500 1 400 800 1 200 2 800 1 300 12 400

Supply: Low-
200 500 300 400 200 400 300 <50 <50 2 300
emissions fuels

Power: Generation 1 100 700 1 600 600 5 800 1 900 1 800 400 400 14 200

Power: T&D,
1 000 500 1 000 500 2 400 1 800 800 200 200 8 500
storage

End uses: Vehicles 2 200 700 3 500 200 6 300 1 200 2 800 200 300 17 500

End uses:
1 900 600 3 300 600 3 800 1 600 1 700 500 400 14 300
Efficiency

Critical minerals <50 100 <50 400 <50 <50 100 <50 <50 800

All energy 8 200 4 200 10 400 4 200 22 900 9 200 9 700 4 100 3 000 76 000

Notes: Power T&D, storage = transmission, distribution and storage. Low-emissions fuels supply includes bioenergy, hydrogen and nuclear fuels. Vehicles include the manufacturing of
all four-wheeled road vehicles (passenger cars, light-duty commercial vehicles, buses and trucks) and batteries for EVs. Efficiency refers to energy efficiency in industry and in buildings
(covering retrofits, heat pumps, other efficient and renewable heating, ventilation and air conditioning, and efficient appliances and lighting). Values may not sum due to rounding. Global
energy employment totals are higher than in previous editions of the WEE report due to the inclusion of new categories of energy employment and other modelling revisions. Please see
the Methodology section in the Annex for further information.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 19
World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

The energy sector’s high demand for applied technical roles leaves it exposed to broader-
economy shortages for workers such as electricians and pipefitters
IEA analysis provides, for the first time, a breakdown of our Elementary and agricultural jobs – including elementary occupations
employment estimates by occupation in order to quantify current and and basic agricultural workers – accounted for the second largest
future skilled workforce requirements. The occupational definitions growth in energy employment since 2015, adding over 1.3 million.
used for this analysis follow the International Labour Organization’s Although elementary and agricultural workers generally play a
(ILO) International Standard Classification of Occupations smaller role in the energy sector than in the broader economy –
(ISCO-08), with each of these occupations associated with a skill representing 17% of the workforce compared to 37% overall – they
level tied to their typical educational requirements. can account for up to 28% of the workforce in construction-heavy
sectors such as renewables and batteries. These occupations
Applied technical workers make up the largest share of the energy
typically have more basic education requirements, however in energy
workforce, at 41 million. This group includes technicians, skilled
they often require additional specialisation or on-the-job training to
trades and craft workers, plant and machine operators, and
ensure safety and proper development of complicated projects.
assemblers, which account for 54% of the energy workforce – more
than double the share of these occupations in the broader economy. Many companies are reporting difficulties hiring for technical roles,
Skilled trades workers – such as electricians, welders, pipefitters and according to the annual IEA Energy Employment Survey, which
solar PV installers – make up the largest occupational subsector of received input from over 700 energy firms, trade unions and
applied technical workers and posted the highest year-on-year educators. Nearly half of the companies surveyed reported critical
increase. This group added nearly 1.6 million since 2015, to reach hiring bottlenecks, which has led to project delays, longer lead times,
18.9 million workers in 2024. The surge is largely driven by the increased costs, and higher wages. Companies also reported a
construction boom in new energy projects, particularly in the power shortage of candidates with the desired skill levels, often resorting to
sector. Demand for electricians, pipefitters, and plumbers is now hiring less qualified people or turning to on-the-job training. The rate
straining existing labour pools – suggesting that rapid growth in of new graduates with energy-relevant degrees and certifications has
energy construction may be intensifying the broader skilled trade been largely stable or falling in most economies, which is contributing
shortages across the economy. Most of these workers require formal to wider pipeline issues for skilled workers. Additional analysis on
vocational training or advanced vocational qualifications, adding these trends and their impact is explored in Chapter 2.
longer lead times to bring more skilled workers into the labour market.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 20
World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

Applied technical workers make up 54% of the energy workforce, more than double the share in
the broader economy
Global occupational employment shares, economy-wide and energy sector related, 2024

Economy-wide Energy sector

17%
25%

37% Applied technical workers

Managers and professionals 13%

54%
Service and support workers
16%
Elementary and agricultural workers 16%
22%

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: Applied technical workers include the ISCO-08 occupational groups craft and trades workers (e.g. electricians, welders, plumbers, pipefitters), technicians and associate
professionals (e.g. electrical or substation technicians), and plant and machine operators (e.g. power plant operators, drilling rig operators, heavy machinery operators). Managers and
professionals include the ISCO-08 occupational groups managers (e.g. project managers), professionals, engineers (e.g. nuclear engineers). Service and support workers include the
ISCO-08 occupational groups administrative workers (e.g. administrative assistants), and service and sales workers (e.g. customer service representatives). Elementary and agricultural
workers include the ISCO-08 occupational groups agricultural workers (e.g. crop producers for bioenergy), and elementary occupations (e.g. manual handlers).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 21
World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

The energy sector has added jobs for over 1.6 million skilled trade workers since 2015
Job additions by occupational group in the energy sector, 2015-2024
1.8
Million workers

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

Skilled trades Elementary Plant and Technicians Professionals, Service and Administrative Managers Skilled
workers occupations machine engineers sales workers workers agricultural
operators workers

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: The occupational groups follow the ISCO-08 classifications and associated skill levels. Please see the Methodology section in the Annex for further information.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 22
World Energy Employment 2025 Overview

Overview of occupational categories and educational requirements

Number of energy
Occupational category Education required Skill level Job function examples
workers

Managers and professionals (16%)

Project manager in utility-scale solar,
Managers 4 300 000 (6%) High
Tertiary-level education, exploration manager in oil and gas
university degrees
Professionals, engineers 7 800 000 (10%) High Nuclear engineer, electrical engineer

Applied technical workers (54%)

Advanced vocational
Technicians 8 600 000 (11%) High Battery technician, substation technician
qualifications

Skilled trades workers 18 900 000 (25%) Upper secondary Medium Electricians, welders, plumbers, pipefitters
education and/or formal
vocational education and
Plant and machine operators, and assemblers 13 900 000 (18%) training (VET) Medium Power plant operators, drilling rig operators

Service and support workers (13%)

Administrative workers 5 300 000 (7%) Upper secondary Medium Administrative assistant, inventory clerk
education and/or formal
vocational education and Salesperson, customer service
Service and sales workers 4 400 000 (6%) training (VET) Medium
representative
Elementary and agricultural workers (17%)
Forestry worker supplying feedstock for
Agricultural workers 800 000 (>1%) Low
Primary or lower bioenergy
secondary education
Elementary occupations 12 100 000 (16%) Low Support workers, manual handlers

Notes: Values may not sum due to rounding. The occupational groups follow the ISCO classifications and associated skill levels. Please see the Methodology section in the Annex for
further information.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 23
 Overview
World Energy Employment 2025

Energy employers are under pressure to raise wages to attract and retain talent
Real wages have risen in most parts of the energy sector in 2025. In at 2-4% in most regions. Average earnings in renewables mostly did
many cases, energy wages performed better than economy-wide not keep pace with these higher rates however, with solar energy
real wage growth, which has been sluggish in the first half of this seeing fewer constraints in recruiting skilled workers than nuclear
decade, held back by the post-pandemic surge in inflation, and power, and the wind sector facing significant economic headwinds in
declining productivity improvements. However, this is not consistent many regions.
across all regions. Low-income countries in particular have struggled
In sectors with tight labour markets and shortages of skilled workers,
to register significant real wage growth for much of the past decade,
energy firms are recognising need to raise wages to continue
and many advanced economies have struggled to raise historically
attracting and retaining talent. In the IEA Industry Employment
low productivity growth seen since the 2008 financial crisis. Notable
Survey, 40% of industry respondents said they had raised salary
exceptions exist, especially in China and the United States, where
offers to ease hiring challenges.
wage growth has been strong in recent years, driven in part by high-
tech and extractive sectors. At the same time, many energy employers are facing price pressures
that constrain their ability to raise wages. Among survey respondents
Wage growth varied across different energy subsectors, with the
who reported facing skilled labour shortages, one-quarter cited an
relative positioning of each remaining fairly consistent when looking
inability to offer sufficiently competitive wages as a contributing factor
across regions. Still, prevailing country wage trends tended to have
to their shortages. Overcoming wage constraints may well play an
a larger effect. Oil and gas witnessed the strongest wage growth,
important role for energy firms to enhance their competitiveness.
rising by around 3-5% across major economies, as the sector
Findings from the IEA Labour Employment Survey show salary is the
expands new liquified natural gas (LNG) import and export facilities,
top factor for workers choosing jobs. Yet, many of the most in-
and is consistent with the industry’s historical tendency to offer highly
demand roles – craft and trades workers, operators and assemblers
competitive wages to attract and retain top talent. Nuclear power
– still offer wages below the global economy-wide average. Firms
posted eye-catching real wage growth rates, ranging from 2-5% in
must navigate these tensions carefully to sustain workforce pipelines
China, India and the United States. The post-pandemic rebound in
and cost competitiveness.
the coal supply sector has seen its wage growth follow close behind

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 24
 Overview
World Energy Employment 2025

Fossil fuel supply and nuclear power see strong increases in wages, while renewables are
losing ground
Change in real wages by country and technology, 2024-2025
6%
Change in real wages

Nuclear power

Oil and gas

4%
Coal

2% Solar PV

Wind
0%

-2%

-4%

-6%
China India United States Germany Indonesia South Africa

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Source: IEA analysis based on data from the Economic Research Institute and the IMF.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 25
 Overview
World Energy Employment 2025

Narrowing the gender gap depends on attracting more women into trades occupations
Women account for around one in five energy sector jobs, roughly The share of women in senior leadership positions has shown
half the share in the wider economy. This ratio has remained largely promising trends, rising faster than the economy-wide average since
static in recent years, partly because the fastest job growth is in 2015. Renewables and nuclear have seen particularly strong
occupations where women traditionally make up less than 5% of progress, while oil and gas supply showed only marginal gains, and
workers, such as welders, electricians and line workers. Women’s coal witnessed declines. Women’s share of leadership roles in the
representation is much higher in certain roles, such as scientific energy sector now stands at 18%, up from 13% in 2015, but it still
research (45%) and manufacturing of electrical equipment (27%). sits below the economy-wide average of 25%.

Share of women in energy and energy-adjacent sectors, 2023 Change in the share of women in senior leadership positions in
the economy and by energy subsector, 2015-2024
Transport via pipelines 6% 36%

Compound annual growth rate

Construction of buildings
Mining of coal and lignite 4% 24%
Repair and installation of machinery
Mining of metal ores 2% 12%
Fossil fuel extraction
Electricity supply 0% 0%

Grids
Nuclear

Oil and gas

Economy
Energy

Coal
Renewables

upstream
total

wide
Manufacture of motor vehicles
-2% -12%
Manufacture of electrical equipment
Scientific research
-4% -24%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% Fossil fuels Low-emissions Total share in 2024 (right axis)
Share of women
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Source: IEA analysis based on data from IEA (2025) Gender and Energy Data Explorer
Note: Electricity supply refers to ISIC-35 Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning
(Orbis, Moody’s commercial database).
supply.
Source: IEA analysis based on data from ILOSTAT.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 26
 Overview
World Energy Employment 2025

A range of drivers contribute to lower levels of participation of women support for female students, including safer facilities, scholarships
in the energy sector. These include negative perceptions of women and mentorship. However, higher rates of informality, persistent
in certain occupations, workplace cultures, and limited exposure to financial barriers and limited job placement support continue to
vocational pathways. Several initiatives offer promising tools to hinder broader progress in EMDEs. In many cases, even when
address some of these issues. Programmes like Chicago Women in women complete training, they face difficulties transitioning into
Trades in the United States, Build Together in Canada, and formal employment, highlighting the need for more co-ordinated
Australia’s Women in Trades Roadmap have combined outreach, action to align training systems with labour market opportunities
training, and policy reform to increase women’s participation. These
reforms include providing incentives to hire and train women,
introducing gender targets in public projects, strengthening job-site
safety and inclusion measures, and improving pathways from
vocational programmes into apprenticeships.

Efforts in EMDEs, where women’s participation in the energy

workforce is lowest, are also being developed. For example, a recent
World Bank report on Côte d’Ivoire highlighted a gender-sensitive
vocational education and training (VET) programme that improves .

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 27
 Overview
World Energy Employment 2025

Energy jobs grow under all IEA scenarios, but workforce development plans must contend with
a wide range of futures
Global energy-related employment is set to grow under all IEA manufacturing continues to rise, but efficiency jobs decline by 7% as
scenarios – but the magnitude and pace of this growth varies across rates of efficiency improvement remain slower than in the STEPS.
stages of transitions and policy settings. In the IEA’s Stated Policies
In the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario (NZE Scenario), the
Scenario (STEPS), which assumes today’s policy intentions will be
energy workforce expands significantly, as investment surges to
implemented, global energy employment is expected to rise at a
support a faster transition. Power sector employment climbs 60% to
moderate pace to 2035. Under this scenario, the power sector
reach 36 million by 2035, supported by major sustained investment
continues to be the largest driver of growth, with the workforce
across low-emissions technologies. The EV transition accelerates
climbing 14% to 26 million by 2035. Fossil fuel supply remains a
further, with EVs and their batteries representing over 90% of total
significant source of employment, particularly in oil and gas, where
vehicle manufacturing jobs by 2035. At the same time, fossil fuel
jobs decline modestly to 93% of current levels. EV manufacturing
supply employment sees further declines – particularly in coal supply,
jobs approach parity with those in ICE vehicles, and account for more
which falls by over 60%, followed by oil and gas supply with a 40%
than half of vehicle sales in key markets by 2035. Efficiency jobs grow
reduction – although some of these losses are offset by gains in low-
by 1.2% per year, as the rate of energy efficiency improvements
emissions fuel supply.
accelerates in the STEPS.
Still, all three scenarios point to common structural shifts – rising
The Current Policies Scenario (CPS) considers only policies and
employment in power and grids, a major transition in vehicle
regulations already in place and takes a generally cautious view on
manufacturing, and sustained losses in coal. In these sectors,
the speed at which new energy technologies are deployed.
companies may have greater clarity in their workforce planning,
Employment growth by 2035 is accordingly more muted, especially
where other subsectors see divergent trends under different
in low-emissions energy segments. In total, the CPS has around
scenarios, pushing firms to adopt a more dynamic approach to
1.3 million fewer energy workers in 2035 than the STEPS. By
staffing requirements and matters of hiring and retention. Investing in
contrast, fossil fuel supply sees a higher workforce than in the
versatile, multi-skilled teams, flexible training models, and reskilling
STEPS, as employment in oil and gas expands by 8% relative to
pipelines will be critical to navigate changing technology mixes and
current levels, although a decline of 12% is still observed in coal
policy landscapes.
mining jobs. Employment in low-emissions power and electric vehicle

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 28
 Overview
World Energy Employment 2025

The power sector grows in all scenarios, while the medium-term trend for other sectors may
vary depending on policy settings
Global energy employment by technology and scenario, 2015, 2024 and 2035

Fuel supply Power Vehicles Efficiency

40
Million workers

30

20

10

0
2015 2024 2035 2035 2035 2015 2024 2035 2035 2035 2015 2024 2035 2035 2035 2015 2024 2035 2035 2035
CPS STEPS NZE CPS STEPS NZE CPS STEPS NZE CPS STEPS NZE

Critical minerals extraction Other low-emissions PG EVs and batteries Heat pumps
Low-emissions fuels Wind ICE vehicles Other efficiency
Oil and gas Solar PV
Coal Unabated fossil PG
Grids and storage

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: PG = power generation; ICE vehicles = internal combustion engine vehicles; EVs = electric vehicles; solar PV = solar photovoltaic. CPS = Current Policies Scenario; STEPS =
Stated Policies Scenario; NZE = Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario. Low-emissions fuels include the supply of bioenergy, nuclear fuels, and hydrogen. Grids and storage includes
transmission, distribution and storage. Other low-emissions PG includes power generation in renewables other than solar PV, wind, nuclear, and fossil-based carbon capture, utilisation
and storage (CCUS). Other efficiency includes building retrofits, efficient and renewable heating, ventilation and air conditioning (other than heat pumps), and efficient appliances and
lighting.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 29
World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Chapter 2. The future of energy skills

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 30
World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Special focus: Building a skilled energy workforce for the future

This year’s special focus dives deeper into the growing skilled labour This chapter examines the scale and nature of these workforce
gap in the energy sector that the IEA has been signalling for the past challenges – identifying the occupations most affected by shortages,
two years. Fuelled by rising investment, the energy sector continued assessing the alignment of education and training pathways, and
to outpace the broader economy in job creation for the third exploring the implications for energy security and competitiveness.
consecutive year in 2024 – a sharp shift from the pre-pandemic Chapter 3 builds on this analysis, outlining policy responses and
period. However, many parts of the energy industry continue to strategies for governments, industry, and labour representatives to
struggle to keep pace with employment needs, with intense align skills development with the sector’s long-term needs.
competition for skilled workers in some occupations. Employers are
increasingly making trade-offs on desired qualifications, raising
wages to attract talent and relying more heavily on on-the-job (OTJ)
training to compensate for the gap in required skills. These pressures
have implications for competitiveness and carry potential risks for
worker safety, project quality, and timely delivery.

The 2025 annual IEA Industry Employment Survey shows an

increase in firms reporting hiring difficulties compared to previous
years. Many are resorting to new measures to fill critical positions,
reflecting a structural tightening of energy labour markets. At the
same time, employers are seeking new skill sets as the nature of
work in the energy sector continues to evolve. With the rapid
expansion of clean energy and the growing integration of artificial
intelligence (AI) and digital tools, the skills demanded of workers are
changing. Traditional technical expertise remains essential, therefore
balancing the retention of these core capabilities with the integration
of new technologies and competencies is becoming an increasingly
complex challenge for recruitment and workforce development.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 31
World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Skilled trades are the fastest-growing energy occupations, with six key roles in shortage
Global energy employment growth by occupation, 2023-2024

Skilled trades workers Top job functions in shortage

Elementary occupations • Electricians

Plant and machine operators
• Line workers (grids)
• Solar PV installers
Technicians • Plumbers and gas fitters
• Welders
Professionals, engineers
• HVAC installers
Administrative workers
• Battery technicians
Managers

Service and sales workers • Nuclear field engineers

• Chemical and process engineers
Agricultural workers

0 100 000 200 000 300 000 400 000

Others
Elementary occupations Workers

Occupational
Skilled trades groups
workersmost in shortage

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: HVAC = heating, ventilation and air conditioning. IEA analysis based on Level 1 classification (major groups) of the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO).
The list of the top occupations in the energy sector was developed through IEA analysis of multiple data sources, including industry and government reports, official statistical products,
industry surveys, and Lightcast job postings data. Occupations were identified and compared across regions, with those appearing most frequently and consistently across countries
synthesised into the final list. The research encompassed a global scope and included the following countries: Bangladesh (2023), India (2022), Indonesia (2025), China (2022), Argentina
(2025), Brazil (2024), Colombia (2025), Nigeria (2022), Kenya (2020), Canada (2024), the United States (2024) and the European Union (2024).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Energy employers face the greatest difficulty hiring applied technical workers
An increasing share of energy firms are reporting challenges in hiring Skilled labour shortages are a persistent challenge across the wider
applied technical workers. Of over 400 energy firms surveyed by the economy, and the energy industry faces specific difficulties due to its
IEA in 2025, around 60% report hiring difficulties due to skills and heavy reliance on applied technical workers to build and maintain
labour shortages 1. In the last year, around 50% of the employers new energy infrastructure. This occupational category includes
surveyed adjusted hiring requirements due to a lack of qualified technicians (e.g. battery technician), skilled trades (e.g. electrician,
candidates, suggesting they may have lowered their prerequisites for welder, pipefitter), and plant and machine operator (e.g. power plant
employees’ skills, broadened the scope of sought-out worker profiles operator) roles, which together make up more than half of total
or become more open to providing training opportunities themselves. energy employment – twice the share seen in the broader economy.

Main reasons for workforce shortages reported by Share of occupational groups in the energy sector compared to
energy employers the overall economy, 2024

Insufficient technical skills Energy sector

Limited qualified talent pool

Economy-wide
Insufficient soft skills

Competition from other sectors 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Managers, professionals, engineers
Uncompetitive pay/benefits
Applied technical workers
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
Elementary and agricultural workers
Share of responses
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Service and support workers

Source: IEA Industry Employment Survey, 2025. IEA. CC BY 4.0

1 factors that result in low worker interest in roles, such as unattractive wages or conditions. These
While closely related, skills and labour shortages reflect distinct challenges. Skills shortages
arise when too few workers possess the competencies employers require. Labour shortages effects can be compounded by mismatches in skills and high vacancy rates.
occur when too few workers fill available roles, often because of weak local labour supply or

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 33
World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Skilled trade roles, the largest subset of applied technical workers, Changes in employment by occupations in the EU27, 2021-2023
face the most acute shortages, represent around 25% of energy Electrical engineers
employment and accounted for over 20% of year-on-year growth in
Electrical line installers
2024. IEA analysis based on government reports, industry surveys,
Carpenters and joiners
official statistics and job posting data suggests that six of the top
Bricklayers
energy occupations most in shortage are in skilled trades roles,
namely electricians, grid line workers, solar PV installers, pipe and Welders and flame cutters
gas fitters, welders and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning Insulation workers
(HVAC) installers. Sheet metalworkers
Plumbers and pipe fitters
Shortages of applied technical workers, and especially skilled trades
roles, are most severe in parts of the energy sector with heavy All occupations

construction demands. Because clean energy infrastructure is Civil engineers

expanding so rapidly, these subsectors are currently far more Industrial engineers
dependent on construction-related occupations than other parts of -10% -5% 0% 5% 10% 15%
the energy sector, employing around 50% more construction workers Growth 2021-2023
than the industry average. IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Note: EU = European Union.
Many construction and related skilled trades roles are in high demand
Source: IEA analysis based on EURopean Employment Services' (EURES) (2024)
across the broader economy, compounding the energy sectors Report on labour shortages and surpluses 2024.
challenges. Many energy companies scattered around the world are Labour market indicators, such as job postings (a proxy measure for
reporting persistent hiring difficulties for these positions, including in the rising and unmet demand of selected skills and occupations),
the United States where over a million trades jobs remain unfilled, show a sharp uptick in demand for skilled trades occupations within
and in the European Union where welders, electricians, plumbers, parts of the energy sector. Between 2018 and 2023, the number of
pipefitters, and metalworkers were among the top roles going unfilled job postings for skilled trades in key sectors, which includes wind,
in 2024. solar, heat pumps, energy efficiency and batteries, grew at an
average annual rate of 40%, with solar marking the sharpest increase
at a compound annual growth rate of 65%.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 34
World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Job postings for technicians, trades workers and associated Note on applied technical workers
professionals by year and by sector, 2018-2023
In this report, the energy workforce is broken down into several
1 400
Relative job postings (2018 = 100)

occupational groupings, which are based on the ILO’s

1 200
categorisation system (see Methodology, Definitions and
1 000
classifications, in the Annex). Each occupational category is
800
associated with different skill levels (low, medium, high) and
600
corresponding educational attainment (e.g. vocational, advanced
400
vocational and tertiary, which include bachelor’s, master’s and
200
doctoral degrees). Currently, most shortages occur among high-
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 to medium-skilled applied technical workers, making up more than
Solar PV Wind 50% of the energy workforce. Technicians, skilled trades workers,
Heat Pumps Energy Efficiency and plant and machine operators are a subset of applied technical
Batteries
workers, with technicians classified as high skilled occupations,
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
requiring advanced vocational qualifications, and the other two
Notes: Countries covered include Canada, Germany, Spain, Switzerland, the United
Kingdom, the United States (2018-2023); Australia, Austria, Singapore (2019-2023); and being medium-skilled roles requiring standard vocational
Belgium, France, Italy (2021-2023). education.
Source: IEA analysis based on data from Lightcast.
Applied technical workers classification by job function, 2024
Due to persistent labour shortages, many energy companies are
increasingly turning to contractors and subcontractors, especially for
Elementary and
project development, construction, installation, and maintenance agricultural Skilled trades,
work. Close to 30% of the over 400 energy companies surveyed by workers, 17% 46%
the IEA plan to rely more heavily on contractors in the coming years, Applied
Service and
technical Plant and
citing chronic challenges in recruiting qualified permanent employees support
workers, machine
as the main reason. However, this reliance adds complexity, as workers, 13%
54% operators,
contractors operate across multiple sectors, placing the energy Managers and 33%
sector in direct competition with construction and infrastructure professionals, Technicians,
16% 21%
projects for the same limited talent pool. It may also slow efforts to
train the energy workforce in a standardised manner. IEA. CC BY 4.0.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 35
World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Nearly 60% of energy employers report skilled labour shortages concentrated within applied
technical roles
Share of employers surveyed by the IEA experiencing labour and skills shortages, and associated reasons for the reported difficulty in
hiring for selected occupation groups

Service and sales workers

Plant and machine operators

Skilled trades
42%
Technicians
58%
Professionals

Managers

0% 50% 100%
Share of responses

Employers experiencing labour and skills shortages Difficulty finding candidates with technical skills needed
High demand from competing employers or sectors
Employers not experiencing labour and skills
shortages Inability to offer competitive wages or benefits
Difficulty finding candidates with soft skills needed
Other reasons
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: This analysis is based on a survey of over 400 energy employers. Other reasons reported for difficulty in hiring include long hiring timelines due to internal, security or regulatory
processes, negative perceptions of working conditions in the industry, limited interest in energy sector careers, and geographic or relocation barriers.
Source: IEA Industry Employment Survey, 2025.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 36
World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

An ageing workforce and lower youth entry into the energy sector are contributing to skilled
labour shortages
Shortages of skilled workers in the energy sector are being driven by In some advanced economies growing shares of younger workers
two intersecting trends: the workforce is ageing faster than the are entering the energy workforce. In the United States, there has
economy-wide average, with many nearing retirement, while fewer been a resurgence of young people entering into skilled energy
young workers with relevant credentials are entering the field. These trades jobs, which is partly driven by the increasing cost of higher
dynamics are evident across most regions, though their severity education and perceptions of better job security. However, the pace
varies by location and subsector. Since 2015, the situation has at which young people are entering the sector is still insufficient to
worsened, with the share of energy workers over 55 years old rising match that of retirements.
across all major regions except sub-Saharan Africa. At the same
time, the share of younger entrants has declined in Asia Pacific,
Share of energy workers by age group in selected regions, 2015
and 2024
Europe, Central and South America, and North Africa, while it
24 or under 55 or over
increased in sub-Saharan Africa and North America. 30% Asia Pacific

Share of workers
The problem of rising retirement rates are more acute in advanced 25% Central and
economies. In the next 15 years, 13 OECD countries are expected South America
20% North Africa
to see their population contract. Within the energy sector, the IEA
15%
finds that advanced economies have 2.4 workers within ten years of Europe
retirement for every worker under the age of 25, while in emerging 10%
North America
market and developing economies (EMDEs) this figure is below one. 5%
In the United States, nearly 30% of union electricians are expected Sub-Saharan
0%
Africa
to retire within the decade. Over the same period, the United 2015 2024 2015 2024
Kingdom foresees a shortfall of 1 million jobs as 20% of the IEA. CC BY 4.0.
engineering workforce retires. Similar problems have been While most EMDEs have a younger pool of available workers, many
prominently flagged, especially for skilled trades roles, in Canada, are also facing challenges of an ageing workforce in the short term.
Japan and the European Union. India and Indonesia will see their working age population start to
decline before 2040, while this shift has already started in countries

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

such as China and Brazil. Even in sub-Saharan Africa where the occupations while the country faces one of the highest
population is getting younger, certain occupations relevant to energy unemployment rates in the world.
are still facing challenges due to retirements. For instance, in South
Many developing countries face an additional complication with the
Africa, the average age of trades workers such as electricians,
outflow of skilled workers to higher-paying opportunities abroad,
pipefitters, welders or plumbers is 55 years old.
particularly from emerging economies, where graduates often
Some parts of the energy sector are significantly older than others. migrate to advanced economies for better salaries, career
In nuclear and electricity grids, the ratio of workers within ten years progression, and access to technology. These patterns are visible
of retirement to new entrants under 25 years old is 1.7 and 1.4, from early career stages, as many students seek higher education in
respectively, well above the 1.2 economy-wide average. In these advanced economies where decades of investment have led to
sectors, ageing has partially been driven by historic hiring booms that greater availability of educational offerings than in EMDEs.
created large cohorts now nearing retirement, challenges in
attracting younger workers due to shifting perceptions of these
Net flow ratio of internationally mobile students in selected
countries, 2024
industries, and typically low turnover in such highly regulated and
25%

Net inflow per student

unionised sectors. Across the energy sector, skilled labour shortages
have also been driven by concerns over job quality and wage 20%
competitiveness. In advanced economies, surveys show many 15%
workers are leaving – or choosing not to enter – trades sectors such
10%
as construction due to lower wages and less attractive working
conditions. 5%

In EMDEs, a lack of available training, especially in countries where 0%

clean energy industries are still in development, is pushing -5%
employers to source talent from other regions instead of training local Ghana India South Africa Canada United
States
workers. A lower base of formally trained workers means that skilled
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
labour shortages often coexist with high levels of unemployment in
Note: The net flow of internationally mobile students is equal to the number of inbound
EMDEs. In South Africa, the Department of Higher Education and students minus the number of outbound students, divided by total domestic student
Training regularly lists electricians and welders as scarce skilled enrolment. Data covers students attending tertiary degree programmes only.
Source: IEA reproduction of data from UNESCO Institute for Statistics.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

While migration can bring economic benefits through remittances, it to broader efforts to address youth unemployment that, despite
reduces the domestic pool of professionals needed to plan, deploy, declining at the global level, remains significantly higher than overall
and maintain energy infrastructure. This combination of domestic unemployment.
training gaps and international migration intensifies difficulties in
However, attracting more graduates into energy-related fields of
attracting and retaining the next generation of energy workers, an
study is not sufficient in itself. Many of those who graduate in energy-
issue highlighted by several developing countries during the IEA’s
related fields may not go into the energy sector. For example,
Workshop on the Future of Energy Skills.
engineering graduates are often sought by other sectors. In 2023, of
Building a skilled energy workforce requires a sufficient number of the 4.3 million engineering college graduates employed in the United
energy graduates to come through formal education pipelines. In the States, only 1.7 million were employed in an engineering position,
European Union, a strong focus on vocational education in several with over 600 000 working instead in IT and software roles, and over
member states keeps the concentration of young energy-relevant 1 million working in non-science and non-engineering jobs. In the
vocational graduates relatively high compared to other advanced United Kingdom, only 44% of newly employed engineering graduates
economies, and these rates have increased by about 7% since 2015. entered one of the core industrial sectors relevant to the energy
In EMDEs, the number of young graduates still trails that of many sector (mining, manufacturing, construction or utilities). These
advanced economies but is growing faster. For instance, in China, traditional industrial sectors typically struggle to compete with
Indonesia and North Africa, the concentration of young energy- salaries on offer in rival sectors, particularly in software.
relevant vocational graduates grew by 25% or more since 2015.
As the energy sector works to attract and retain talent over the next
Many governments have implemented initiatives to improve the decade, the energy workforce will have to address a three-pronged
perception of vocational education and raise uptake. In China for challenge: resolving ongoing skilled labour shortages, replacing the
example, the 2019 National Vocational Education Reform accelerating outflow of retiring workers and meeting growing
Implementation Plan has been focused on expanding the capacity of employment needs for qualified workers as energy demand
technical universities to deliver bachelor’s and master’s degrees in continues to expand. Investing in younger workers will be particularly
applied science fields. In Brazil, efforts to reform vocational education important to provide them with economic opportunities, especially in
have led to a more flexible upper secondary education model regions such as Africa, where three to four additional young people
whereby students can receive a dual high school degree that enter the labour market for every job created annually.
includes vocational qualifications. Many of these are explicitly linked

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

The energy workforce is ageing faster than the wider economy in many regions
Change in energy employment by age group and region, 2015-2023

4% Economy-wide
Workforce share change

Energy

2%

0%

-2%

-4%

-6%
Advanced China Other EMDEs Advanced China Other EMDEs
economies economies
35 or under 55 or over
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: EMDEs = emerging market and developing economies. The percentage change is calculated as the difference between the 2023 workforce and the 2015 workforce within each
age group.
Source: IEA analysis based on ILOSTAT data.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

An ageing workforce poses increasing risks for the installation and maintenance of critical
energy infrastructure
Change in employment by age group in selected energy subsectors, 2015-2024

Oil and gas Nuclear Grids

65 or over 65 or over 65 or over

55-64 55-64 55-64

25-54 25-54 25-54

24 or under 24 or under 24 or under

-40% -20% 0% 0% 50% 100% 0% 20% 40%

IEA. CC BY 4.0.

Source: IEA analysis based on data from ILOSTAT.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Vocational education levels are highest in advanced economies, but growing faster in emerging
market and developing economies
Vocational and tertiary graduates from energy-relevant degrees per thousand young people (2015-2022)
Vocational qualifications Tertiary degrees
25 2022 (EMDEs)
Per 1 000 young people

2022 (AEs)
20 2015

15

10

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: EMDEs = emerging market and developing economies. ‘Energy-relevant’ fields correspond to ISCED-F field code 07 – Engineering, manufacturing and construction. Tertiary
degrees include bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees (ISCED levels 06-08), while vocational qualifications are vocational degrees attained from lower-secondary to short-cycle
tertiary level (ISCED levels 02-05).Young person refers to the population between 20-29 years of age.
Source: IEA analysis based on data from the Chinese Ministry of Education, India Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, OECD Education at a Glance, UNESCO Institute
for Statistics, and UN Demographic Statistics Database.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Unclear business use cases and high costs are creating barriers to developing AI literacy

Emerging technologies – particularly AI – are increasingly being sectors such as education, financial services, technology, information
looked at as an important new tool within the energy sector. In a and media. While other industries have moved quickly to attract and
survey conducted by the IEA with 400 energy companies, the top integrate AI expertise, energy-adjacent sectors have struggled to keep
two long-term benefits anticipated from AI adoption were pace.
“improved administrative efficiency” (such as speeding up AI talent concentration by sector, 2024
permitting processes) and “improved quality output” (such as real-
TIM
time monitoring of power grid performance).
Financial Services
AI is already being applied across the energy sector, especially
Professional Services
related to administrative efficiency, improved worker safety, and
improved fault detection. In extreme operating environments, such Education
as oil refineries or nuclear plants, AI-driven systems can help Utilities
predict equipment failures, reducing the likelihood of accidents
Manufacturing
and manual interventions. Virtual Reality training modules are
reducing the time and costs of doing onsite trainings, especially in Oil, Gas, and Mining
high-risk areas such as offshore oil, gas and wind. AI has been
1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6%
applied to streamline administrative tasks related to permitting and
Other Energy-related AI talent concentration
compliance through automated document analysis and
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
information gap detection.
Notes: TIM = Technology, information and media. A LinkedIn member is considered “AI
talent” if they have explicitly added at least two AI skills to their profile and/or they have been
As the business case for AI becomes clearer, the demand for employed in an AI job. AI skills include, among others, machine learning, artificial
digital skills is growing across the industry. However, the energy intelligence, image processing, neural networks, natural language processing, predictive
modelling and deep learning. AI talent concentration’ is calculated by dividing the counts of
sector is falling behind other industries in building this digital AI talent in a country by the counts of LinkedIn members in that respective country (LinkedIn,
capacity. Between 2018 and 2024, the concentration of AI talent 2025). Countries covered in this analysis include the United States, Canada, Germany,
France, India, Brazil, Saudi Arabia, South Africa and the United Kingdom.
in utilities, oil, gas, and mining was on average 40% lower than in Source: IEA analysis based on LinkedIn data (2025).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Several barriers are slowing progress in developing the needed

What is the greatest barrier in adopting AI and digital technologies
digital literacy. First, energy companies often struggle to compete in your day-to-day operations?
with tech and finance firms on salary and benefits, making it
Lack of internal digital skills
difficult to attract top digital talent. IEA analysis on four key
Limited knowledge of use cases
occupations – software engineer, data scientist, machine learning,
and hardware engineer – in the United States and Canada Data protection concerns

revealed that entry-level salaries are on average 30% higher in High costs of implementation

the technology sector than in energy companies. Second, many Resistance to change
organisations lack clearly defined AI strategies or use cases, Uncertainty about ROI
which makes it harder to justify investments in new roles or Missing digital infrastructure
capabilities. Third, there may be limited opportunities for training Inability to bring in AI talent
existing staff with the needed AI-related skills. Missing regulatory incentives
Other
AI’s overall impact on the workforce has yet to be seen. While
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
automation may reduce labour required for specific tasks and
costs of certain functions, most companies cite increased Share of responses

productivity and improved quality as the primary benefits of AI. IEA. CC BY 4.0.

Using these tools does shift the nature of work in some Note: ROI = return on investment.
Source: IEA Industry Employment Survey, 2025.
occupations, requiring individuals and organisations to rethink job
roles. Some successful models are emerging with companies The adoption of AI tools faces steeper challenges in EMDEs, where
partnering with universities or technology providers to deliver limited digital infrastructure and connectivity risks and lower levels of
targeted training programmes, while others are investing in digital literacy may create uneven uptake of AI tools more broadly. That
internal platforms to build digital capabilities across their said, there are emerging applications of AI tools to address energy data
workforce. and capacity gaps in these economies such as leveraging satellite
imagery, remote sensing and local sensor data to map underserved
regions and refine demand projections. More examples and case
studies can be explored at the IEA’s Energy and AI Observatory.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

The past decade saw shortfalls in new graduates with degrees relevant to energy
Recruiters for most energy occupations typically require or prefer and replacement of retiring workers, compared with only a 9%
candidates to have completed some form of formal education, increase in relevant graduations.
whether vocational or tertiary. High-skilled roles – such as engineers
and managers – generally call for tertiary education. Applied
Annual demand for applied technical workers from industrial
sectors, and graduations from energy-relevant vocational
technical roles, which include technicians, trades workers and plant degrees, 2015-2022
or machine operators, often require some form of vocational
20 2015

Million persons per year

education and training (VET) qualifications, which typically combine
classroom instruction with hands-on practical learning. +16% 2022
15
Over the past decade, vocational education in fields relevant to
energy has stagnated in many countries, even as energy sector
10 +9%
demand for these qualifications rises. The number of graduates with
technical skills relevant to energy, which has been captured by
certifications in engineering, manufacturing and construction fields 5
(ISCED-F field code 07 and includes qualifications in trades such as
electricians and welders, hereafter “energy-relevant” degrees), has
0
gradually fallen on a per-capita basis in advanced economies. Total demand for workers Graduations
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
EMDEs outside of China produce fewer graduates from energy-
Note: Total demand for workers represents annual demand for new applied technical
relevant degrees per capita than the rest of the world, and current workers (technicians, skilled trades workers and plant and machine operators) from
trends suggest they are not on pace to catch up. industrial sectors (mining, manufacturing, utilities and construction). Graduations
represent annual graduations from energy-relevant vocational qualifications (i.e.
engineering, manufacturing and construction).
IEA analysis indicates that growth in the supply of these qualifications Source: IEA analysis based on data from ILOSTAT, Chinese Ministry of Education, India
is not keeping pace with industry demand for applied technical roles. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, OECD Education at a Glance,
and UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
Annual demand for applied technical workers in industrial sectors
commonly demanding a high share of these workers (including The gap is set to widen further under current trends, particularly for
mining, manufacturing, utilities and construction) rose by 16% energy-sector roles. IEA analysis suggests that in the Stated Policies
between 2015 and 2022, driven both by expansion in the labour force Scenario (STEPS), in which current policy intentions are

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 45
World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

implemented, current flows of vocational graduates into the energy between industry needs and educational curricula, to ensure that
sector would need to rise by 43% by 2030 to match projected formal education helps graduates be readily equipped with the skills
demand, with even higher requirements under a scenario aligned required by employers. While on-the-job training remains a
with net zero emissions in the energy sector by 2050. cornerstone of workforce development, its importance varies by field
depending on specialisation, safety standards, and the need for a
That said, the energy sector currently accounts for only 5% of total
flexible labour pool. For example, electricians and HVAC technicians
industrial demand for these graduates. Meeting projected needs
must meet strict certification requirements to ensure safety and
under today’s trends would therefore require an increase of roughly
quality when working independently across multiple sites.
2% in overall graduations in energy-relevant degrees by 2030. The
sector could alternatively attract a larger share of existing graduates, As new technologies emerge across the energy sector, companies
but this is constrained by widespread shortages of applied technical are often the first to provide training by developing in-house
workers across the economy, and strong wage competition from programmes or certified supplier networks to address immediate
other industries. skills gaps. This firm-led approach reduces the burden on workers to
seek training independently but can also fragment training systems,
Where energy firms are either unable to fill open positions with
increase costs for emerging industries, limit labour mobility, and
desired qualifications, many make up for this shortfall by hiring less
constrain market competition by creating closed pools of qualified
qualified candidates and increasing on-the-job training. Many
workers.
workers across the global economy do not necessarily have the
formal training typically desired for their roles, but have acquired Policy makers need not view every emerging technology as requiring
these skills over time, often informally, and have not had these skills a new certification. Creating separate credentials for each new field
certified. This is often the case in EMDEs, where an estimated two in risks shifting costs onto workers or public budgets. Instead, many
three young adult workers lack formal qualifications that match their new competencies – such as those related to solar PV, battery
jobs. systems, or EV infrastructure – can be integrated into existing
standards. Partnerships between employers, educators, and
Survey responses from industry representatives across energy
governments can help achieve this balance through co-developed
sectors indicate that more than half of skills for entry-level positions
curricula, apprenticeships, and industry-supported training facilities
are acquired through on-the-job (OJT) learning and training. This
that align workforce development with evolving sector needs.
significant share stresses the importance of improving alignment

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Engineering and trades qualifications are stagnant or falling on a per capita basis worldwide
Annual graduations from energy-relevant qualifications (tertiary and vocational) per thousand population, 2015-2022
Other emerging market and
Advanced economies China
developing economies
2.0 2.0 2.0
Graduations per thousand persons

Tertiary
degrees
Vocational
1.5 1.5 1.5 qualifications

1.0 1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5 0.5

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: Engineering, manufacturing and construction degrees correspond to ISCED-F field code 07. For vocational qualifications, this category includes qualifications in trades such as
electricians and plumbers. Tertiary degrees include short-cycle tertiary, bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees (ISCED levels 5-8), while vocational qualifications are vocational
degrees attained from lower-secondary to short-cycle tertiary level (ISCED levels 2-5).
Source: IEA analysis based on data from the Chinese Ministry of Education, India Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, OECD Education at a Glance, UNESCO Institute
for Statistics, and UN Demographic Statistics Database.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Demand for applied technical workers is set to increase across scenarios, especially in
emerging market and developing economies
Annual demand for applied technical workers in the energy sector, 2015-2024, and 2024-2030 by scenario
Advanced economies Emerging market and developing economies
0.8 1.6 Additional hires
Million workers per year

Retirements

0.6 1.2

0.4 0.8

0.2 0.4

Historical CPS STEPS NZE Historical CPS STEPS NZE

2015-2024 2024-2030 2015-2024 2024-2030
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: CPS = Current Policies Scenario; STEPS = Stated Policies Scenario; NZE = Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario. Retirements and additional hires represent sources of demand
from the energy sector for new workers in applied technical roles, including technicians, skilled trades workers, and plant and machine operators.
Source: IEA analysis based on data from ILO, UNESCO, OECD, the Chinese Ministry of Education, and the Indian Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Building a skilled energy workforce requires significant investments to expand vocational

education and training
Energy-related education and training – including vocational training, advanced economies, this represents an increase of around 14% on
technical qualifications and any relevant certifications – make up a current levels, whilst for EMDEs investments would need to increase
small proportion of total economy-wide education and training by 50% relative to current levels, bringing global expenditure on
expenditures. IEA analysis shows that from 2015 to 2024, an energy-relevant vocational programmes to nearly USD 15 billion by
estimated USD 12 billion was spent annually on vocational education 2030. In the CPS, which considers only policies that are already in
and training (VET) for energy workers worldwide, equivalent to place, global expenditure would rise to USD 13 billion, a 6% increase
around 0.2% of global public spending on education. on current levels. Expenditure needs could rise significantly as
climate ambition increases, up to as much as USD 26 billion globally
The largest growth in demand for energy-related jobs over the next
in a scenario consistent with a 1.5°C global temperature increase.
decade will be for VET-trained workers, whose education and
training are more likely to be self-funded rather than by public Meeting these needs will require substantial public and private
financing or employer funded in many advanced economies. VET investment into skills development. In EMDEs, support through
programmes also typically cost more than general (non-vocational) official development assistance (ODA) and other international public
education, due to requirements for specialised equipment and the finance will be key, as budgets become increasingly constrained
focus on in-the-field training for developing technical skills. In OECD under rising debt burdens and funding is prioritised for early-stage
countries, vocational programmes cost on average 16% more than education and skills development. While support for all forms of
general education schemes. In EMDEs, the cost to the individual is education in EMDEs through ODA reached a record high of nearly
also likely to be much higher due to more limited public funding, with USD 17 billion in 2022, the education share of total ODA has fallen
nearly one-third of total education financing met by households. in recent years. In 2022, less than 10% of ODA from G7 countries
was directly targeted toward green skills and employment. Despite
To equip the workforce with the skills necessary to meet rising
the G7 commitment made in 2022 to increase this share, total funding
demand for energy-related professions, spending on technical
is likely to fall in line with the estimated 18-22% decline in ODA to
training will need to be increased substantially. According to IEA
education from 2023 to 2025 due to the impact of ODA cuts by key
analysis, growing demand for workers over the coming years means
donors, including France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the
expenditure on these programmes would need to rise by 21% in the
United States.
STEPS, in which current policy intentions are implemented. In

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Meeting future needs for skilled labour will require an expansion of investment into energy-
related vocational training provisions

Annual cost of providing vocational qualifications for the energy sector, 2015 to 2024, and by scenario, 2024 to 2030
Advanced economies Emerging market and developing economies
20 8
USD billion (2024, PPP)

15 6

10 4

5 2

Historical CPS STEPS NZE Historical CPS STEPS NZE

2015-2024 2024-2030 2015-2024 2024-2030
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: PPP = purchasing power parity; CPS = Current Policies Scenario; STEPS = Stated Policies Scenario; NZE = Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario.
Source: IEA analysis based on data from the ILO, UNESCO, OECD, the Chinese Ministry of Education, and the Indian Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

The lack of globally standardised energy qualifications poses challenges to workforce planning

A key challenge in workforce development is the limited medium-sized enterprises are involved and where the workforce is
standardisation of energy-related skills and qualifications across highly distributed, as is the case for building efficiency and solar PV
sectors and jurisdictions, and even within the territories themselves. installation. These qualifications are highly heterogeneous: ranging
No globally harmonised system exists for mutual recognition of energy from mandatory licences (such as for electricians), to certifications
trades. While some regional frameworks (such as the European which are de facto industry standards but fall short of being a legal
Qualifications Framework (EQF)) and industry-led training standards requirement, to voluntary credentials that are not required but may
(such as Global Wind Organisation (GWO) certifications) facilitate signal technical capability. The absence of harmonised frameworks
cross-border mobility, most licensed occupations, including electrical for defining and categorising certifications further limits international
work, remain subject to national and regional codes, and inspection comparison. Such heterogeneity is likely to be present within
requirements. As a result, workers often need to pass jurisdiction- countries as well, with overlapping or inconsistent credential systems
specific licensing exams, even when they hold relevant prior creating potential challenges for workers and employers as skills
qualifications. These exams can represent a high barrier to entry, needs evolve in the energy transition.
given their costs, limited availability of testing slots or locations, and
Pathways into energy sector jobs vary significantly depending on
uneven access to preparation resources. A lack of data associated
workers’ prior experience and skill levels. While many roles require
with certifications, OJT and apprenticeships, and more broadly gaps
formal training through academic, vocational, or apprenticeship
in energy-specific workforce statistics also hinders the ability to
programmes, more flexible routes are available for entry-level
understand how skills are gained and where shortages exist, and was
positions and for workers transitioning from related sectors. In such
a key future work area identified at the 2025 IEA Workshop on the
cases, short-term certification courses, micro-credentials, or OJT
Future of Energy Skills.
training can provide accessible entry points. For highly specialised
Many energy professions require certifications that demonstrate job roles, even experienced professionals may require modular
holders have the technical capacity to carry out specific tasks safely upskilling or targeted OJT training to gain technology-specific
and in compliance with local regulations. These certifications are competencies (see Chapter 3 for more detail).
particularly important in energy subsectors where many small and

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

A shortage of skilled workers poses risks to energy firm’s competitiveness and the secure
operation and expansion of energy systems
The shortfall of available skilled energy professionals is already The dearth of skilled workers has correspondingly contributed to
having significant impacts on slowing recovery times from project higher project costs and eventually higher energy prices, in part due
delivery delays, increasing overall costs and creating compliance to employers raising wages to attract more workers. In the US solar
challenges. Over 40% of energy employers surveyed by the IEA and battery sector, skill shortages contributed to a 43% rise in labour
reported that hiring difficulties have led to operational bottlenecks, costs between 2021 and 2023. In 2024, a combination of labour
resulting in project delays, cost overruns and reduced operational shortages and long lead times for equipment procurement led to the
capacity, among other issues. The hardest to fill positions are applied delay of around 53 GW of solar projects in the United States. In India,
technical workers, especially skilled trades roles, and engineers who similar delays and cost increases are affecting solar panel and
are also among the top occupations most in shortage. storage battery manufacturers as employers struggle to hire enough
skilled workers to meet planned capacity expansions.
Operational bottlenecks experienced by surveyed energy
companies due to hiring difficulties The lack of skilled of workers also threatens the quality of technology
Project delays
deployment. In Europe, the Regulatory Assistance Project estimates
Longer lead times
that poorly installed heat pumps can only operate at half their
Cost overruns
expected efficiency, reducing long-term energy and bill savings for
Reduced operational capacity
households. Poor-quality installations can frustrate users and
Increased reliance on contractors
undermine public confidence in new energy technologies.
Prolonged outages
Beyond deployment, workforce gaps affect maintenance of critical
Maintenance or upgrade backlogs
infrastructure. In 2022, the French nuclear sector faced extended
Compliance delays
maintenance outages due to worker shortages, contributing to
0% 20% 40% 60% electricity production levels hitting a 30-year low and raising concerns
Share of responses about reliability. To address workforce needs, some operators are
IEA. CC BY 4.0. rehiring skilled retirees and implementing targeted recruitment
Source: IEA Industry Employment Survey, 2025. strategies.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

While power systems will drive energy job growth in the next decade, growth by revamping vocational education in close collaboration with
the workforce needed to roll out new grid infrastructure, and maintain industry. The programme will direct significant investments to
and modernise the existing one has the potential to be a major pain upgrading, maintenance and capacity expansion of training facilities
point. Globally, the grid labour force has experienced significant as well as provide training to 50 000 additional trainers and develop
demographic shifts over the past decade, with the share of grid courses for skilled trades roles experiencing high demand growth.
workers reaching retirement age growing more than twice as fast as
There has also been an increased focus on drawing more students
that of workers aged 25 to 54. This trend risks accelerating in the
into energy-related tertiary degrees, especially master’s and doctoral
future, with nearly one grid worker retiring for every two jobs created
degrees, as a means to spur innovation. Countries with a high output
by 2035.
of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)
In response, a growing number of governments are investing in new graduates also see increased levels of innovation activity in the
programmes aimed at attracting more workers into applied technical energy sector, such as patent applications and scientific publications.
fields and related education as a part of their wider efforts to improve For instance, Korea, where the share of STEM graduates and per
competitiveness. For example, the European Union foresees an capita energy-related patent filings is among the highest globally, has
investment of EUR 65 billion into skilling its workers, with a significant seen its battery manufacturing workforce nearly triple since 2019 and
focus on the energy sector. In China, a new Vocational Skills Training increased the export value of its battery sector by 30% between 2020
Initiative for 2025-2027 is meant to address declines in vocational and 2023. Advanced economies and China enjoy the highest
education, enhance labour productivity and reduce workforce concentration of young energy-relevant tertiary graduates today,
mismatches in sectors, including advanced electric vehicle nearly 10 graduates per 1 000 young people, while EMDEs see
manufacturing. In India, the government has recently approved a around one half of the same conferral rate.
national scheme to boost innovation, productivity and economic

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

The shortfall of skilled workers could jeopardise crucial grid and electricity generation
expansion plans through 2035

Grid workforce historical share by age group, 2015-2024, and future projections in the Stated Policies Scenario, 2024-2035
Share of grid workforce by selected age group, Grid employment projections by demand source,
2015-2024 STEPS, 2024-2035
16% 12

Million workers
Share of workforce

15% 10

14% 8

13% 6

12% 4

11% 2

10%
2015 2020 2024 2024 2030 2035
55 or over Existing workforce
24 or under Retirements
Job additions
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: STEPS = Stated Policies Scenario. The retiring workforce projections are based on the assumption that employees retire at 65 years old.
Source: IEA analysis based on ILOSTAT data.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

In local communities, upskilling and reskilling the workforce can help generate additional
revenues and secure sustainable local economies
At the local level, investing in a skilled workforce to install, operate Transition area of Aragon, where Teruel is located, 5 500 new wind-
and maintain energy systems can unlock job opportunities that sector jobs have replaced lost coal employment, driving economic
provide new revenue streams for workers and communities. These diversification and growth.
investments are especially relevant in communities transitioning
away from fossil fuel industries, which are exposed to risks of socio-
Impact of Spain’s Just Transition Strategy on Teruel’s low-
emission energy-related employment, 2019-2024, and gross
economic decline as a result of job and revenue losses stemming value added from energy-related sectors, 2018-2022
from the closure of long-standing industries. In these communities,
Employment Gross value added
policies and programmes that both invest in providing workers with
5 1.7
upskilling and reskilling opportunities as well as support local

Thousand workers

Million USD
industrial diversification are key to ensure the transformation of 4 1.6
energy systems leads to better outcomes.
3 1.5
In Spain, the long-term Just Transition Strategy, launched in 2019 to 2 1.4
offset the impacts of coal’s decline in the region, has delivered
1 1.3
tangible results. In the former coal province of Teruel, targeted
tenders and investment incentives were offered to attract new 0 1.2
renewable energy projects and upstream manufacturing industries 2018 2020 2022
that provide employment opportunities for former coal workers,
Manufacturing Utilities Construction
create jobs in the industrial sector and deliver vocational training to
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
unemployed people. A more than EUR 1.5 billion investment is
Notes: Clean energy-related occupational data refers to the Clasificación Nacional de
expected to develop renewable energy locally, including seven wind Ocupaciones (CNO) codes from INE (Spanish National Statistical Institute), based on
farms and seven solar power plants. By 2024, energy-related their relevance to energy efficiency and renewable energy. This includes, but are not
limited to, engineers, electricians, mechanics, technicians, and installers. Energy-related
employment, especially in efficiency and renewables, increased by sectors for both figures include manufacturing, construction, utilities (gross value added
also includes mining).
nearly 21%. The gross value added (GVA) generated by the energy
Source: IEA analysis based on data from Gobierno de Aragón Open Data (2025) and
sector also rose 11% between 2019 to 2022. In the wider Just Observatorio de la Formación Profesional (2025).

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World Energy Employment 2025 The Future of Energy Skills

Targeted policymaking can extend beyond regions affected by the including long-term employment in the operation and maintenance of
energy transition, serving as a tool to create jobs in areas that have electricity networks. Improving energy access in turn increases
historically struggled to sustain local industry, and support broader households’ ability to power essential infrastructure that lead to better
energy resilience efforts. In Canada, the Clean Energy for Rural and health and education outcomes, among others. An important part of
Remote Communities programme provides financial support for many of these projects is capacity building so local communities are
renewable energy and capacity building projects that reduce the use able to manage and maintain these systems rather than becoming
of fossil fuels for heating and electricity in Indigenous, rural, and dependent on external assistance to maintain and operate them.
remote communities. Most projects incorporate training and
apprenticeships that equip workers with technical skills in areas such
as solar panel installation, wind turbine maintenance, and biomass
supply chain management. This approach enables communities to
own, operate and manage clean energy assets, helping to retain local
economic and employment benefits and enhance energy resilience.

In EMDEs, the deployment of decentralised energy technologies can

help both achieve energy access and employment outcomes.
Equipping workers across sectors to operate and maintain clean
energy technologies can also help generate new income and local
economic value, and multiply the creation of economic opportunities
beyond the energy sector. In Malawi, the deployment of 1.7 MW of
solar power is set to help improve energy access while increasing 6
000 farmers’ income and supporting the creation of 1 500 seasonal
jobs each year. In Ghana and Senegal, the Alliance for Rural
Electrification estimates that up to 40 000 direct jobs could be created
by 2030 from the development of decentralised energy systems,

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Chapter 3. Policy responses to address labour shortages

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Special focus: Finding solutions to address skilled labour shortages

Policy makers have a range of tools to address skilled labour employers, governments, and workers – while avoiding the risk of
shortages in the energy sector, working with industry, educators, and shifting training costs disproportionately onto individuals.
labour representatives to develop a workforce that can meet
Finally, the chapter situates these efforts within wider education and
emerging energy-system needs. This chapter reviews effective policy
labour-policy trends. The analysis draws on IEA assessments of
options for reskilling and upskilling, lowering barriers to training, and
energy, education, and labour policies; in-depth interviews with key
attracting new entrants into energy careers.
stakeholders; inputs from the IEA’s two-day Workshop on the Future
It highlights approaches such as strengthening industry engagement of Energy Skills; and new surveys added to the annual IEA Energy
and work-based learning, modernising curricula, expanding flexible Industry Employment Survey to capture perspectives from educators,
training, improving perceptions of technical careers, conducting skills workers, and their representatives.
mapping, and promoting decent work as means to attract more
workers to energy-relevant fields. These strategies are illustrated
through real-world case studies and highlight where they have been
successfully applied.

This chapter also examines how the energy skills agenda fits within
broader education and labour priorities in both advanced and
emerging economies. It considers how best to structure policy efforts,
emphasising ways to keep training initiatives aligned with real labour-
market needs, and ensures co-ordination between firms, policy
makers, educators, and labour representatives. Effective approaches
must be tailored to national and local contexts, taking into account
existing skill levels, labour-market tightness, wider education
objectives, and a balanced distribution of responsibility among

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Policies options to attract and train more workers

Area Potential policy measures Examples

• Offer technical secondary school pathways as an alternative to

Encouraging early
academic tracks leading to university.
interest in technical • Technical training options in Germany
• Expand dual-enrolment and pre-apprenticeship programmes that
and trade careers
allow high school students to earn credits toward certifications.

• Offer free or heavily funded training programmes for highly

• Canada’s Sustainable Jobs Training Fund
demanded trades/occupations.
• EU’s Skills Academies
• Provide wage compensation to cover participants lost wages during
Financial incentives • South Africa’s Just Energy Transition Skilling for
upskill/reskill energy courses.
Employment Programme
• Provide tuition tax credits or training grants for apprentices and for
• Denmark’s wage compensation scheme
employers who invest in training and/or sponsor trainees.

• Expand apprenticeship programmes through co-funding models

between government and industry.
• Create industry advisory councils to guide national curriculum • Combined classroom/practical training in Canada
Industry engagement updates and ensure alignment with market needs. • Germany’s dual vocational training system
and work-based • Collaborate with emerging industries to define qualifications for new • Europe’s Skills for Solar task force
learning fields (e.g. battery installation). • Viet Nam’s Industry Advisory Board for
• Encourage colleges, technical schools and universities to adopt Renewable Energy
periodic curriculum review processes informed by industry needs.

• Launch regional and national marketing campaigns to highlight the • Schneider Electric’s Youth Education &
value, innovation, and good working conditions associated with Entrepreneurship Program in 60 countries
Changing public
skilled trades and engineering careers.
perceptions of • Pakistan’s efforts to create inclusive working
• Support gender equity and inclusion initiatives such as mentorship environments for women
technical career paths
programmes and outreach campaigns encouraging women and
underrepresented groups to enter technical fields. • Female targeted training in Colombia

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Area Potential policy measures Examples

Curriculum and • Introduce modular, stackable certifications that allow learners to • Specialised short postgraduate courses in Nigeria
credential progress from short-term credentials to full degrees. • Short-cycle accredited courses in South Africa
modernisation • Integrate emerging technologies (e.g. AI) into training and
certification frameworks.
• Ensure training alignment with international standards, establish
mutual recognition agreements to enhance worker mobility.

Accessible training • Offer flexible training options including online modules to increase • Village-based education and training courses
options accessibility. for Indigenous people in Malaysia
• Provide locally based education and training programmes outside • Flexible training pathways targeted at women
cities to increase accessibility. in Uganda

Labour market • Enhance national statistical tracking of energy and technical • South African Energy Skills Roadmap
monitoring and skills employment using supplementary surveys. • EU Renewable Energy Skills Partnership
mapping • Strengthen labour market forecasting systems to identify and • US Energy & Employment Report (USEER)
publicise priority skills and certification shortages.
• Convene regular forums among industry, labour unions, and
ministries of energy, education, and labour to share observations
and inform co-ordinated employment and skills roadmaps.
• Improve monitoring of wage trends in occupations facing persistent
shortages.

Promoting decent • Take measures to address informal work while increasing formal • Project Surya in India
work to attract training and certification. • Tripartite social dialogue in Chile
workers • Ensure respect of ILO conventions and decent work principles. • Canada's Sustainable Jobs Partnership
• Engage in tripartite social dialogue with energy employers’ and Council
workers’ representatives.
• Promote and facilitate multi-stakeholder groups and initiatives to
create and new decent clean energy job opportunities.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Well-designed policy and supportive measures can draw more people into energy-related
education and training
Drawing more people into energy education and energy related Share of energy training and education providers reporting on
careers is top of mind for many in government and industry, as non-financial barriers for training uptake, 2025
demand for workers across energy sectors continues to grow. In the
Low awareness of energy training
IEA Educators’ Employment Survey, low awareness of energy-
related training opportunities was identified as the primary non- Low perceived relevance
financial barrier by training providers. Clear communication of
training pathways, career outcomes, and available support Resistance to change
mechanisms could help attract more learners. More than 90% of Low confidence in
those surveyed emphasised the need for greater involvement by standards/certification
governments and industry in disseminating information and Lack of digital skills
promoting training opportunities.
Sector seen as non-inclusive
Given a shortfall of potential workers undertaking training to meet
projected future needs in both advanced economies and emerging Opposition to clean energy policy
markets and developing countries (EMDEs), understanding the
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
barriers to training programmes and addressing them is critical.
According to the IEA Educators’ Employment Survey, tuition and Share of responses
course fees, lost wages during training, limited access to financial
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
support and additional costs related to transport and housing are key
Source: IEA Educators’ Employment Survey, 2025.
barriers. Reducing these financial barriers through targeted funding
schemes, stipends, or in-kind support and offering training in rural
areas can significantly improve access and participation in training.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Share of energy training and education providers reporting on Development Assistance (ODA) funding to education falling, it is also
financial barriers for training uptake, 2025 likely that financial support will need to be more reliant on co-funding
programmes with the private sector, especially the energy industry.
Tuition or course fees

Opportunity cost of not Vocational training costs by region and share of cost borne by
working during training households, 2024
Lack of access to loans,
grants, or scholarships 16 40% Average training

Thousand USD
cost
Travel and transport costs
12 30% Household
Unaffordable housing share of training
near training location costs (right axis)
8 20%
Need to relocate for training
4 10%
0% 20% 40% 60%
Share of responses 0 0%
Advanced economies EMDEs
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Source: IEA Educators’ Employment Survey, 2025.
Note: EMDEs = emerging market and developing economies.
Source: IEA analysis based on data from the OECD (2024) and World Bank (2024).
Funding support plays a critical role in enabling broader participation
in energy skills development, particularly in emerging and developing A number of countries have launched targeted funding initiatives to
economies. In advanced economies, on average 15% of overall expand energy training and build a skilled workforce capable of
training costs for vocational training across sectors is paid for by supporting their energy transition targets. In Canada, the Sustainable
individuals, but this more than doubles to 33% in EMDEs. Jobs Training Fund, launched in 2024, allocates USD 70 million from
2024 to 2028 to training projects that help workers upgrade or gain
For some training routes, the cost may be fully borne by the
new skills for jobs in low-carbon energy, including green buildings.
individual. With public funding being more constrained in most
Over 10 000 workers will receive training at no cost or at subsidised
EMDEs, support from international partners can help ensure that
rates.
training for skilled workers is sufficiently affordable. With Official

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

In the United Kingdom, the National Skills Fund has allocated over allocates USD 89 million to establish pilot training centres, supported
USD 260 million to fund training courses in skills such as heat pumps, by both public and private finance. The programme is explicitly
solar panel installation, and EV maintenance, with over 40 000 designed to subsidise sector-specific training, such as solar PV,
people trained in these Skills Bootcamps in the 2022/23 period. The wind, and grid infrastructure, by pooling private-sector contributions,
European Union has announced plans to review and implement donor climate funding, and government resources.
targeted EU Skills Academies linked to the green and digital
transition, with grids and wind identified as strategic sectors.

In South Africa, the Just Energy Transition Skills for Employment

Programme aims to significantly lower training costs for energy
transition jobs, with the goal of equipping over 10 000 workers
annually over the next 25 years with competencies for low-emissions
technologies. The broader Just Energy Transition Investment Plan

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Typical education and training pathways for low-emissions energy occupations

Training pathways by occupation based on selected OECD countries

Basic training options Additional training options

Occupation Academic training VET Apprenticeship training Skills-based certification On-the-job training

Solar panel < 1 month**

N/A* 6–24 months OR 24–36 months AND < 6 months**
installer Industry standard

Wind turbine < 1 month

24-48 months OR 12–24 months OR 24–36 months AND 6–12 months
technician Industry standard

High-voltage 3–6 months

N/A* 12–36 months OR 36–48 months AND N/A
line workers Industry standard

< 1 month** 6–12 months

Electrician 24-48 months OR 24–48 months OR 36–60 months AND
Technology specific Technology specific

1–6 months 3–6 months

Welder N/A* 6–24 months OR 36–48 months AND
Industry standard Technology specific

Notes: VET = Vocational Education and Training. *Possible pathway but rarely pursued or very limited offer; ** Voluntary training.
OECD countries included in the sample were Canada, Germany, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Policy options to expand vocational education and training in EMDEs

The share of people completing cross-sectoral vocational education require a significant scale-up in training and education systems to
and training (VET) programmes is significantly lower in EMDEs than expand the pipeline of formally trained workers. Many EMDEs have
in advanced economies. This is a contributing factor to the shortage launched specialised programmes to ramp up the technically skilled
of both skilled and formally trained workers in EMDEs, exacerbated energy workforce. Nigeria, for example, has introduced postgraduate
by enduring underinvestment in vocational education and training courses specifically for the renewable energy sector and set up
institutions, and limited industry and education collaboration. The vocational education training programmes with solar modules
repercussions are felt across these economies, including in the embedded in electrical engineering curriculums and specialised short
energy sector. courses. The South African Renewable Energy Technology Centre
provides formal short-cycle courses to accredit wind turbine and solar
To address economy-wide worker informality and low-levels of
PV technicians. So far, over 700 technicians have been trained and
skilling, EMDEs are increasingly adopting so-called “multi-channel
seven further vocational colleges are now able to also provide the
strategies” that combine formal education with modular short-term
courses in South Africa.
training, upskilling initiatives, and industry partnerships. Several
programmes also formally certify informally acquired skills. These In India several initiatives exist to address this challenge, including
approaches aim to deliver job-ready skills to diverse learner profiles, the national Skills Council for Green Jobs. The Council has
including youth, informal workers, and professionals transitioning implemented national training programmes to expand renewable
from adjacent sectors. energy training and has already trained more than 100 000 students
and workers, most of them in solar energy occupations. In Viet Nam,
In the Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), it is estimated that there will
the RENEW Skills Development Programme launched new curricula
be 4.7 million new jobs in the energy sector by 2035 in EMDEs, the
and practical trainings focused on wind energy technology
majority of which will be medium- and high-skilled roles. These
operations, maintenance and grid integration, with the aim of
workers typically require vocational education and training, or tertiary
reaching over 4 000 students and current technical workers before
education such as university degrees. Meeting this demand will
the end of 2027.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Reskilling, upskilling, and specialised training strategies to retain and improve the skilled
energy workforce
With many countries in the process of changing their energy mix sector. Analysis on skills transferability using data from online job
towards cleaner fuels, reskilling and upskilling workers in impacted postings and international skills and occupational classifications can
sectors provides an important tool to help address skilled labour help identify overlaps, improve the transferability or workers and
shortages while also providing quality job transitions. increase the speed of filling vacancies.

Many jobs in the fossil fuel energy sector, such as oil and gas, tend However, while occupations may have similar skill sets, some of
to have higher wages. Trade unions have stressed that ensuring new these workers will be more impacted than others in energy
clean energy jobs are decent helps ensure social acceptance from transitions. For example, a smaller share of coal miners can be
workers and communities and have advocated for impacted workers quickly reskilled, particularly those in markets with high levels of
to be reskilled into new local jobs with guarantees in place for fair informality. Coal workers and communities therefore require
wages and good employment contracts. specialized support to ensure a just, people-centred transition. More
detailed analysis of skilled labour needs in the short, medium and
The IEA Labour Employment Survey found that staying employed in
long term at occupational and skill level would be helpful to
the energy sector was one of the top three priorities for fossil fuel
understand whether additional reskilling is needed as opposed to
workers when considering transitioning to a job in clean energy,
only upskilling.
alongside fair pay and a safe working environment. Both the fossil
fuel and clean energy sectors require a large proportion of applied There are also “top up” trainings to reskill or upskill workers. These
technical workers, providing the possibility of transferring workers can be short-cycle sessions to meet energy or technology-specific
from occupations in fossil fuel to clean energy with some upskilling needs and regulatory requirements. They are typically delivered
and reskilling. With targeted retraining, around two-thirds of oil and through short certification courses or on-the-job training, leading to
gas supply workers have the base skills needed to move into other specific licences or qualifications. For example, these approaches
parts of energy, the same is true for about half of workers connected are used for an electrician to work as a solar technician or a welder
to fossil fuel power supply chains. Detailed recent analysis in the to become specialised in subsea welding. Modular training, micro-
United Kingdom found that some sectors have particularly similar credentials and employer-provided instruction can also play a role in
skills requirements, with estimations that around 90% of UK oil and equipping workers with product or brand-specific knowledge needed
gas workers have skills transferable to the offshore renewables to install, maintain, service, or repair specific equipment.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Early intervention and initiatives that assist workers to retrain in a the German Corporation for International Cooperation (GIZ), which is
timely manner could prevent job displacement and wage losses. involved in projects related to the energy transition in 60 countries.
Offering impacted workers options in advance of plant closures, as
Workers impacted by the coal phase out in Alberta, Canada are
happened in Portugal, allows for workers to prepare to move
supported by the provincial Coal Workforce Transition Program, with
internally, upskill or reskill to new roles or take early retirement.
financial assistance for re-employment and education provided
Providing funding for job transfers and reskilling options can also
through a Coal and Electricity Transition Tuition (CETT) Voucher.
increase reskilling uptake. In Sweden, the Education Support for
Onsite transition to employment services are available with access
Transition Agreement provides the right to training leave with
to short-term skills courses. Labour adjustment committees, made up
financial support for impacted workers.
of employers, workers and trade unions, ensures that stakeholders
Online platforms can provide accessible information on job transition are included in developing transition plans for their worksites and
opportunities and reskilling and upskilling options. For example, the organise specialised training, job fairs and regional job matching.
United Kingdom launched its Energy Skills Passport, an online
Committing to reskilling and support for impacted workers was an
platform which aims to help oil and gas workers transition to the
important first step in Spain’s Just Transition Strategy. A tripartite
renewables sector. The platform provides skills mapping analysis to
agreement between the government, employers and trade unions
help users understand which similar roles they could apply for in
provides provisions for vocational training and the creation of new
other energy sectors and provides certification validation and career
jobs to support workers.
development through tailored guidance on upskilling or additional
certifications. Tailored skills programmes are also available through The participation of workers in broader stakeholder engagement on
the Oil and Gas Transition Training Fund. energy transitions can also be beneficial. Employee representatives
are on national boards working on just transitions, including the
Multi-stakeholder engagement also plays a pivotal role in
Scottish Just Transition Commission, South Africa’s Presidential
transitioning fossil fuel workers into other energy sectors. In Chile,
Climate Commission, and Australia’s Net Zero Economy Authority.
ex-coal workers are being reskilled to build transmission lines, with
around 2 000 line workers needed linked to the energy transition. The
initiative is supported by the Ministry of Energy, the National
Commission for Skills and Certification, technical training centres and

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Skill transferability between energy sectors could reduce reskilling and retraining requirements
Skill similarity across fossil fuel and low-emission energy sectors in the United Kingdom, 2024

70%
Similarity of skills (%)

Nuclear

65%
Wind

60%

Solar
55%

Hydrogen
50%

45% Electricity
networks

40%

35%
Oil & gas Mining Electricity & gas supply

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Source: IEA reproduction of findings from the United Kingdom Department for Energy Security and Net Zero.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Australia: Reskilling workers to address skills shortages and ensure a just transition

In Australia, reskilling impacted workers and providing new decent Impacted workers may be able to transition to the wider low-
jobs has been central to gaining social acceptance for the energy emissions energy supply chain or to clean energy manufacturing
transition, supported by stakeholder engagement at both the local to keep the same occupation, skill level, and wage. Multi-
and national level. stakeholder engagement and policy collaboration on energy,
industrial, education and labour market issues can help workers
Understanding skills transferability is an important first step in
and communities secure new jobs with support for reskilling.
reskilling workers. The Australian Industry Energy Transitions
Initiative found that around 47% of fossil fuel workers may be able In Collie, Western Australia, around 20% of the local population
to transition to the renewable energy sector while maintaining the are employed in the coal industry and related supply chains. Just
same occupation type with minimal reskilling. Another 12% of these transition plans have been developed with stakeholders in
fossil fuel workers were estimated to be able to transition to response to the shutdown of its state-owned coal-fired power
industries related to renewable energy such as mineral mining. plants by 2029, with measures for reskilling and the creation of
new jobs through the Collie Transition Package and the Collie
Some occupations will be easier to transition than others. Notably,
Industrial Transition Fund (AUD 700 million [Australian dollars]).
there are significant differences in transferring skills from fossil fuels
to low-emission energy, including a dramatic decrease in the To aid reskilling efforts, new specific government support is
demand for drillers, miners and shotfirers (blasters) to 700 in available for impacted workers and employers, including the
renewable energy generation compared to 17 200 workers currently Energy Industry Jobs Plan that provides access to retraining and
working in carbon intensive industries. These workers will require help for impacted workers to find new jobs. The possibility to adopt
either complete retraining to move into another occupation in the Regional Workforce Development Plans offers broader support
low-emissions energy sector or other support to transition to a and are developed with key stakeholders, including employers,
similar role in a non-energy sector. trade unions and community representatives.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Attracting youth, and underrepresented groups with affordable and specialised training can
significantly increase the energy labour force
The energy workforce can benefit from dedicated efforts to attract maintenance, as well as employment readiness soft skills, leading to
workers from demographics that are currently underrepresented. 68% of graduates being hired in the industry within three months of
Targeted efforts can help draw more young workers, women and graduation.
other underrepresented groups into training pathways that are
Schneider Electric’s Youth Education & Entrepreneurship Program
accessible.
has reached over 763 000 young people, 10 000 trainers and
Skilled young people are central to ensuring future energy security in entrepreneurs in 60 countries with the aim to engage young people
every part of the world, but the level of VET graduates differs from in energy management. In addition, its New Skills for the Future
region to region. Each year, around 7% of the youth population (aged initiative provides mentoring programmes, with a special focus on
20-29 years) graduates from vocational education in the European vulnerable young people included for those who are displaced or not
Union, about 5% in Japan and Korea, and an estimated 2.5% in in employment, education or training (NEET). Canada’s Green Jobs
EMDEs overall. China stands out among emerging economies, at for Youth offers training and paid internships to Canadian citizens,
roughly 5%. Some sectors require urgent attention such as the permanent residents and refugees.
European electricity market, with over one-third of workers aged
Disadvantaged youth who have been displaced due to war and
50-74 years. The European Youth Energy Network is in the process
conflict have also benefited from targeted training initiatives. This is
of launching the Energy Transition Careers Compass to help young
especially important as many of these young people will have had
people understand the different energy education and career options.
their education disrupted. The International Organization for
Youth for Energy Southeast Asia also advocates for policy makers to
Migration’s (IOM) Resettlement Project trained 30 young people
invest in education and skills for tomorrow’s workforce.
(15 male and 15 female) after they returned to South Sudan. The
Specific outreach programmes are helping to encourage young students were trained in solar installation, repair and maintenance
people to join the energy workforce. In Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda, and undertook paid internships. In Lebanon, the ILO with the Safadi
training in solar PV design, installation, and maintenance coupled Foundation is providing paid on-the-job solar training. Over 80 young
with mentorship programmes is helping guide young people through people have completed the training, including Lebanese and Syrian
their energy careers. In Myanmar, over 500 young people were refugees.
trained in 2024 and 2025 in solar PV design, installation,

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Gender-related barriers continue to limit women’s participation in The World Bank’s Energy Sector Management Assistance Program
energy training programmes. As the IEA Educators’ Employment (ESMAP) provides a Women’s Employment in Energy Sector Utilities
Survey indicates, the most frequently cited challenges are the lack of Toolkit initiative that offers advice and resources on how to bolster
flexible working-time arrangements, insufficient childcare policies, women's employment, including addressing barriers.
and limited access to mentoring programmes. These structural
barriers outweigh the issue of applicant numbers, suggesting that In Pakistan, the Water and Power Development Authority has made
many qualified women are deterred from entering the energy significant efforts to create inclusive working environments for
workforce due to insufficient support systems. Addressing these women. The establishment of on-site childcare facilities, offering safe
constraints through supportive services, policy cohesion and transport services for female workers and their children, and paid
targeted outreach is critical to tap into underrepresented talent. maternal leave has led to an increase of female representation from
8.1% in 2010 to 15.8% in 2023, with exceptionally high retention
Reasons for underrepresentation of women reported by training
rates.
and education providers, 2025
Lack of supportive In Uganda, a pilot programme led by GIZ in collaboration with the
work arrangements Directorate of Industrial Training (DIT) expands women’s access to
Lack of care policies energy sector employment through flexible certification pathways.
Lack of mentoring The programme supports the recognition of previously informally
programmes acquired skills, making it easier for women to access jobs in the
Lack of applicants energy sector.

Remote work locations

Lack of qualified
applicants
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Share of responses

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Source: IEA Educators’ Employment Survey, 2025.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Targeted policies can provide decent job opportunities for local communities, including
Indigenous Peoples
Indigenous Peoples are largely unrepresented in the energy sector. As part of this project, village-based education and training is also
A number of new energy projects will be built on Indigenous land, provided to enable local people to manufacture, operate and
with important discussions taking place on land use and economic maintain the energy systems.
benefits, including local jobs. Training Indigenous workers will
In Canada, around 6% of the energy workforce identify as
enable them to play a larger role in these developments.
Indigenous, comparable with the wider industrial sector. In 2022,
In Australia, around 50% of envisaged low-emissions energy around 15 800 Indigenous Peoples were directly employed in the
infrastructure will be on First Nations land which will create energy sector, with approximately 10 800 working in the oil and
thousands of jobs. The participation of First Nations people in the gas industry. As a result, the move to low-emissions energy is
energy sector has grown in the last 15 years, which offers higher expected to disproportionately affect Indigenous workers.
rates of full-time employment and better wages compared to other Canada’s Sustainable Jobs Act aims to accelerate support for
sectors. The First Nations Clean Energy Network recently published workers and communities impacted by the energy transition and
the Powering First Nations Jobs in Clean Energy report, a 12-point highlights the need to address specific barriers and create
strategy plan that includes initiatives such as co-ordinated employment opportunities for Indigenous Peoples. Additional
apprenticeship schemes for wind farm technicians, training and initiatives such as the Canada Greener Homes Grant provides
employment targets for large-scale renewable energy projects, and opportunities to train and recruit Indigenous energy advisors and
integrating training into programmes such as First Nations housing increase their participation in the energy workforce.
retrofits.

The importance of recognising Indigenous rights in the energy

transition, including benefit sharing, have been raised in Malaysia.
CREATE Borneo, with support from international funders including
National Geographic, is working with Indigenous Peoples in
developing community-owned micro-hydro and solar mini-grids.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Workforce mapping and long-term planning to ensure a skilled workforce for the future
Workforce mapping is a critical first stage for understanding current Multi-stakeholder approaches provide a broad framework for training
and projected future skilled energy labour shortages. A multi- initiatives, with national skills councils and social partners playing an
stakeholder planning process to address education and training important role. Numerous countries already have national skills
requirements helps align workforce development with evolving programmes in place which can provide a roadmap for others in
demand for skilled energy workers. Successful holistic planning developing and building training initiatives.
approaches often involve participants from across government,
In South Africa, comprehensive required skills mapping for the
education, industry and labour, which collectively enables better
renewable energy value chain, hydrogen and the wider energy
outcomes through co-developed curricula, certification programmes,
market is helping guide the roll out of training and form partnerships
apprenticeships, industry-supported training and educational
among educators, government and industry. International co-
facilities, among other shared initiatives outlined in this chapter.
operation on workforce planning in the Philippines, with support from
Developing consistent reliable data on the existing workforce and the United States and Denmark, has helped identify skills and
educational trends underpins the planning process. At a recent IEA competencies to be developed in their growing offshore wind sector.
workshop on the future of energy skills, experts highlighted that a
In Australia, the Powering Skills Organisation collects and publishes
major challenge of workforce planning is the lack of disaggregated
detailed information on current and forecasted energy employment
data on specific skills and occupations and the variations in quality of
and training. Bringing together multiple stakeholders, information is
data among energy sectors. Involving a robust set of stakeholders to
used to conduct workforce planning, develop relevant learning
provide more comprehensive granular data would make workforce
products and ensure that current training options are fit for purpose.
planning more accurate.
In Korea, energy-specific Industrial Skills Councils have been set up
Government investment in gathering data and maintaining databases to develop and manage industry-driven energy workforce skills.
would help significantly improve workforce mapping. For example,
In Europe, cross-national stakeholder collaboration has led to
input and collaboration with key stakeholders in the United States
industry, trade unions, and educational institutions forming a large-
has led to more accurate information on regional and national energy
scale partnership in offshore renewables to provide guidance and
jobs. The US Energy & Employment Report (USEER) benefits from
support for the qualification of between 20 000 and 54 000 new
additional information collection through surveys to provide detailed
workers.
data on workers’ demographics and occupations.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Strengthening collaboration between training providers and industry Advisory Board for Renewable Energy, which works to co-ordinate
is also important because many programmes lack structured input vocational and educational training with the wind and solar industry.
from employers, which can result in mismatches between what is
taught and the competencies required on site. Greater engagement
of industry actors in curriculum design, practical training delivery,
apprenticeships and certification processes can help ensure that
graduates leave with the applied knowledge and technical skills
needed. According to the IEA Industry Employment Survey, many
companies are involved in workforce development and provide
funding for new training programmes. However, less than 25% of
respondents actively engage with educational institutions. Examples
of industry involvement with educators include Germany’s dual
vocational training system, which combines classroom education
with apprenticeship placements, Europe’s ”Skills for Solar” task force,
connecting industry with training providers, and Viet Nam’s Industry

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Creating decent jobs is a key incentive for people to join the workforce
Ensuring that energy jobs are decent jobs can help overcome the help attract more workers to the sector. This was mirrored in the IEA
current skilled labour shortages but many occupations in low-skill Industry Employment Survey, which found that 40% of respondents
green-driven employment (including in low-emissions energy have increased wages to address hiring difficulties. Wages were the
sectors) often have worse job quality than comparable roles in other most important decent job criteria for workers, with 90% of
sectors, according to OECD analysis. This was supported by the IEA respondents to the IEA Labour Employment Survey stating that fair
Labour Employment Survey where only 35% of respondents pay was required for a job to be decent.
classified clean energy jobs as quality jobs with both good working
conditions and good pay, suggesting that the jobs in the sector need
Share of energy workers and workers representatives reporting
decent job requirements, 2025
to be improved to become more attractive.
Fair pay
The ILO describes decent work as employment that delivers a fair
Employment security
income, with job security and social protection, equal opportunity for
A safe working environment
men and women, and freedom for workers to express their concerns,
organise and participate in the decisions that affect their work. The Work/life balance
IEA Labour Employment Survey identified the top three decent job Career development
requirements as fair pay (90%), employment security (73%) and a Right to organise
safe working environment (71%).
Freedom of association
Challenges related to job location should be considered in just Quality social dialogue
transition strategies given that many workers wish to remain in the
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
same location. Efforts to create new equivalent jobs in the same area
Share of responses
should be prioritised and are important for local economics. When
workers are required to relocate, additional assistance such as IEA. CC BY 4.0.
relocation support may be needed. Wages are an important Source: IEA Labour Employment Survey, 2025.
benchmark for workers to evaluate the attractiveness of energy jobs.
IEA analysis has found that wages continue to be highest in the oil
The IEA Labour Employment Survey found that 66% believe
and gas sector, followed by nuclear. The oil and gas sector also
ensuring that energy jobs pay better than the national average could

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

continues to have the biggest pay discrepancies between higher and which could go towards providing social protection, including health
lower skilled workers. Wages in low-emissions energy sectors, such care for workers.
as solar and wind, tend to have higher wages than the coal sector. In
Solutions identified by education and training providers to attract
the low-emissions energy sectors, wind occupations tend to have
skilled workers to the energy sector, 2025
higher wages than in solar.
Better paid jobs
The high levels of informal work can also exacerbate labour and skills
Formal energy training
shortages and create additional difficulties in workforce mapping and
skills planning due to a lack of information on employees and their Free training
skill levels, including formal training and qualifications. Mutual recognition of certificates
Clear professional gains
Levels of informal work are particularly high in some EMDEs,
reaching over 80% in Indonesia and India, compared to 4% in most Offer of formal working contracts
advanced economies. Informal work includes all remunerative work Subsidised services
that is not registered, regulated or protected by existing legal or Cross-border incentives
regulatory frameworks, as well as non-remunerative work undertaken
Other
in an income-producing enterprise. Even in a large sector such as
energy, informal work without formal employment contracts or social 0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
protection exists in the supply chain. While some countries report Share of responses
lower informality in mining and electricity supply than in construction IEA. CC BY 4.0
and transport, it remains persistently high in several EMDEs. Source: IEA Educators’ Employment Survey, 2025.

Policy measures could help address large-scale informal work which Targeted training aimed at informal workers can also help improve
in turn could ensure employment security, decent jobs, and good the lives of these workers. In India, joint collaboration between the
working conditions. Transitioning workers in the energy sector from Sector Council for Green Jobs, the United Nations Environment
informal to formal employment could also help better track labour and Program, ReNeW Power and the Self-Employed Women’s
skills needs and ensure that upskilling and reskilling opportunities Association (SEWA) has resulted in almost 600 women completing
exist. Equally, governments would benefit from the additional income free training on solar installation, solar repair and maintenance, and
solar pump handling and repairing. The training provides nationally

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

recognised certifications with participants reporting improved Unionisation rates are not the same in all energy sectors. This can
employment opportunities, wages, job quality, and social security. be seen in the extractive industries sector in the European Union
The initiative aims to train up to 1 000 women working in the low-paid where trade union density tends to be higher than the national
informal salt-pan sector. average which is reflective of prevailing unionisation rates for coal.
These workers transferring to new sectors often expect future jobs
Share of employees who are members of a trade union in offer similar compensation, job quality, and engage workers in social
extractive industries for selected European Union countries
dialogue 2 in a comparable way.
100%
Trade union density

Many newer industries, such as solar PV and batteries, have lower

80% levels of unionisation due to a number of factors. Unionisation can be
an important conduit to push for higher wages and improved job
60%
quality, still, non-unionised workers can garner good wages,
especially in contexts where there is high competition over a limited
40%
pool of needed skilled workers.
20%

0%

Extractive industries National

IEA. CC BY 4.0
Notes: ‘Extractive industries’ includes the mining of hard coal, lignite, iron-ore, non-
ferrous metals and other relevant mining activities. Values represent trade union density
in extractive industries and national average trade union in selected EU countries:
Austria, Germany, Greece, Finland, Croatia, Hungary, Ireland, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, and Slovakia.
Source: IEA analysis based on data from ILOSTAT and Eurofound.

2
Social dialogue: All types of negotiation, consultation and information exchange between or
among representatives of governments, employers and workers.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Wages in oil and gas continue to be the highest, followed by nuclear and wind energy
Occupational ranges of median annual salary by energy subsector and country, 2025
United States China India France
250 Oil and gas
Thousand USD

Nuclear
Wind
200
Solar
Coal
150
High
Median
100
Low

50

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: All data presented are gross salaries, with a range given for the median salary for highest paid (“high”), lowest-paid (“low”) and median non-executive occupations in a given
sector. For example, in the United States oil and gas industry the high point represents the median salary of a well servicing foreman, and the low point represents the median salary of
an oil field labourer.
Source: IEA analysis based on data from the Economic Research Institute (ERI).

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Informal work is higher in lower-income countries, although lower in mining and energy than in
other sectors
Informal employment rate by economic activity in selected countries, 2024

100% Türkiye
Informal employment rate

Brazil
80% Chile
India
Indonesia
60%
South Africa

40%

20%

0%
Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Electricity, gas, Construction Transport and storage
steam and AC supply
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Note: AC = air conditioning. All values are from 2024, except Indonesia (2023).
Source: IEA estimates based on data from ILOSTAT.

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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

Social dialogue is helping define what constitutes a just energy transition around the world.
Social dialogue is the negotiation, consultation, and exchange of Tripartite social dialogue has been used successfully to ensure a just
information between or among representatives of governments, and inclusive energy transition in a number of countries. In Chile,
employers, and workers. In this context parties negotiate agreements tripartite social dialogue between the government, employers and
on important topics such as pay, working hours and other terms on trade unions representing workers in the wider supply chain on the
work conditions. The OECD has found that decent work phase out of coal has led to successful job transitions for workers
requirements, such as social dialogue and collective bargaining 3, can with public support for training. Tripartite social dialogue also led to
have a positive impact on working conditions and can improve a job's the Spanish Just Transition Strategy, which has resulted in economic
attractiveness. diversification with new projects and job creation in the impacted
regions. Canada's new Sustainable Jobs Partnership Council aims to
Social dialogue and stakeholder participation was one of the
ensure that all key stakeholders are heard in discussions on
Principles for Just and Inclusive Energy Transitions adopted by the
sustainable job creation. This tripartite social dialogue, established
G20 in 2024. The importance of social dialogue is also highlighted in
under the Canadian Sustainable Jobs Act, this ensures that
the ILO Just Transition Guidelines and the recent IEA Clean Energy
stakeholders are included and that activities and policy measures are
Labour Council Paper (2025).
co-ordinated.
Worker participation, including through effective social dialogue,
Social dialogue provides a platform for collective bargaining – the
allows for impacted workers to be part of the discussions on their
process by which employers and workers through their respective
futures and provides a formal process for planning and implementing
organisations and trade unions, negotiate pay levels, work conditions
energy transitions. Information and consultation are central to social
and other work-related issues – also improves outcomes for workers.
dialogue and are a priority for trade unions in ensuring a just
However, coverage, level and scope of collective bargaining differ
transition. However, the level and quality of social dialogue on the
from country to country depending on laws and practices. Collective
topic of just transition is uneven.
bargaining has been used as a tool to prepare companies and
workers for energy transitions and agreements, including reskilling

3
Collective bargaining: Negotiations between employers and trade unions with the aim to reach a
Collective Agreement.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025 Policy responses

and upskilling for workers and aid for workers, as well as early between the energy company EDF and IndustriALL Global Union.
retirement with additional financial support. This agreement is based on joint principles such as an enhanced just
transition framework with increased attention to worker protection
Share of workers covered by a collective bargaining agreement in
and training.
the gas sector for selected European Union countries
100% In the gas sector, coverage in many EU countries remains higher that
Collective bargaining coverage

the national average. However, evidence suggests that those

80% working in low-emission energy are not as well represented in
collective bargaining as those in high-emission activities. Measures
60%
to promote quality social dialogue and collective bargaining could
40% help make energy jobs more attractive to workers during energy
transitions in a just and inclusive manner.
20%

0%

Gas National
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Note: Values represent collective bargaining coverage in the gas sector and national
average collective bargaining coverage in selected EU countries: Austria, Bulgaria,
Germany, Spain, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Latvia,
Netherlands, Poland, Romania and Slovakia.
Source: IEA analysis based on data from ILOSTAT and Eurofound.

In Italy, a new sectoral agreement covering around 40 000 energy

workers includes a pay rise, improvements in working conditions and
focuses on managing the energy transition with increased worker
engagement in the creation of a training booklet to certify workers’
skills, which can assist in transitioning to other energy jobs. Global
union federations can also sign voluntary agreements at an
international level, such as the Global Framework Agreement

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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Chapter 4. Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Fuel supply and critical minerals

Fuel supply and critical minerals employment by region and sector, 2024 (thousand workers)
Central
North Other Asia Middle
and South Europe Africa China India Eurasia Global
America Pacific East
America

Supply: Coal 100 <50 100 200 2 800 1 500 1 000 <50 300 6 100

Supply: Oil 1 100 900 400 1 000 1 100 600 600 2 000 800 8 500

Supply: Gas 600 200 200 400 400 200 600 800 500 3 900

Supply: Bioenergy 100 500 200 400 200 400 300 <50 <50 2 200

Supply: Other clean fuels <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 100

Critical minerals <50 100 <50 400 <50 <50 100 <50 <50 800

Supply: Total 2 000 1 800 1 000 2 500 4 500 2 700 2 500 2 800 1 700 21 600

Note: ‘Other clean fuels’ includes nuclear and hydrogen supply.

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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Oil and gas supply employment expanded globally, driven by LNG project developments
Oil and gas fuel production and distribution employed 12.4 million Tilenga oil production development and the East African Crude Oil
people in 2024, up 210 000 y-o-y. Despite this 2% growth, oil and gas Pipeline (EACOP) project around Lake Albert is generating an
jobs have yet to return to pre-Covid-19 levels, reflecting a slow estimated 22 000 direct local jobs during its construction phase.
recovery since early-pandemic layoffs. Around two-thirds of these
The Middle East remains the centre of oil and gas employment,
workers were employed in oil supply, with the remainder in natural
accounting for more than one-fifth of the sector’s global workforce.
gas-related activities. Oil and gas supply added 142 000 and 73 000
Oil and gas jobs represent two-thirds of total energy employment in
jobs, respectively. Natural gas supply employment, which does not
the Middle East – compared to a global average of just 16% – and
include workers in power generation or retail, was boosted by new
highlights the sector’s dominant role in the regional economy and
liquified natural gas (LNG) facilities and associated manufacturing of
labour market. In 2024, Middle Eastern companies increased their oil
related equipment. Oil and gas jobs slightly decreased in advanced
and gas supply capital investments by 10%, creating around 83 000
economies, with growth now almost exclusively concentrated in
new jobs. Countries in the region have invested heavily in the
emerging markets and developing economies (EMDEs). Notably,
development of their national oil and gas workforces, building
EMDEs outside of China added over 260 000 jobs in 2024, a 3%
education programmes domestically after decades of sending
y-o-y increase.
students overseas for relevant degrees. Companies like Saudi
Most additional oil and gas jobs are underpinned by the development Aramco co-finance vocational training centres through public-private
of wells and supporting infrastructure, both for the exploitation of new partnerships to equip young job seekers with the specialised skills
fields and for sustaining output from existing assets. Approximately required for careers in the oil and gas industry.
one-third the workforce was involved in the development of new
LNG remains the driving force behind natural gas employment
production capacity, including drilling, infrastructure installation, and
growth. Worldwide investments in the sector increased by 11% since
mechanical assembly.
2023, led by North America and the Middle East, which together
The employment gains generated by new projects was scattered made up two-fifths of total spending. This expansion was fuelled by
around the world, with high growth rates in Southeast Asia and Africa. multiple LNG construction projects in 2024, including Ruwais in the
Major projects launched in 2024 include the Block B-O Mon United Arab Emirates (UAE), Marsa in Oman, North Field South in
integrated gas field and pipeline project in Viet Nam, with production Qatar, and Cedar in Canada, as well as the start of production at new
capacity of 490 million cubic feet per day (Mcf/d). Uganda’s massive facilities such as Plaquemines in the United States. The LNG sector

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

is expected to drive employment growth for the rest of the decade, and gas prices are already translating into workforce reductions,
with almost 300 bcm/yr of new LNG export capacity scheduled to particularly among international oil companies (IOCs). Some IOCs
come online by 2030. are increasingly shifting funds toward improving the production rates
of existing fields with automation, improved drilling techniques and
The latest LNG investment cycle has been characterised by acute
artificial intelligence to reduce the labour intensity of their operations.
labour shortages leading to escalated development costs. Demand
At the same time, IOCs are also investing in clean energy and
for skilled workers, particularly welders, pipefitters and electricians,
reallocating resources to diversify and attract young talent.
in a tight labour market led to substantial increases in wages for some
TotalEnergies has launched 32 internal upskilling programmes since
occupations. In the United States, for instance, LNG construction
2022, offering various courses on electricity, climate challenges and
workers have seen a 20% rise in wages since 2021. This is driving
artificial intelligence to its global workforce. In 2024, Eni launched a
up project costs in some markets and contributing to a wider pivot to
training programme to help its oil and gas workforce address skills
offshore floating LNG, which generally has lower capital costs and
gaps and support their transition into offshore wind and other clean
location flexibility.
energy sectors.
The outlook for oil and gas employment spans a range of possible
The refining sector is already feeling the effects of the uncertain oil
outcomes, with the workforce projected to reach between 6.9 million
demand outlook. In 2024, global investment in oil refineries declined
and13.4 million by 2035. In the Current Policies Scenario (CPS),
by 4%, with most funding concentrated in emerging and developing
demand for oil is slightly higher in 2035 than in 2024, while in the
economies. Today, China and India together account for 40% of
Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), it peaks around 2030.
global refinery employment. Companies such as Sinopec and
Employment in oil supply increases by 4% in the CPS and drops by
Reliance Industries have begun developing integrated refinery-
14% in the STEPS. In the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario
petrochemical complexes, which can shift refinery operations
(NZE Scenario) pathway, oil supply employment declines by 44%.
between fuel-focused production and chemical feedstock output.
Natural gas demand continues to increase both in the STEPS and
Refinery workers share many of the same skills required to work in
the CPS into the 2030s, with employment growing by 6% and 17%,
related chemical sectors, however parallel efforts in those sectors to
respectively, while it declines by 44% in the NZE Scenario by 2035.
increase automation, reduce costs, and improve safety may reduce
Oil and gas companies are adopting a range of strategies to manage the need for medium-skilled workers.
uncertainty surrounding the sector’s long-term outlook. Declining oil

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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Oil employment edges lower in the Stated Policies Scenario, while gas jobs grow globally
Employment in oil and gas supply by region in 2024, and by scenario in 2035

Natural gas supply Oil supply

13% 11
Historical

Million workers
24%
10
11% Scenario range
North America
Oil 9
5% Central and South
9%
America 8
12% Europe
13% 7
13%
Africa
6
China 5

20% 16% Other Asia Pacific 4

5% Eurasia 3
Gas 6%
13% Middle East 2
11% 1
20% 9%
2015 2024 2035 2015 2024 2035

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Note: The scenario range covers outcomes across three IEA scenarios: Current Policies Scenario (CPS), Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario (NZE Scenario).

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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

The majority of oil and gas workers focus on upstream projects

Employment in oil and gas supply by supply chain segment, 2024

Oil Natural gas

13%

Upstream
Upstream
36% 10%
Midstream
Midstream

8.5 million 48% LNG

LNG 3.9 million
workers workers
Distribution
Distributionutilities
utilities
16% 61%
Oil
Oilrefining
refining

16%

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: LNG = liquefied natural gas. These figures include employment in oil production, transportation, and refining. Our estimates do not include workers who are employed at retail
fuelling stations, as many of these jobs are connected to services and are not linked exclusively to oil (stations also sell biofuels, compressed natural gas (CNG) and electric charging
services, as well as an array of other items). Midstream excludes all LNG-associated employment, including LNG transport.

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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Oil and gas production and transportation jobs remain below pre-pandemic levels, but LNG
employment shows steady growth
Employment growth in oil and gas supply by supply chain segment (2019-2024)
8%

4%

0%

-4%

-8%

-12%
Upstream Midstream Oil refining LNG Distribution utilities

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: These figures include employment in oil production, transportation, and refining. Our estimates do not include workers who are employed at retail fuelling stations, as many of
these jobs are connected to services and are not linked exclusively to oil (stations also sell biofuels, compressed natural gas (CNG) and electric charging service, as well as an array of
other items). Midstream excludes all LNG-associated employment, including LNG transport.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Coal supply employment stable as global production continued to rise

Global coal supply jobs remained steady at around 6.1 million in Over the past decade, output per worker has increased significantly
2024. The bulk of the coal workforce is concentrated in Asia Pacific, in many EMDEs, with labour productivity up by 10% (outside China
accounting for almost nine out of ten jobs worldwide. China and India and India) between 2015 and 2024. In advanced economies, coal
alone account for around three-quarters of global coal supply output per worker increased only slightly, reflecting the region’s
employment. In China, coal supply jobs declined by around 3% already high level of labour productivity. Since 2015, global coal
between 2023 and 2024, due to productivity gains. India’s coal supply mining productivity has risen 34%, with greater mechanisation driving
workforce grew by nearly 74 000 jobs in 2024, a trend expected to the gains. Firms are increasingly deploying autonomous equipment
continue into 2025. This growth is driven by increased domestic coal such as drones and driverless trucks, which not only boost efficiency
production, which reached a record high in 2024. Contributing factors but also improve safety for employees.
include the development of new (greenfield) projects, the expansion
Global coal supply employment is set to decline across all IEA
of existing mines, and the reopening of closed sites. Recent policies
scenarios by 2035 as coal production falls and productivity levels
of India’s Ministry of Coal are aimed at boosting domestic production
remain high or continue to improve in most cases. China will account
to reduce reliance on coal imports and ensure energy security.
for at least five out of the ten job losses under all scenarios.
Change in labour productivity in coal mining from 2015 to 2024
(Indexed to 2015) Coal mine workers tend to possess skills that are not easily
100% 8000 transferable, making it difficult to find similarly paid employment or
Growth

Mtce per million workers

retrain within the same region. These challenges are especially acute
80%
6000 in countries where a significant share of the workforce is informal,
60% such as in India and Indonesia, and for women, who are
4000
40% disproportionately affected by the socio-economic impacts of the
20%
2000 transition. Communities living in coal producing regions in advanced
economies are also not spared from the impact of this phase down.
0% 0
World Advanced China India Other As such, governments around the world need to safeguard that the
economies EMDEs shift away from coal is accompanied by just transition policies that
Labour productivity in 2024 (right axis)
incorporate appropriate economic diversification initiatives in the
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
affected areas to create new employment opportunities.

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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Supported by growing production in Asia, coal supply employment remains near 2015 levels,
but declines by 2035 across all IEA scenarios
Employment in coal supply by region in 2024, and by scenario in 2035

2% 1% 1%
3%
North America 7 Historical

Million workers
5% Scenario range
Central and South America 6
16%
Europe
5
Africa
4
China
47%
25% 3
India

Other Asia Pacific 2

Rest of World 1

2015 2024 2035

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Note: The scenario range covers outcomes across three IEA scenarios: Current Policies Scenario (CPS), Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario (NZE Scenario).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Modern bioenergy employment continues to climb as fuel blending targets reach new highs
Production of modern bioenergy continued to increase in 2024, reinforced their biodiesel policies. India and Indonesia also increased
driven by higher blending targets. This covers liquid biofuels, the co-firing rate of biomass pellets in their thermal plants. Biomass
advanced solid biomass and biogas, while traditional biomass, such pellet production is gaining ground in Africa to modernise biomass
as charcoal and fuelwood, falls outside the scope of this analysis due use in many industries, with over 20 plants in the region, including a
to limited data availability. Demand for biogas and bioliquids grew by new one in Malawi.
4-5%, while consumption of modern biomass increased by 2% in
Around 45% of bioenergy workers were engaged in the construction
2024. Jobs followed consumption trends, as the sector surpassed
and operation of production facilities, as well as the delivery of
2.2 million workers in 2024. The production of modern solid biomass
products to the market. Two-thirds of all biogas investments were
accounts for almost three-quarters of all workers, while bioliquid and
concentrated in Europe, motivated by higher natural gas prices,
biogas represent 21% and 9%, respectively. Bioenergy employment
which are still more than double the pre-2022 levels. Employment
is led by India and Brazil, each accounting for around 20% of total
numbers followed this trend, as workers in biogas equipment
employment, followed by China and Indonesia, at 10% and 7%,
manufacturing and installation grew by 9%, contributing to installed
respectively.
capacity of 18 GW in the region in 2024. In Western Europe, three
Two-fifths of the global bioenergy supply workforce is occupied in new plants were opened in 2024 with production capacity of
agricultural cultivation, processing and refining, as these processes 270 000 Mt of pellets.
require more manual labour performed by low- and medium-skilled
Bioenergy employment expands through the coming decade in all
workers. The prevalence of informal labour in this sector is high,
IEA scenarios, led by strong demand in EMDEs, including efforts to
especially in emerging and developing economies, leaving many
modernise informal biomass supply chains. Both in the CPS and the
workers unreported and unprotected. These workers, for instance,
STEPS, bioenergy consumption increases by around 30%, which in
produce crops for bioethanol, collect agricultural waste into pellets,
turn results in employment demand rising by around 26% compared
or operate biogas production plants. The number of workers in this
to today’s levels. Under the NZE Scenario, growth in total
segment continued to grow in 2024, supported by expanding
consumption would lead labour demand in bioenergy production to
consumption in the Asia Pacific region and South America. For
double by 2035.
instance, India and Brazil increased their ethanol blending rates to
18% and 27%, respectively, while Indonesia and China both

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

All scenarios point to large bioenergy employment growth by 2035, supported by rising
consumption
Employment in bioenergy supply by region and value chain step in 2024, and by scenario in 2035

5.0 Historical
1%

Million workers
North America Biogas
4.0 Bioliquids
6% Central and South America Modern solid biomass
14%
Europe Scenario range
24% 3.0
Africa
18%
China 2.0
India
10% 11%
Other Asia Pacific 1.0
17%
Rest of World

2015 2024 2035

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Note: The scenario range covers outcomes across three IEA scenarios: Current Policies Scenario (CPS), Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario (NZE Scenario).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 92
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Low-emission hydrogen employment continued to expand, fuelled by project developments

The global low-emission hydrogen supply workforce reached 40 000 CCUS spans across many sectors of the energy industry, including
in 2024, up from 35 000 the previous year. While most of the low- hydrogen. Employment in hydrogen production via steam-methane
emission hydrogen supply was produced by steam-methane reforming with CCUS increased by 5% in 2024. This expansion was
reforming through carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS), largely due to retrofitting existing production plants with CCUS
electrolytic hydrogen, already accounting for almost 90% of workers technology, as well as the manufacturing of equipment.
in the sector, played a more significant role in job creation owing to
The workforce is expected to grow throughout the coming decade as
its construction and manufacturing boom.
low-emission hydrogen production takes off. Production capacity
The majority of additional low-emission hydrogen supply jobs were expands rapidly in the coming decades in all IEA scenarios, although
created by the construction of new facilities, as global electrolyser the growth rates vary depending on demand, cost competitiveness
installed capacity has almost reached 2 GW. The surge was driven and financing conditions. Broader deployment is already aided by
by the Middle East, where electrolytic hydrogen projects under policies promoting the localised production of hydrogen, for instance
construction account for a combined capacity of 9 million Mt/yr. This in the European Union, Australia and Japan. In the CPS and the
includes the Neom project in Saudi Arabia, which will produce 600 Mt STEPS, low-emission hydrogen production reaches around 10 GW
of hydrogen per day upon completion. China established 35 of installed capacity in 2035, creating 46 000 to 58 000 jobs. Aligning
electrolytic hydrogen projects in 2024, while 76 projects are expected with the NZE Scenario pathway would require adding 208 GW
to come online in the United States by 2030. capacity of low-emission hydrogen, which would need employment
to grow by 28% each year on average until 2035 compared with 2024
Equipment manufacturing and RD&D make up more than two-thirds
– similar to the growth rate of battery storage employment in the last
of low-emission hydrogen employment. Currently, half of the sector’s
nine years.
global manufacturing workforce is in China, and around 60% of the
world’s electrolyser supply is made in the country. Other notable A number of public-private partnerships were founded in 2024 to train
manufacturers include the European Union and the United States, workers in hydrogen-related skills, including several companies
each accounting for 13% and 14% of the global low-emission collaborating to set-up joint learning centres in Saudi Arabia, the
hydrogen manufacturing workforce. United States and Mexico. Vocational programmes were designed by
experienced technicians, engineering graduates and other
knowledgeable professionals.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 93
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Critical minerals mining employment rose by 3% in 2024 despite slowing investments

The production of critical minerals continued to rise in 2024, however demand for miners expected to rise in the future, providing equitable
new mine development slowed due to a decline in battery metal and decent working conditions is needed for a just transition.
prices. As a result, growth in total critical mineral extraction
Critical mineral employment is expected to increase, driven by
employment eased to 3% y-o-y, to 770 000 workers worldwide in
lithium, copper and nickel extraction, while the labour needs for
2024. Lithium and copper employment saw growth rates of 9% and
cobalt mining will ease due to changes in battery chemistry choices.
5%, respectively, while jobs in cobalt extraction rose by 3%.
The critical minerals workforce is expected to grow across all IEA
Employment in nickel mining fell by 13% in 2024.
scenarios, reaching between 880 000 and 1.2 million workers by
Expanding labour growth in mining operations was concentrated in a 2035. However, the current pipeline of lithium and copper mining
handful of countries. China’s identified lithium reserves rose by three projects is insufficient to meet projected demand even in the STEPS,
times in the past five years, led by increased exploration and potentially leading to market shortfalls by 2035.
technological breakthroughs, and is positioned to surpass Australia
Employment and year-on-year employment growth by critical
to become the world’s largest producer in 2025. Chinese mining firms
minerals, 2023-2024
have accordingly raised their headcount by 13% in 2024. Meanwhile,
400 60% Total
the Indonesian mining workforce grew by 17% as its nickel output

Thousand workers
workforce
reached 2.4 Mt in 2024. (left axis)
300 45%
Africa employs more than half of the global mining sector with 2023-2024
200 30% growth
415 000 workers. The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) was the (right axis)
main source of growth, underpinned by a production increase of 14
100 15%
kt in cobalt output. The labour intensity of cobalt mining is higher than
that of other minerals due to the prevalence of artisanal and small- 0%
scale mining (ASM). ASM relies on low-skilled labour with manual
extraction methods. The lack of formal employment leads to unsafe -15%
working conditions in the mines, marked by child labour. With Copper Cobalt Lithium Nickel
IEA. CC BY 4.0

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Critical mineral mining employment is concentrated in Africa, but growing in Asia Pacific
Employment in critical minerals by region in 2024, and growth by scenario and region in 2035

1.4 Historical

Million workers
Lithium
1.2 Nickel
North America
5% 5% Cobalt
12% Central and South America 1.0 Copper
16%
3% Scenario range
5% Europe 0.8
Africa
0.6
China
0.4
Other Asia Pacific
54%
Rest of World 0.2

2015 2024 2035

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Note: The scenario range covers outcomes across three IEA scenarios: Current Policies Scenario (CPS), Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario (NZE Scenario).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 95
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Power sector employment

Power sector employment by region and sector, 2024 (thousand workers)

Central
North Other Asia Middle
and South Europe Africa China India Eurasia Global
America Pacific East
America

Solar PV 300 100 500 100 3 000 500 500 <50 <50 5 000

Wind 200 100 300 <50 800 100 200 <50 <50 1 700

Nuclear 100 <50 300 <50 300 200 100 <50 200 1 200

Hydropower 100 300 200 200 400 300 400 <50 100 2 000

Other low-emissions power

100 100 100 <50 100 100 100 <50 <50 600
generation

Coal power generation 100 <50 100 <50 1 000 700 300 <50 100 2 200

Oil and gas power generation 200 100 100 100 100 <50 300 300 100 1 400

Grids 1 000 500 1 000 500 2 400 1 800 800 200 200 8 500

Power sector: Total 2 000 1 200 2 600 1 000 8 200 3 700 2 600 600 700 22 600

Notes: ‘Other low-emissions power generation’ includes marine, bioenergy, geothermal and concentrating solar power (CSP). ‘Grids’ includes transmission, distribution and storage.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 96
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Power sector jobs continue to rapidly expand, with low-emissions technologies and grids
accounting for 90% of the total workforce gains
The power sector, including generation and grids (and excluding fuel Share of power sector employment by economic activity, 2024
supply) employed 22.6 million workers in 2024. Around 65% of the
Fossil fuel PG
jobs, or 14.2 million, were in power generation, while 8.5 million
workers were employed in grids, including transmission, distribution Low-emissions PG
and storage. Power sector employment grew by 800 000, or 4% Grids
y-o-y, propelled by strong growth in low-emissions power generation
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
technologies, which were responsible for around 65% of all power Manufacturing Construction
sector job additions in 2024. Professionals and utilities Wholesale and transport
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Job additions in the power sector, 2024
Notes: Low-emissions PG = low-emissions power generation, including renewables,
Low-emissions power nuclear and CCUS. Fossil fuel PG = unabated fossil fuel power generation, including
Grids and storage gas, oil and coal.
Fossil fuel power
One-third of power sector workers, or 7.3 million, were involved in the
0 300 600 900
Thousand workers
construction and installation of power plants, dams, grids, batteries,
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
and auxiliary systems. The construction sector added the most jobs
Notes: “Low-emissions power” includes power generation in renewables, nuclear and
year-on-year, driven by record investment in sources of low-
CCUS. “Grids and storage” includes transmission, distribution and storage. ‘Fossil fuel emissions generation, as well as grids and battery storage. Another
power’ includes unabated fossil fuel power generation, including, gas, oil and coal.
3.5 million workers were employed in the manufacturing of system
Solar PV alone accounted for 40% of all job additions in the power equipment, such as inverters, solar panels, generators or batteries.
sector, almost three-quarters of which were in China. Grids were Around 9.4 million workers were engaged in professional and utility
responsible for most of the remaining growth, adding 220 000 jobs, services, which encompasses roles like engineering, maintenance
while the oil and gas power workforce grew more moderately, adding technicians, grid operators, and regulatory oversight. The remaining
87 000 jobs. Coal power employment fell by 12 000 jobs between 2.5 million were employed in wholesale and transport, including
2023 and 2024 as capacity additions declined. logistics co-ordination, equipment handling, and fuel distribution.
However, the profile of the workforce varies by sector. In power grids

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

and fossil fuel generation, most jobs are in operations and engineers and technicians exceeds the energy-wide average,
maintenance, while 70% of workers in low-emissions power reflecting the sector’s technical complexity.
generation are involved in developing and building new projects.
Share of high-, medium- and low-skilled workers by sector, 2024
These numbers, however, conceal significant regional variation. In
China, where manufacturing is highly concentrated, the sector Power sector Energy sector
accounts for more than 20% of total power sector employment,
compared with around 10% or less in Europe and the United States. 21% 17%
High-skilled 27%
33%
Within power generation specifically, which excludes grids, three- Medium-skilled
quarters of the workforce is employed in low-emissions technologies,
led by solar PV with for 5 million workers. Coal power employed Low-skilled
46% 56%
2.2 million workers, followed by hydropower with 2 million, wind at
1.7 million, oil and gas at 1.4 million, and nuclear 1.2 million. Around
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
85% of new jobs in power generation between 2023 and 2024 came
Mirroring the broader energy industry, the power sector is dominated
from low-emissions technologies, with solar PV creating 310 000.
by medium-skilled occupations. Among skilled trades, grid line
Employment in power generation by technology, 2024 workers and electricians are in particularly high demand, with line
worker shortages especially acute in utilities due to high retirements
Solar PV
16% Hydropower rates, physically demanding work conditions, and a limited pipeline
36% Wind of apprentices. Electricians, particularly those with industrial and
10%
Nuclear high-voltage expertise, are becoming harder to source as
4%
Other renewables electrification projects ramp up, with parallel demand from fast-
8%
Oil and gas growing AI and tech sectors further straining supply. The power
12% 14%
Coal sector employs more low-skilled workers (21% vs. 17% across
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
energy), largely due to its greater reliance on labour-intensive
construction work such as trench digging and site preparation. Many
The power sector demands a higher proportion of highly skilled
large infrastructure projects also depend on short-term labour in their
workers compared to the broader energy industry. Both in power
early stages, further contributing to this higher share.
generation and grids, the share of high-skilled workers such as

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 98
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Low-emissions sources were responsible for 85% of job additions in the power generation
workforce, dominated by distributed solar PV

Employment change in power generation by technology, 2023-2024

250 000
Workers

200 000

150 000

100 000

50 000

-50 000
Solar PV: Solar PV: Gas power Nuclear Hydropower Wind Other Oil power Coal power
distributed utility-scale generation renewables generation generation

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: Distributed solar PV refers to rooftop, buildings, and other small-scale installations. Utility-scale solar PV refers to solar farms, parks and larger commercial assets. Other
renewables include marine, bioenergy, geothermal and concentrated solar power (CSP).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 99
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Solar PV employment reached 5 million in 2024, led by a 30% increase in capacity additions
With over 5 million workers in 2024, solar PV, including utility-scale Africa saw the highest year-on-year employment growth at around
installations and distributed assets, accounts for well over one-third 23% due to new utility-scale projects, with East, West and Central
of the power generation workforce, the largest employer in the sector. Africa responsible for most of the growth. The expansion of off-grid
While investment growth in solar PV slowed in 2024, largely due to solar systems, including micro-solar and PAYGo, is also boosting
declining costs, capacity additions reached 540 GW, a 30% year-on- solar employment in the region. India’s solar PV workforce also saw
year increase. notable growth of around 18% on the back of strong support from the
PM-Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana programme.
China remains the dominant employer in the solar PV sector, with
60% of the global workforce. About 42% of these jobs are tied to Distributed solar – such as rooftop and other small-scale installations
domestic construction activities. Europe, India and Other Asia Pacific – accounts for two-thirds of all solar PV employment, despite
each account for around 10% of the solar PV workforce. In the United representing only 43% of installed capacity. On average, distributed
States, solar employment grew at a faster year-on-year rate than the solar creates nearly three times more jobs per megawatt than utility-
average across advanced economies, driven by a surge in activity as scale solar. This is largely due to the individualised nature of rooftop
developers accelerated project timelines to meet tax credit eligibility installations, which need tailored permitting, design, and installation.
deadlines. These projects also involve substantial sales and administrative
work. Unlike utility-scale projects, which may benefit from automation
Solar PV employment by sectors and by region, 2024 and economies of scale, residential and small commercial
installations rely heavily on manual labour and in-person customer
Distributed
service, further boosting employment in roles like sales, support and
Utility-scale
China logistics. As a result, jobs in wholesale and transport make up about
Rest of World 25% of employment in distributed solar, compared to just 13% in
utility-scale solar.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Share
Around two-thirds of the solar PV workforce is employed in the
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
development and installation of new capacity. About 21% of solar PV
Notes: Distributed solar PV = rooftop, buildings, and other small-scale installations.
Utility-scale solar PV = solar farms, parks and larger commercial assets. workers are engaged in the manufacturing of polysilicon, wafers,
cells, modules and inverters, while 46% work in the installation of

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 100
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

solar projects in both individual homes and utility-scale solar farms. system integration, grid connection, and ensuring compliance with
The construction-heavy nature of the solar PV sector means it relies safety standards. Labour market indicators, such as job postings (a
extensively on elementary occupations, which account for around a proxy measure for the demand of selected skills and occupations),
quarter of all jobs. These roles typically involve routine manual and reflect the growing demand for skilled trades workers in the solar PV
physical tasks that require little formal training, such as carrying sector. Between 2018 and 2023, job postings for skilled trades,
materials, preparing and cleaning work sites, digging trenches for technicians, and associated professionals in solar PV in Singapore,
wiring, assisting with panel assembly, and loading or unloading Germany, the United Kingdom, Spain, Canada and the United States
equipment. showed an average annual growth rate of 50%, highlighting the
consistent rising demand for these roles.
Average annual growth rate in job postings for skilled trades and
technicians in solar PV by selected country, 2018-2023 While investment spending decreases by 2035 in both the CPS and
100% the STEPS due to falling prices of PV modules, capacity grows more
CAGR

80% around fourfold as more is added per USD spent. Solar PV

employment rises by 14% in the STEPS and 66% in the NZE
60%
Scenario, while it declines by 6% in the CPS. As installed capacity
40%
expands, a growing share of the workforce is employed in operations
20% and maintenance of solar PV systems. These jobs include regular
0% inspection and cleaning of panels, performance monitoring, inverter
Singapore Germany United Spain Canada United servicing, electrical system checks, and ensuring the long-term
Kingdom States reliability and safety of both rooftop and utility-scale installations.
IEA. CC BY 4.0. Over time, replacing ageing solar panels will also become an
Note: CAGR = compound annual growth rate. important source of employment.
Source: IEA analysis based on Lightcast data (2024).

At the same time, the sector relies heavily on skilled trades – such as
electricians, solar PV installers, and welders – which make up more
than one-fifth of the solar PV workforce. This occupational group is
also where the most severe labour shortages are being reported,
especially for qualified electricians, whose skills are essential for

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

China accounts for 60% of the solar PV workforce, with the next highest share just 9% for both
India and Europe
Employment in solar PV by region in 2024, and by scenario range in 2035

1% 9
2% Historical

Million workers
North America
8 Scenario range
10% 6% Central and South America
7
3%
9% Europe
9% 6
Africa 5

China 4

India 3

2
Other Asia Pacific
60% 1
Rest of World

2015 2024 2035

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Note: The scenario range covers outcomes across three IEA scenarios: Current Policies Scenario (CPS), Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario (NZE Scenario).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 102
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Wind employment grows more slowly than in previous years amid persistent increasing project
costs in the offshore market
Employment in wind power generation rose to over 1.7 million in reductions, marked by a 4% decline in its offshore workforce between
2024, up 3% from 2023, driven mainly by growth in onshore wind. 2023 and 2024. However, the downturn is not limited to Europe, with
Nearly three-quarters of job additions came from the onshore layoffs also announced in the United States, Brazil and India.
segment. A quarter of wind power workers were in the manufacturing
of wind turbine components such as blades and towers, while over a
Year-on-year employment growth in wind power by sector,
2022-2024
third were involved in the construction of onshore and offshore wind
farms. The remaining 40% of workers were engaged in operations, 2022-2023 2023-2024
10%
maintenance, and support roles across sectors such as turbine

Y-o-y change in employment

technicians (professional services), grid management (utilities), parts 8%

distributors (wholesale), and heavy-haul drivers (transport). 6%

4%
Upstream price pressures have eased significantly for wind 2%
manufacturers since 2023 but rising seller’s prices have made some 0%
prospective projects uneconomical, especially when combined with -2%
reduced government financial support. As a result, employment
-4%
growth slowed in 2023-24, falling short of the compound annual
-6%
growth rate of 5% recorded over the previous five years (2019-23).
-8%
This deceleration has been most evident in manufacturing, which Total Manufacturing Construction Other
experienced a 6% decline in employment as demand for new
turbines and components fell due to delays and cancellations in IEA. CC BY 4.0
project development. The offshore market in particular showed signs Note: ‘Other’ includes professionals and utilities, and wholesale and transport.
of continued weakness as developers significantly pared back
Employment growth in construction slowed to 5% in 2024 compared
investment plans in response to increasing project costs. Major wind
to 8% in 2023, reflecting a deceleration in the rate of new capacity
developers, including RWE, GE Vernova, and Orsted, have
additions, even as total installed capacity continued to increase.
announced job cuts globally, with Europe seeing the most significant Segments focused on operation and maintenance saw employment

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 103
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

growth keep pace or accelerate as these activities are tied to existing widely across scenarios. In the NZE Scenario, jobs grow rapidly at a
infrastructure and are less affected by shifts in project investment. compound annual rate of 9% through 2035, compared with 2% in the
STEPS. In the CPS employment grows more modestly, and even
Global wind employment is projected to continue to increase in 2025,
declines if operating jobs are excluded. This divergence across
but considerable uncertainty remains in several markets. In the
scenarios highlights the uncertainty facing the industry, necessitating
United States, the outlook is clouded by an executive order pausing
companies to prepare for a broad range of outcomes and policy-
federal wind leasing and permitting. In the first quarter of 2025, a
driven regional shifts. Many may look to diversify globally, while firms
wave of industry layoffs were announced by major players such as
anchored in regions with strong domestic policies are likely to be
RWE and Vineyard Offshore. Employment in wind power varies
better positioned to strengthen their international competitiveness.

Employment in wind power by region in 2024, and by scenario range in 2035

1%
5.0
Historical

Million workers
North America Scenario range
9% 9%
Central and South America 4.0
7% 6%
Europe
Africa 3.0
18%
China
2.0
India
48% Other Asia Pacific 1.0
2% Rest of World

2015 2024 2035

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Note: The scenario range covers outcomes across three IEA scenarios: Current Policies Scenario (CPS), Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario (NZE Scenario).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 104
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Nuclear employment rises as investment makes a comeback, but a shortage of workers is

complicating the pace of project development
Jobs in the nuclear industry totalled 1.2 million in 2024, a 6% increase With investment expected to rise and 63 new reactors already under
over 2023. Nuclear investment grew by 6% y-o-y, and rose by 50% construction, nuclear employment is projected to grow in all IEA
over the past five years, led by China. Europe’s investment has scenarios, at compound annual rates of 1.5% in the CPS, 2% in the
steadily declined since 2022, falling from USD 26 billion to STEPS and 6% in the NZE Scenario through 2035. However, the
USD 16 billion by 2024. shortage of skilled nuclear workers has been a growing concern in
the industry over past few years, already threatening the pace of
The United States, France, China and Russian Federation (hereafter,
certain projects. Around 46% of nuclear companies surveyed by the
“Russia”) maintain their position as the four most dominant players,
IEA reported hiring difficulties leading to operational bottlenecks, with
with 244 reactors in operations, more than the rest of the world
project delays, longer lead times and increased reliance on
combined. However, the profile of workers varies by region, and
contractors cited as the main consequences.
countries with sizeable existing capacity do not necessarily constitute
the largest portion of nuclear employment. Only about 30% of jobs in Responses to “Have labour shortages created operational
the nuclear industry are focused on operating and maintaining bottlenecks?” and main consequences identified, 2025
existing plants, and most jobs are concentrated in the manufacturing
and construction of nuclear plants. China’s nuclear construction
workforce grew by over 20% in 2024 to about 76 000 workers, due to Increased costs
its sustained leadership in reactor construction – a lead it maintains
No Yes Project delays
in 2025 with 29 reactors under construction. China is also 54% 46% Longer lead times
strengthening its position as a manufacturer of components for both
domestic and international nuclear power plants, leading to a Greater use of contractors
significantly higher share of manufacturing in its total nuclear Other
employment – 50% compared to a global average of 38%. By
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
contrast, in North America and Europe nuclear employment is
Source: IEA Nuclear Energy Employment Survey, 2025.
concentrated in the operation and maintenance of existing
infrastructure, with these roles making up more than 50% of their
workforces.

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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

These shortages are especially acute in high-skilled occupations. the 100 000 extra full-time hires in core nuclear jobs that will be
Nuclear companies surveyed by the IEA identified engineers as the needed in France in the next ten years, half will be required simply to
primary source of workforce bottlenecks, followed by project replace people leaving the industry. In the United States, 60% of
managers, electrical trades and construction trades such as welders nuclear workers are ages 30 to 54, exceeding both the wider energy
and pipefitters. Some companies reported having to bring in workers workforce and national average. This reality was echoed in the
from other regions – a practice known as long-distance deployment survey of over 30 nuclear companies operating across the globe
– which led to cost increases of 10% to 20%, illustrating how labour conducted by the IEA in which worker retirements were reported as
shortages can directly drive-up project costs. the leading factor contributing to departures in the workforce.

Primary factors for workforce departures reported by over 30 In addition, nearly 60% of surveyed nuclear companies reported
nuclear companies, 2025 experiencing high or very high competition for skilled workers,
particularly from other nuclear firms, the oil and gas sector, tech
Worker retirements companies and government agencies. Minimising the negative
effects of this competition will require targeted initiatives to improve
Workforce attrition
public perception of careers in the nuclear sector, which often involve
advanced technical skills, are more likely to be unionised, and may
Other
offer average wages approximately 50% higher than those in other
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% forms of electricity generation.
Percentage of responses
The combined pressures of an ageing workforce and growing
IEA. CC BY 4.0. competition for skilled workers highlight the need to develop a new
Note: ‘Other’ includes the completion of major projects, cost-cutting/efficiency initiatives pipeline of young talent to sustain the global nuclear sector. Notably,
and funding challenges.
Source: IEA Nuclear Energy Employment Survey, 2025. 60% of nuclear companies surveyed by the IEA indicated that
collaboration between the industry and educational institutions is
The skills shortage has been partly driven by a wave of baby boomer
insufficient – mirroring company estimates that 60% of the skills their
retirements. The Global Energy Talent Index estimates that 25% of
workers need are acquired through on-the-job training, rather than
the current nuclear workforce is over 55 years old compared to 20%
through formal education or prior experience. Some promising
in the oil and gas sector, and just 10% in the renewable energy
initiatives are beginning to emerge – for example, France’s Mon
sector. According to the French nuclear trade association Gifen, of

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 106
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Avenir dans le Nucléaire brings together government, industry, and nuclear companies surveyed by the IEA cited concerns around data
training organisations to raise awareness, standardise training protection, privacy, and cybersecurity as the primary obstacles. As a
pathways, and improve job placement for young professionals result, while AI offers potential for efficiency gains and workforce
entering the nuclear field. support, its integration into nuclear operations is likely to remain
cautious and highly selective.
Artificial intelligence is also beginning to play a role in addressing
labour shortages in the nuclear sector. In Japan, for example, AI tools
are being deployed to support safety inspections and plant
maintenance amid a shrinking workforce. However, the broader
application of AI in the nuclear industry remains constrained by strict
security protocols, regulatory complexity, and the sector’s inherently
risk-sensitive nature. When asked about the biggest barriers to
adopting AI technologies in their daily operations, the majority of

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 107
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Europe, Russia and China account for over 60% of the global nuclear workforce
Employment in nuclear by region in 2024, and by scenario in 2035

2.5
Historical

Million workers
Scenario range
6% 7%
North America 2.0
11%
Europe
23%
Russia 1.5
14% China
India 1.0

Other Asia Pacific

14%
Rest of World 0.5
25%

2015 2024 2035

IEA. CC BY 4.0.

Note: The scenario range covers outcomes across three IEA scenarios: Current Policies Scenario (CPS), Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario (NZE Scenario).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Growth in hydropower employment was supported by a substantial increase in investments in

2024, with pumped-storage hydroelectricity capturing a growing share of new projects
Hydropower was the third largest employer in power generation, actively developing hydropower projects abroad, including a 209 MW
reaching nearly 2 million jobs globally in 2024, up 2.6% y-o-y. facility under construction in Peru and a 1 124 MW dam in Pakistan.
Investments in the hydropower sector were significantly higher than
Ongoing geopolitical changes and rising curtailment of variable
in previous years, rising by 6% y-o-y in 2024, compared with an
renewable energy (VRE) are increasing demand for flexible
average annual growth rate of 2% in 2019-2023. The sustained pace
generation and electricity storage, leading to the rapid expansion of
of capacity additions – averaging about 26 GW each year since 2015
pumped-storage hydropower (PSH) in many countries. In Europe,
– has supported steady job growth over the past decade.
investment in hydropower rose by 13% over 2023 levels, buttressed
Employment growth since 2019 has been mostly driven by India, by the strong business case for PSH, which contributed to the
Africa and Asia Pacific outside of China, as North America, Europe region’s job additions. Similarly, China’s Three Gorges is scaling up
and Brazil focussed on modernising legacy infrastructure, with only a pumped storage as a national infrastructure priority, and PSH is
marginal increase in new construction of conventional hydropower. emerging as China’s primary growth area in the hydropower sector.
Africa saw strong employment gains, particularly in construction
However, uncertainties around hydropower output, market volatility,
roles, as it posted record capacity additions in 2024, including the
and policy misalignment continue to pose challenges for the sector.
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, the largest hydropower project
Compounding these issues is the ageing hydropower workforce –
in Africa. However, financing remains an issue across the continent.
over 25% of employees in countries like the United States are aged
Investment began to decrease in 2023 and is set to continue its
55 years or older, with thousands expected to retire by 2030. The
downward trajectory in following years, resulting in slower
International Hydropower Association has highlighted the sector’s
employment in the region in 2024.
ageing workforce and the struggle to attract new talent, raising
While China accounts for over 20% of the global hydropower concerns over potential skills shortages and the loss of institutional
workforce, this share is down from around 30% in 2019. Amid falling knowledge. However, hydropower installed capacity increases in all
investment in conventional hydropower dams compared with IEA scenarios by 2035, reflecting the sector’s essential role in
previous years, employment in the sector continued to decrease in providing secure and flexible generation. As a result, hydropower
2024. However, China’s Three Gorges Corporation, the largest jobs grow across scenarios by 2035, though the rate of growth varies
hydropower development and operation firm in the world, has been with investment levels.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Growing hydropower capacity drives employment by 2035 in all IEA scenarios

Employment in hydropower by region in 2024, and by scenario in 2035

4.0
Historical

Million workers
4%
7% Scenario range
North America
19% 14% Central and South America 3.0
Europe
Africa
10% China 2.0
16% India
8% Other Asia Pacific
1.0
22% Rest of World

2015 2024 2035

IEA. CC BY 4.0.

Note: The scenario range for 2035 covers outcomes across three IEA scenarios: Current Policies Scenario (CPS), Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), and the Net Zero Emissions by
2050 Scenario (NZE Scenario).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Gas-fired power generation employment accelerates as electricity demand grows in EMDEs

Gas-fired power generation employment continued to rise in 2024, announced subsidies for converting 2 GW of gas power plant
reaching 1.2 million globally, a strong 7% increase year-on-year. capacity to operate on hydrogen, while IHI and GE Vernova jointly
Employment in the sector remains concentrated in the Middle East, developed a 2 MW turbine powered exclusively by ammonia.
Asia Pacific and North America. Almost half of the workforce is However, the transition to hydrogen and ammonia in power
engaged in the construction of new facilities and the manufacturing generation requires the upskilling of the existing gas workforce,
of equipment, with three-quarters of the jobs in EMDEs. By 2040, particularly in safety protocols and handling procedures.
890 GW of new gas-fired generation capacity is expected globally,
Oil-powered generation employs around 200 000 workers – the
led by projects such as fuel switching in countries like Indonesia or
smallest share among fossil fuel-based sources. Oil maintains an
Malaysia, and rising electricity demand from data centre expansion
important position in the electricity mix in the Middle East, which
in markets, especially the United States.
accounts for 30% of global oil-powered generation jobs. Increasingly,
Despite surging power demand, a history of boom and bust cycles severe natural disasters have boosted off-grid diesel generator sales,
and limited availability of skilled labour have led manufacturers of prompting firms such as Generac to expand their manufacturing
turbines to be more cautious about expanding production capacity, workforce by nearly 10%. In Africa, diesel generators continue to play
contributing to lead times of up to seven years. The other half of gas- an important role in providing reliable electricity access in remote
fired generation workers are in plant operation and maintenance, areas. However, employment in oil-fired power generation declines
which is generally less labour-intensive than the construction and to around 120 000 and 126 000 workers by 2035 in the STEPS and
commissioning of new facilities. In the European Union, tight natural the CPS, respectively, driven by gas and solar PV additions in the
gas markets since Russia’s invasion of Ukraine contributed to a Middle East and the expansion of pay-as-you-go solar kits and micro-
slowdown in job growth to 5% last year versus 6% in 2022. The grids across Africa. In the NZE Scenario employment drops to around
trajectory of global employment in gas-fired power generation 72 000 jobs.
depends on factors such as prices, fuel competition, and policy
As the number of gas-fired power generation plants equipped with
developments, with the workforce projected to range from 522 000 to
CCUS technology increases, demand for CCUS-related skills is on
1.4 million by 2035, and growth led by the Middle East and Africa.
the rise. Education centres are increasingly following these trends,
Efforts to retrofit gas power plants are increasing as part of broader as CCUS is gaining ground in higher education and vocational
strategies to adapt to future energy system needs. In 2024, Germany training curricula.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Investments in new coal-fired generation capacity helped maintain coal power jobs at high
levels in 2024
In 2024, 2.2 million people worked in coal-fired power generation, the time, reliance on coal has been steadily decreasing in advanced
second largest employer in the power generation sector, with 15% of economies. Coal-fired generation accounted for 5% of electricity
all jobs. Compared to other fossil fuel power generation technologies, generation and 3% of power sector jobs in 2024, down from 11% and
whose installed capacity is more evenly dispersed across different 7%, respectively, in 2015. In 2024, advanced economies represented
regions of the world, coal-fired power plants and associated jobs are less than 3% of the 40 GW of new capacity added and more than
particularly concentrated in the Asia Pacific region. Close to 80% of 85% of the 21 GW of coal capacity retired last year.
these jobs are in India or in China, while Indonesia accounts for 5%
of the global coal power workforce.
Employment in coal power by asset status and region, 2024

Although coal-fired power plant capacity additions reached the lowest

level in two decades in 2024, a large pipeline of announced and China 16%
permitted projects in Asia Pacific continues to sustain substantial coal
Operating New
power employment, with global investment in coal-fired generation existing India 10%
projects
rising to its highest level since 2017. Currently, two out of five jobs in assets 43%
57%
the coal power sector are in construction or manufacturing activities Other Asia
directly related to the development of new generation capacities. Pacific 13%
China and India have been the main forces behind the recent Rest of world
momentum in coal power development, with approvals and final
investment decisions for new plants in both countries reaching their IEA. CC BY 4.0.
highest levels in a decade. Across all IEA scenarios, employment in unabated coal-fired power
generation declines by 2035. Between 2024 and 2035, employment
Amid rising geopolitical uncertainty, energy security considerations
falls by 28% under the CPS, 41% under the STEPS, and 66% under
are increasingly mentioned to justify building new coal power
the NZE Scenario, though retrofitting existing plants with CCUS
capacity or extending the life of existing power plants. At the same
technologies helps offset some losses by creating new jobs.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Coal is the largest employer in fossil fuel power generation, but gas drives growth
Employment in fossil fuel power generation by region in 2024, and by scenario in 2035
2%
10%
4.0
10% Historical

Million workers
3% 0% 3% 29%
3% Oil
2% Oil PG 7%
Gas
12%
17% 3.0 Coal
20% 3% Scenario range
2%
Coal PG

33% 44% 7% 2.0

17%
16%
8%
Gas PG
10% 1.0
19%
9%
11%
3%

North America Central and South America 2015 2024 2035

Europe Africa
China India
Other Asia Pacific Middle East
Rest of World
IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Note: The scenario range covers outcomes across three IEA scenarios: Current Policies Scenario (CPS), Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario (NZE Scenario).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Power grid employment remains supported by strong construction activity

Employment in power grids, which includes power transmission, maintenance roles redundant: the adoption of smart meters has
distribution and storage, totalled 8.5 million workers globally, marking lessened the demand for manual meter readers, while drone
a 2.6% year-on-year increase as grid investment reached a new high inspections are increasingly replacing routine line-checking tasks
of USD 390 billion. However, employment growth slowed compared carried out by field technicians. At the same time, the expansion of
to the previous year – a trend that reflects a broader imbalance in the grid development projects, particularly in EMDEs, has led to a
sector. Investment in transmission and distribution is lagging behind, growing share of workers in construction, rising from 25% in 2019 to
with only USD 0.40 now invested in grids for every dollar spent on 27% in 2024. A record 2 900 km of transmission and distribution lines
new generation capacity, down from USD 0.60 in 2016, despite were added worldwide in 2024.
falling renewable energy costs and rising prices for essential
Employment and growth in grids by economic activity, 2023-2024
components like transformers and cables.
Growth 2023-2024 (right axis)
Around 530 000 workers were employed in the manufacturing of grid
6 6%

Growth
components such as transformers, switchgear and smart meters in

Million workers
2024, while 27% of the grid workforce was in the construction and 5 5%
expansion of transmission and distribution infrastructure, including
4 4%
substations and high-voltage lines. Nearly 9% were engaged in
wholesale and transport activities, ranging from equipment supply to 3 3%
specialised logistics. The majority of grid workers (58%) were
2 2%
employed in professional and utilities roles such as responding to
outages, managing customer connections, and performing tasks like 1 1%
meter reading.
0%
The share of workers employed in operation and maintenance roles Manufacturing Construction Professionals Wholesale
and utilities and transport
in the transmission and distribution segments has been gradually
declining, from 59% in 2019 to 56% in 2024. This shift reflects IEA. CC BY 4.0.

broader changes in the occupational profile of the grid workforce. This trend is particularly pronounced in China, where large-scale
Advances in digital technologies have made some operations and electrification efforts have driven a surge in grid construction activity

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

(China was responsible for 40% of additional transmission lines need for system flexibility rises, battery storage is expected to
globally in 2024). The share of construction workers in the country’s become one of the fastest-growing technologies in the power sector
grid workforce reached 42% in 2024, continuing the steady rise in by 2035. In the CPS, employment grows by 43%, while in the STEPS
recent years. By contrast, EMDEs outside of China have experienced it more than doubles by 2035, and increases by 3.6 times under the
much slower growth in their grid workforce, and even declines in NZE Scenario. The booming workforce has already begun to
some regions such as Africa and South America, reflecting lagging materialise in recent years, with labour market indicators such as job
investment levels. Advanced economies and China together postings increasing fourfold between 2018 and 2022.
accounted for over 85% of total investment growth in transmission
and distribution infrastructure in 2024. Without targeted policy
support, many EMDEs – particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and parts
of Latin America – risk falling further behind in building grid
infrastructure and developing the technical workforce needed to
support electrification and other energy transition goals.

Grid employment increases across all IEA scenarios. By 2035, the

size of the workforce is projected to range from 10.5 million to
12.6 million workers. However, job growth varies significantly across
regions, with EMDEs in particular requiring greater investment in
modern, digitalised grid infrastructure to unlock employment
potential.

Although battery storage currently represents a small share of grid

employment, at around 2%, it has experienced rapid growth, with
jobs increasing by 17% y-o-y in 2024, led by a surge in global battery
storage investment and falling costs of utility-scale batteries. As the

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Skilled labour constraints are emerging as a key barrier to delivering grid infrastructure at the
speed and scale required
While the grid workforce is expected to continue to grow globally in skilled compared to 27% across the broader energy sector, and 22%
the coming years, a shortage of skilled workers is increasingly in the general economy. These roles include professionals, such as
emerging as a bottleneck for development plans. As countries power systems engineers and grid planners. Technicians, who
continue to scale up both investment and project pipelines, the typically support engineering functions including system monitoring,
availability of adequately trained personnel is becoming a limiting equipment testing, and maintaining digital control systems like
factor in delivering new infrastructure on time. This challenge has SCADA, account for 14.5% of the grid workforce, 30% more than the
been further compounded by the fact that investment is not keeping energy sector average.
pace with needs in many regions, making it more difficult to attract,
Share of high-skilled occupations by sector, 2024
train, and retain the talent required to support the expansion and
16%
modernisation of power networks. Economy-wide

Share
Surveys and interviews conducted by the IEA with grid companies 12% Energy sector
underscore these concerns, highlighting widespread skills shortages Grids
and a tight labour market. Over 40% of grid companies surveyed 8%
stated that they are experiencing “high” or “very high” competition for
skilled labour, regularly losing candidates to other employers. Half of 4%
the respondents said they had to adjust hiring requirements due to
shortages. The most commonly cited barriers to recruitment were a 0%
Managers Professionals Technicians
lack of grid-specific technical skills and a limited pool of qualified IEA. CC BY 4.0.
applicants. Labour and skills shortages are further compounded by
The demand for these specialised roles underscores the urgency of
an ageing grid workforce. IEA analysis shows that for every young
expanding grid-tailored technical training programmes. However,
person joining, 1.4 workers are aged 55 years or above – a ratio
some successful models are beginning to emerge. In France, the
much higher than the economy-wide average.
Grid School is an industry-wide initiative that provides hands-on
Many of the challenges faced by the industry reflect the high-skilled training for grid technicians and skilled trades, launched through a
nature of grid-related work, with 35% of roles classified as high- collective effort involving the distribution company ENEDIS, the

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 116
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

transmission system operator RTE, the Ministry of National real-world job requirements. In some countries, vocational and
Education, and other professional bodies. Since 2023, the number of technical careers still suffer from low social recognition, making it
participating vocational schools has grown from 45 to over 200, harder to attract young talent.
enabling more than 2 000 students with specialised training in
In addition to these obstacles, diverging technical standards and
electrical grids to join companies each year. In Italy, grid operator
equipment norms across countries make it difficult to deploy grid
Enel launched initiatives linking schools and small and medium-sized
workers during emergencies. Diverging equipment specifications,
enterprises (SMEs) to upskill students according to evolving energy
control systems, and voltage standards can delay or even prevent
sector needs and ensure a better match with future workforce
the deployment of grid workers from neighbouring countries during
demands. The company’s Energie per la Scuola initiative, launched
emergencies. For example, following storm-related outages in early
in 2022, partners with vocational schools to prepare students for
2025, several EU member states reported that efforts to bring in
entry-level roles in the electricity sector. Through this programme,
cross-border support were hampered because technical teams could
Enel collaborated with 127 schools and 70 companies, reaching an
not operate each other's equipment or connect to local systems due
estimated 10 000 students during career events. Of those students,
to incompatible protocols. The Centre on Regulation in Europe
approximately 1 700 went on to participate in training courses and
(CERRE) highlighted such challenges, noting that even where mutual
were subsequently hired by Enel’s suppliers. Companies support this
assistance frameworks exist, divergent technical standards continue
effort by offering hands-on training at their facilities, giving students
to limit the speed and effectiveness of emergency response efforts.
practical experience. These partnerships help schools, utilities, and
Greater standardisation could enable more rapid workforce mobility
suppliers work together to bridge the skills and employment gap, and
when urgent grid support is required.
are often tied to public tenders, helping align local training efforts with
upcoming infrastructure projects. Labour and skills shortages in grids are further intensified by evolving
skills requirements. With the growing share of variable renewable
These initiatives are a positive evolution in workforce development,
generation and an increasing need for improved data management,
but significant challenges remain. Many training programmes are still
digitalisation is essential for maximising the efficiency of existing
too limited in scale to meet the growing demand, particularly in
grids. The expanding role of AI and digital tools in grid operations
emerging markets. Curricula often lag behind the technological
underscores the need to update training curricula, increase cross-
advancements in smart grids, automation, and digitalisation. There is
disciplinary learning pathways, and ensure workforce development
also a shortage of qualified instructors with up-to-date industry
keeps pace with the sector’s technological transformation.
experience, and limited alignment between education pathways and

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Power grid employment rises in all IEA scenarios, however greater investment in resilient and
digitalised infrastructure is needed
Employment in grids by region in 2024, and by scenario in 2035

14
Historical

Million workers
North America Scenario range
3% 12% 12
10%
Central and South America
6% 10
Europe

12% Africa 8
21%
China 6
5%
India
4
Other Asia Pacific
29%
2
Rest of World

2015 2024 2035

IEA. CC BY 4.0.

Note: The scenario range covers outcomes across three IEA scenarios: Current Policies Scenario (CPS), Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario (NZE Scenario).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 118
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

End-use sectors: Vehicles and efficiency technologies

End-use sectors employment by region and sector, 2024 (thousand workers)

Central
North Other Asia Middle
and South Europe Africa China India Eurasia Global
America Pacific East
America

ICE vehicles 2 000 700 2 900 200 3 900 1 200 2 700 200 300 14 000

EVs and batteries 300 <50 600 <50 2 400 <50 200 <50 <50 3 500

Industrial efficiency 300 200 400 200 1 200 300 600 300 100 3 600

Building retrofits 300 <50 200 100 100 <50 100 <50 <50 800

Efficient appliances and

700 200 1 500 200 1 200 1 100 700 200 200 5 900
lighting

Heat pumps 200 <50 200 <50 300 <50 100 <50 <50 800

Other efficient and renewable

400 100 1 000 <50 1 000 100 300 <50 <50 3 100
HVAC

End-use sectors: Total 4 100 1 200 6 800 800 10 200 2 800 4 600 700 700 31 800

Notes: ICE vehicles = internal combustion engine vehicles; EVs = electric vehicles; and HVAC = heating, ventilation and air conditioning. ‘Other efficient and renewable HVAC’ includes
heating from geothermal, bioenergy, or solar thermal sources, as well as HVAC systems other than heat pumps which meet a certain level of efficiency requirement.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

EVs remain the major engine of growth in vehicle employment, with China positioned to lead
the global expansion
Vehicle manufacturing jobs rose in 2024 as sales ticked upward, with segments have been slower to electrify, with only 6% of this
electric vehicle (EV) and EV battery jobs claiming an ever-larger workforce currently engaged in assembling and producing
share of the total, as employment in internal combustion engine (ICE) components for EVs.
vehicles declined again. Together, these sectors added 300 000 jobs
China has consolidated its position as the leading producer of EVs
in 2024, up 1.8% y-o-y, for a total of over 17.5 million worldwide.
and EV batteries in global markets, with jobs rising by 570 000 in
EV production continued its recent surge, now accounting for more 2024, to 2.4 million. Although China has long been a major producer
than 20% of global car sales. Global EV manufacturing employment of vehicles, with a global share of around 20-30% throughout the
rose to 3.1 million in 2024, up 34% y-o-y, an almost fivefold increase 2010s, it now accounts for more than 70% of EV production
since 2020, and more than ten times higher than in 2015. Increasing worldwide. Around 70% of the global EV workforce is employed in
demand for EVs has also generated strong growth in the EV battery China, including 93% of EV battery jobs. At just over 6.3 million, total
workforce, which grew to nearly 425 000 in 2024, compared to just employment in motor vehicle manufacturing in China remains similar
110 000 jobs in 2015. to 2015 levels, although its central role in the EV sector positions it
for strong growth in the global automotive market.
However, manufacturing of ICE vehicles has not recovered from the
significant blow to sales seen during the pandemic, with most major Significantly, much of China’s growth in EV employment is from
producing regions seeing output in 2024 falling to between 20% and Chinese brands that serve the domestic market, where EVs account
40% below their respective peaks in the 2010s. Following a brief rally for nearly half of all car sales. Chinese original equipment
in 2023, ICE vehicle manufacturing jobs fell again in 2024, down manufacturers (OEMs) accounted for more than 80% of domestic EV
490 000 jobs to 14 million, and 17% below the global peak of car production in 2024, up from two-thirds in 2021. The country’s
17 million in 2017. OEMs are also positioned to generate growth in EV manufacturing
employment in other parts of the world, as BYD and GWM
Although nearly 90% of vehicles sold globally are passenger cars, as
announced new production facilities in Brazil, Thailand, Indonesia
opposed to light commercial and heavy-duty vehicles, they account
and Malaysia, which will become operational in the coming years.
for only 70% of global vehicle manufacturing employment, since the
These countries are also a significant source of export demand for
latter group are more labour intensive. These heavier vehicle

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Chinese EVs, as they negotiate tariff exemptions for EVs in exchange Advanced economies remain the largest employers in the vehicle
for investment in local manufacturing facilities. manufacturing industry, with 7.3 million total jobs in 2024. The EV
manufacturing workforce has seen strong gains in these regions in
Mexico benefits from a similar relationship with advanced economy
recent years, although the pace of growth stalled somewhat in 2024
OEMs, as 70% of the country’s EV car output was accounted for by
(up 23% y-o-y) relative to that seen in China (30%) and other EMDEs
United States-headquartered brands, with the remainder from
(90%). In advanced economies, employment in ICE manufacturing
European and Japanese manufacturers. At the same time, EMDE-
fell by 1.5% y-o-y, extending the decline in recent years linked to
based EV brands are beginning to gain a foothold in both domestic
lower ICE vehicle production.
and foreign markets, with Viet Nam’s VinFast, India’s Tata, and
Argentina’s Tito each marking significant increases in EV production The transition in employment from ICE vehicles to EV jobs seen over
in 2024. With 80 000 EV jobs in 2024, EMDEs outside of China the past decade is set to continue in the coming years, although the
doubled their workforce in 2024, though they still represent a modest pace of this transition varies across IEA scenarios. At the high-end,
2% share of global EV employment. EV and EV batteries manufacturing could reach 15.2 million workers
in 2035, with the low-end estimate at 6.1 million. In either case, this
EMDEs outside of China have also historically formed an integral part
would represent a narrowing of the gap with ICE vehicle
of distributed supply chains in vehicle components. Around three-
manufacturing, where the labour force could be within the range of
quarters of global vehicle manufacturing jobs are accounted for by
1.5 million at the low-end, and 12.8 million at the high-end.
the production of components such as drivetrains, chassis, windows
and seats, as opposed to assembly of the vehicles themselves.
Countries such as Mexico, Poland, and Southeast Asian economies
have benefitted from lower labour costs and proximity to major
regional centres of production to specialise in the supply of these
parts. These factors have helped to contribute to total vehicle
manufacturing employment of 3.9 million in EMDEs outside of China,
with a 22% share of the global workforce, larger than their 18% share
of world production would suggest.

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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

EVs dominated growth in automotive employment in 2024, and will continue to drive significant
increases to 2035

Employment in motor vehicles and EV batteries by region in 2015, 2024, and by scenario in 2035

2%
20
Historical

Million workers
13% North America EV batteries
16% 16
Central and South America EVs
4%
Europe ICEs
7% 12 Scenario range
Africa
20% China
8
India
Other Asia Pacific
4
36% Rest of World
1%
2015 2024 2035

IEA. CC BY 4.0.

Note: The scenario range covers outcomes across three IEA scenarios: Current Policies Scenario (CPS), Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario (NZE Scenario).

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
PAGE | 122
World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Energy efficiency employment remained stable as investment momentum faltered in 2024

Global energy efficiency progress stabilised in 2024, as primary Industry efficiency employment levelled off at 3.6 million, mostly due
energy intensity, a metric used to assess efficiency, improved by 1%, to a slowdown in China, which accounts for the largest share of the
consistent with 2023 levels. Efficiency-related investment is set to sector’s workforce. A pronounced decline was seen in the European
reach nearly USD 800 billion in 2025, up 6% y-o-y, but public support Union, where the limited availability of skilled labour posed a major
schemes have decreased amid budgetary constraints. Energy investment challenge for firms. Nevertheless, the Asia Pacific region
efficiency employment climbed by 1.9% to 14.3 million in 2024. Most (outside of China) continued to boost employment in the sector.
workers are concentrated in China, the European Union and North
America, but year-on-year job growth was fastest in emerging
Employment in end-use efficiency by subsector, 2024
markets and developing economies like India (9%), Africa (4%) and
other Asia Pacific (4%), all outpacing the global average. Industrial efficiency
25%
Building retrofits
Building energy efficiency employment reached 10.6 million in 2024, 42%
covering a range of subsectors. Efficient appliances and lighting Heat pumps
6%
represent the largest share at nearly 6 million jobs, followed by heat 5%
Other efficient and renewable HVAC
pumps and other efficient and renewable HVAC equipment, which Efficient appliances and lighting
22%
together account for nearly 3.9 million workers. The buildings sector
includes around 850 000 working in retrofitting activities. IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Notes: HVAC = heating, ventilation and air conditioning. ‘Other efficient and renewable
Governments continue to adopt energy efficiency policies for HVAC’ includes heating from geothermal, bioenergy, or solar thermal sources, as well
as HVAC systems other than heat pumps which meet a level of efficiency requirement.
buildings, which remain a catalyst for employment. Major initiatives
include the launch of the Indonesian National Roadmap for Green The future demand for energy efficiency workers is largely influenced
Building Implementation, and the Indian Energy and Sustainable by policies. In the CPS, the energy efficiency workforce would slightly
Building Code. However, jobs in renewable HVAC systems remain decline in the coming decade to 13.3 million, while in the STEPS and
below pre-pandemic levels as investments in the sector have the NZE Scenario, it would continue to expand, to reach 16.3 million
declined, rooted in high upfront costs and tight investment budgets. and 22.4 million workers, respectively.

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
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World Energy Employment 2025
Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Energy efficiency jobs are expected to grow gradually through 2035, fuelled by a take-off in the
Asia Pacific region
Employment in energy efficiency by region in 2015, 2024, and by scenario in 2035

25
Historical

Million workers
Scenario range
6% 13% North America
20
12% Central and South America
4%
Europe
15
Africa
11%
China
23%
India 10

Other Asia Pacific

27% 4% Rest of World 5

2015 2024 2035

IEA. CC BY 4.0.
Note: The scenario range covers outcomes across three IEA scenarios: Current Policies Scenario (CPS), Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario (NZE Scenario).

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Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Heat pump work is in demand to satisfy ambitious growth targets

Global employment in heat pumps saw growth slow in 2024, to below some countries have certifications specific to heat pumps, others
4%, compared to the 6% CAGR seen between 2020 and 2023, as include them in wider HVAC certifications or require the installer to
sales fell due to discontinued or scaled back government subsidies have both air conditioner and general heating certificates. Such
and easing natural gas prices. The slowdown has been particularly constructs form a significant access barrier and may slow the
pronounced in advanced economies, especially in Europe where qualification of heat pump installers.
heat pump jobs have first stagnated in 2023 and then declined in
Another key difference is whether certification is mandatory or
2024. However, early indicators suggest a turnaround is in sight, and
voluntary – either to legally perform the trade or to access certain
based on current policy settings, heat pump jobs are set to continue
incentive schemes. Under current policies, heat pump incentive
growing at a CAGR of 4.5% between 2024 and 2035.
schemes often make certification more critical, even when not legally
In Europe, the increased demand for workers in heat pumps is in line required. Most certifications are issued to individuals, but in some
with ambitious targets for installations. The European Union aims to systems, companies can be certified instead – provided they
install 60 million heat pumps by 2030 and meeting this demand would demonstrate that their employees have the necessary skills,
require 500 000 skilled workers across the bloc, up from about sometimes using voluntary personal certificates as evidence.
165 000 in 2024. Germany and France reported that they would need
Finally, not all certificates cover the same skill sets. For example,
60 000 and 30 000 additional installers, respectively, to reach the
plumbing skills are typically included only in regions where hydronic
2030 target. In order to make heat pump installation accessible, in
heat pumps make up a significant part of the market. In the European
2009, the European Union included an obligation for all member
Union, handling refrigerants requires a separate mandatory F-Gas
states to offer a heat pump certification programme or equivalent
certificate and is therefore not part of general heat pumps
qualifications in the Renewable Energy Directive. The EUCERT
certifications. And while all analysed heat pump certificates featured
Programme, administered by the European Heat Pump Association
electrical work, a main differentiation is whether that includes
(EHPA), aims to offer a common level of qualification in 14 countries.
advanced electrical works like intervening on the central switchboard.
Outside of such initiatives, heat pump installer qualifications and
certifications are very heterogenous from country to country. While

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Fuel supply, power sector and end uses

Heat pump installer certifications vary widely among countries

Selected national and regional certification schemes for heat pump installers with main characteristics, 2025
Skills included

Electrical

Adv. electrical

Plumbing

Dimensioning

Efficiency

Refrigerants

Maintenance

Safety

Regulation
Specific
Country/ Mandatory/
Certification Granted to to heat
Region Voluntary
pumps

Australia RAC01 Full Refrigerant Handling Licence Person No Mandatory x x x x x

Red Seal Occupational Standard:
Canada Refrigeration and air conditioning Person No Mandatory1 x x x x x x x x
mechanic
European Union EHPA EUCert heat pump installer Person Yes Voluntary2 x x x x x x x
France QualiPAC Person Yes Incentive x x x x x
Germany Fachbetrieb Wärmepumpen Company Yes Incentive x x x x x x x
Italy FER Certification Person Yes Mandatory x x x x x x
Spain RITE Certification Person Yes Mandatory3 x x x x x
Sweden SKVP CIN 2 Person No Voluntary4 x x x x x x x
The Netherlands BRL 6000-21 with ISSO 98 Company Yes Incentive x x x x x x
United Kingdom MCS MIS 3005 Company Yes Incentive x x x x x x x

United States NATE Certified HVAC Professional Person No Incentive5 x x x x x x x

(CHP-5)
United States C-20 Warm-Air Heating, Ventilating, and Person No Mandatory x x x x x x x
(California) Air-Conditioning Contractor license

Notes: Adv. electrical = Advanced electrical. Includes electrical works such as intervention on the switchboard that requires a full electrician license.
1 Mandatory in provinces where it is a compulsory trade.
2 Can be used to prove employee skills in some company-based certifications.
3 Can be replaced by higher education degrees or combining general heating and air conditioning certifications.
4 Certification has strong focus on safety, including refrigerants, but an F-Gas certification is still required.
5 Can be used to acquire EPA-recognised certifications like AHRI to access funding schemes.

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World Energy Employment 2025
Annex

Annexes

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Annex

Methodology – the World Energy Employment model

Our quantitative model of energy employment provides estimates of • Indirect: Supply chain jobs created to provide inputs to a final
demand for labour by energy technology, economic activity, region project or product.
and year, based on a number of key drivers. This modelling adds
• Induced: Jobs created by wages earned from the projects and
value by providing comprehensive, detailed labour estimates for the spent in other parts of the economy, thereby creating additional
energy sector with global coverage. employment.
By contrast, most official labour statistics do not cover the energy Our employment analysis includes all direct jobs and the indirect jobs
sector in detail. While they often provide specific estimates for some from suppliers that manufacture key energy-producing or energy-
traditional parts of the sector (such as oil and gas extraction), they do using technologies. Other indirect jobs, as well as induced jobs, are
not do so for many other emerging subsectors, (such as solar power not included. In employment literature, indirect jobs sometimes
or building retrofits). The level of detail available is also not consistent include jobs ‘supported’ by the purchase of equipment that is a key
across countries, and categories are not harmonised. In addition, enabler for another job. For example, automobile manufacturing is a
energy jobs exist across economic activities, such as construction key enabler for delivery and taxi driving jobs. These ‘supported’ jobs
and manufacturing, which make the entire value chain difficult to are not included in our analysis. This sets a clear boundary around
capture without secondary surveys. The annual World Energy the jobs that energy investment creates to deliver new projects, or
Employment report and the associated model aim to address this the jobs required to operate existing energy facilities.
gap, although is not a replacement for official labour statistics or
Jobs are normalised to full-time employment (FTE) for consistent
secondary survey-based approaches to assess energy employment.
accounting. One FTE job represents one person’s work for one year
at regulated norms (e.g. 40 hours a week for 52 weeks a year,
Definition and scope of employment excluding holidays). For example, two separate, six-month jobs are
Employment literature typically classifies job creation impacts by the counted as one FTE job.
following schema:
Employment numbers include our best estimate of the number of
• Direct: Jobs created to deliver a final project, product or operate informal workers. In alignment with International Labour Organization
a facility. (ILO) guidelines, informal employment includes all remunerative
work that is not registered, regulated, or protected by existing legal

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Annex

or regulatory frameworks (ILO, 2003). This comprises own-account (UN DESA, 2008). In the employment module, the economic
workers and workers employed in informal sector enterprises; activities covered are grouped into the following five categories:
contributing family workers; employees holding informal jobs;
members of informal producers’ co-operatives; and own-account • Raw materials: Agriculture (ISIC Section A) for bioenergy
production and Mining and quarrying (ISIC Section B) for
workers engaged in the production of goods exclusively for own final
production of coal, oil and gas.
use by their own household. Estimates are based on ILO data and a
literature review of informality rates by region and sector. • Manufacturing: ISIC Section C.
• Construction: ISIC Section F.
Categorisation by energy technology
• Professionals and utilities: Electricity, gas, steam, and air
Employment modelling now covers 55 energy subsectors. The scope
conditioning supply (ISIC Section D) as well as professional and
of energy employment technologies covered includes:
business services (ISIC Sections J-N and S).
• The supply of energy and related minerals, including: coal, oil • Wholesale and transport: Wholesale and retail trade (Code G)
and gas, modern bioenergy, critical minerals extraction (lithium, plus Transportation and storage (Code H).
copper, cobalt and nickel), nuclear fuels and low-emissions
hydrogen. Categorisation by asset life stage

• The power sector, including: electricity generation by source Employment is also categorised according to whether the job is
(fossil fuels, renewables, and nuclear) and power transmission, associated with building a new project or operating and maintaining
distribution and storage. existing energy infrastructure. This split is based on IEA energy
• Energy end uses, including: vehicle manufacturing (plus electric balances and related data. For example, the ratio between capacity
vehicle batteries) and energy efficiency (in buildings and additions and installed total power capacity informs the split between
industry). power sector employees working on new projects versus existing
power plants. The category “Operations and maintenance” (O&M) is
Categorisation by economic activity used to refer to the workers in existing energy infrastructure or
assets, as an indication of all ongoing jobs required to support the
Employment is categorised not only by energy technology, but also
proper operation of an energy project.
by economic activity, in accordance with the International Standard
Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC), Revision 4

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Categorisation by occupation and skill level • The Current Policies Scenario (CPS), which sets a pathway for
the energy system in which no change in energy-related policies
Employment is also categorised by occupation and skill level, in line
is assumed beyond what is already in law or regulation.
with the International Standard Classification of Occupations 2008
(ISCO-08) laid out by the ILO (ILO, 2025a). Occupations are defined • The Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), which takes into account
by the ILO as a “set of jobs whose main tasks and duties are policy intentions that have been formally proposed but not
characterised by a high degree of similarity”. codified into current laws and regulations. The STEPS considers
targets and pledges only insofar as they are backed by detailed
At the one-digit level, the ISCO-08 classification covers nine major policies, and does not assume that aspirational goals are met.
occupational groups:
• The Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario (NZE Scenario), a
1. Managers normative scenario which sets out a narrow but achievable
pathway for the global energy sector to reach net zero CO2
2. Professionals
emissions by 2050, while meeting key energy-related
3. Technicians and associate professionals Sustainable Development Goals.

4. Clerical support workers

Estimating current employment
5. Service and sales workers
Our model uses IEA data on energy investment and spending,
6. Skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers
energy production and consumption, power capacity and electricity
7. Crafts and related trades workers generation, and technology stocks, and sales as the basis to estimate
8. Plant and machine operators, and assemblers global employment. These datapoints are multiplied by employment
multipliers tailored to each energy subsector to estimate total
9. Elementary occupations
employment in the base year.
Categorisation by scenario Multipliers are produced via a comprehensive review of labour
The report’s focus is predominantly on today’s energy employment statistics, industry and firm-level data, academic research, and using
trends, but also includes projections to 2035 for three scenarios wage data for each subsector and region where available. Multipliers
used in the World Energy Outlook 2025: and employment estimates have been tested with companies within

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IEA’s Energy Business Council, peer reviewers, academics, industry consolidation in major firms that are publicly listed. Material from
groups and international organisations such as the IMF and ILO. academic and industry sources was screened to ensure harmonised
definitions and reference values were adjusted to adhere to the
Estimating job multipliers framework described. Where values from these sources were
Broadly, three types of multipliers are used in the model, based on unavailable, estimates were based on employment multipliers for
investment (jobs per million US dollars invested), volumetric data similar technologies. Where wage data specific to energy industries
(jobs per unit produced), and facilities and capacity in operation (jobs is not available, generalised wage data by region is used.
per unit capacity). Multipliers vary by region to reflect differences in
Allocating employment throughout project development stage
the local cost of labour and worker productivity. They also vary by
energy subsector, reflecting different project cost breakdowns, in Our employment estimates comprise both jobs in the operation of
other words how much of each million US dollars invested is existing assets, and jobs associated with the build-out of new
allocated to spending on labour versus materials. The primary projects. The latter are estimated based on overnight investment
sources used to estimate multipliers include: totals for each project. However, the totals recorded for overnight
investment fall in the year of project completion, whereas jobs are
• Wage data from national statistics and international databases,
generated throughout the project development phase, in the years
for investment multipliers.
leading up to this completion date. In our model, we therefore spread
• Legal financial filings that provide information on employment the overnight investment totals across prior years, based on typical
and revenue, cost breakdowns for projects, firm revenues and project delivery timelines for each technology. These spread
average wages. investment totals represent an estimate of the investment funds
• Academic, intergovernmental research and modelled estimates. spent in each year of the project planning and construction phases.
Employment in the build-out of new projects is then estimated by
• Individual company and industry group estimates.
multiplying these investment spending estimates by the employment
Government surveys of businesses were prioritised, when available multipliers.
with sufficient detail, to support the subsectoral analysis.
Employment and financial information were extracted from the
annual reports of major companies in each sector, though this
method could only be used for sectors with a high degree of

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Calibration to available employment data Economic Activities (NACE) enabled a harmonised approach to
collecting official statistics from different countries. Data of the
A rich collection of employment data from external sources is
highest granularity available is used in each case.
collected annually, to serve as benchmarks for the calibration of
multipliers. These data sources include: Allocating employment across global supply chains
• National statistics for all major countries For energy technologies with highly globalised supply chains,
• ILOSTAT databases (ILO, 2025c) employment estimates reflect where upstream manufacturing
capacity is located in the world, rather than where the corresponding
• United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) technologies are deployed. Data about the regional manufacturing
IndStat database (UNIDO, 2023)
capacity for specific technologies (such as solar PV panels, wind
• Reports by international organisations and industry associations turbines, gas turbines, etc.) was sourced from internal IEA databases
produced for the Energy Technology Perspectives (ETP) report, as
• Academic literature
well as other sources, and the global total of manufacturing jobs was
• Annual reports of major companies redistributed across Global Energy and Climate (GEC) Model regions
• Company interviews accordingly. For technologies that have very localised production,
such as building materials and biofuels, all manufacturing jobs were
Where data is collected from broad labour databases, we focus on
assumed to be created locally.
categories relevant to energy, including the complete list of ISIC
codes presented in the United Nations’ International
Recommendations for Energy Statistics (IRES, 2011). Our scope Outlook for employment
includes codes such as 0510 (mining of hard coal), 0610 (extraction Projections by scenario are based on IEA scenario results for all of
of crude petroleum), 0620 (extraction of natural gas), 1920 the same inputs that were used to estimate base year employment.
(manufacture of refined petroleum products), 2910 (manufacture of These are multiplied by the corresponding job multipliers – which are
motor vehicles), 3510 (electric power generation, transmission and differentiated by region and energy industry – to estimate total jobs
distribution), 4322 (plumbing, heat and air conditioning installation), in coming years until 2035, and thereby estimate changes in job
and 4930 (transport via pipeline), and others. A mapping between gains and losses relative to the base year, as well as what portion of
ISIC and other classifications such as the North American Industry existing jobs are maintained.
Classification System (NAICS) or the European Nomenclature of

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Estimating labour productivity improvements now include new categories of employment in energy efficiency,
including in efficient lighting (covering LED systems and smart
Multipliers evolve over time to reflect assumptions about labour
lighting controls) and buildings renewables. Together, these added
productivity improvements. Where industry-specific historic time
an additional 5.8 million jobs to our 2024 employment estimates.
series of employment and corresponding production (or another
relevant metric) are available, the historic rate of change is extended Other changes to historical estimates were the result of model
forward. Where specific time series are not available, data from the refinements. For vehicle manufacturing, employment is now
UN and ILO on value added by economic activity and employment modelled separately by vehicle weight class, rather than as a single
by economic activity are used to compute historic labour productivity group, allowing the model to capture the higher labour intensity of
improvement rates by region and applied to future multiplier heavier vehicle categories. In addition, the model now incorporates
improvements. employment in vehicle component manufacturing, including in
regions that do not assemble vehicles but contribute significantly to
Note on revisions of historical employment estimates the supply chain. On the whole, these changes resulted in an
increase of 3.4 million jobs compared to previous estimates for 2024.
For the first time, this report features historical employment estimates
back to 2015, allowing for a more rigorous assessment of medium- Finally, model development work was carried out for bioenergy
term trends. technologies. Employment is now disaggregated across biogas,
bioliquids, and solid biomass, rather than treated as an aggregate
In addition, WEE 2025 includes noteworthy baseline adjustments as
category. This more refined approach resulted in greater accuracy in
part of our continued efforts to maintain the world’s most up-to-date
estimates of overall employment in bioenergy, which has fallen by
and comprehensive energy labour force inventory data. Together,
1.2 million compared to previous reports. Other changes have
these baseline changes resulted in an increase of 6.7 million in our
resulted from updates published in 2025 to official employment
estimate of total energy employment, compared to previously
statistics and input data on energy investment, capacity and
published estimates.
production, which have resulted in a net reduction of 1.3 million jobs
The largest upward revisions result from an extension of the scope in 2024, compared to the provisional estimates published in
of our coverage of energy employment. Specifically, our estimates WEE2024.

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Methodology – IEA employment surveys

The WEE 2025 report draws on a new set of dedicated surveys The IEA Labour Employment Survey and gathered 213 responses,
conducted by the IEA. The purpose of these surveys was to gather covering 65 countries, from energy workers and workers'
new insights on workforce dynamics across the energy sector representatives, including trade unions.
through the perspectives of energy companies, labour unions, and
The IEA Educators’ Employment Survey collected 92 responses from
educational organisations, which animate and contextualise the
individuals conducting energy training in 36 countries, including those
findings of the energy employment model.
working at vocational schools, universities, and in internal training
When referenced as such, the analysis and figures presented departments within energy companies.
throughout the WEE report are based on responses from the
Across the three surveys, 52% of respondents came from emerging
following targeted surveys:
market and developing economies (EMDEs), and 48% from
• IEA Industry Employment Survey advanced economies.

• IEA Labour Employment Survey The data was collected via three separate online questionnaires,
• IEA Educators’ Employment Survey each tailored to either energy firms, energy workers and their
representatives, and educators specialised in the energy sector. The
The IEA Industry Employment Survey collected the insights of 429
data collection period started on 10 April 2025 and finished on
respondents, from 56 countries, with every region represented.
10 June 2025.
Surveyed companies spanned major industries such as mining and
extractives, manufacturing, and utilities, and operated across a wide The surveys included various types of questions, such as multiple-
range of energy subsectors including power generation, fuels, grids, choice questions, Likert scale questions, dropdown questions and
vehicles, and energy efficiency. Over 60% of the responses came open-ended questions. An example from the questions asked is
from small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) with 1-249 presented below.
employees, and the rest were received from large companies with
250+ employees. The survey included a special focus on grids and
nuclear, with dedicated questionnaires designed to capture sector-
specific insights.

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Survey question example from the IEA Industry Employment

Survey 2025

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Definitions and classifications

occupation, trade, or class of occupations or trades. The term
Education and training “general” education covers all non-vocational programmes, and is
defined as education programmes that are designed to develop
As a part of this report’s special focus on the Future of Energy Skills,
learners’ general knowledge and skills, often to prepare participants
the IEA has conducted a thorough analysis of education and training
for more advanced education programmes at a higher ISCED level.
outcomes and requirements for the energy sector. The definitions
and classifications used in this report relating to education and For vocational and tertiary degrees, the ISCED classification
training generally follow those outlined in the International Standard additionally distinguishes among a set of fields of education (also
Classification of Education 2011 (ISCED-11), except where known as subjects or disciplines). The categories used in this report
otherwise stated. follow the ISCED Fields of Education and Training 2013 (ISCED-F
2013) classification, which groups all educational programmes into
The main category of education and training considered in this report
11 broad fields, numbered from 0 to 10.
is formal educational programmes delivered by educational
institutions. The data presented on these programmes follow the Engineering, manufacturing and construction degrees (field code 07)
ISCED-11 classification, which divides educational programmes and are of particular interest in the context of the energy sector, as these
qualifications into different levels, fields, and orientations. subject areas (for both general and vocational qualifications) will be
most relevant for those involved in design, construction, operation
Education levels are presented as an ordered set from 0 to 9, from
and maintenance of physical energy infrastructure. For convenience,
early-childhood education at the lowest level, to doctoral or
these engineering, construction and manufacturing qualifications are
equivalent level at the highest. These ten levels can be further
referred to in this report as “energy-relevant” qualifications.
grouped into early childhood (0), primary (1), secondary (2-3), post-
secondary non-tertiary (4) and tertiary (5-8) levels. A wider category of interest is science, technology, engineering and
mathematics (STEM) education, which is of broader relevance to the
For levels 2-5 (lower secondary to short-cycle tertiary), the ISCED
energy sector, particularly in R&D and innovation contexts. Using the
classification additionally distinguishes the orientation of a
ISCED-F classification, STEM education is defined as the group
programme, which can be either general or vocational. Vocational
including ISCED field codes 05, 06 and 07.
education is defined as education programmes that are designed for
learners to acquire the knowledge and skills specific to a particular

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ISCED-11 education levels ISCED-F 2013 fields of education

Broad ISCED- ISCED-11 level Orientation(s) Disaggregation ISCED-F ISCED-F 2013 field name STEM “Energy-
education 11 level name by field of 2013 field field relevant”
level code education code field

Early Early childhood Generic programmes and

0 General No 00 No No
childhood education qualifications

Primary 1 Primary education General No 01 Education No No

Lower secondary General or Yes, for 02 Arts and humanities No No

Secondary 2
education Vocational vocational only
Social sciences, journalism and
03 No No
Upper secondary General or Yes, for information
Secondary 3
education Vocational vocational only
04 Business, administration and law No No
Post- Post-secondary
General or Yes, for
secondary 4 non-tertiary Natural sciences, mathematics and
Vocational vocational only 05 Yes No
non-tertiary education statistics

Short-cycle General or Information and communication

Tertiary 5 Yes 06 Yes No
tertiary education Vocational technologies

Bachelor’s or Engineering, manufacturing and

Tertiary 6 General Yes 07 Yes Yes
equivalent level construction

Master’s or Agriculture, forestry, fisheries and

Tertiary 7 General Yes 08 No No
equivalent level veterinary

Doctoral or 09 Health and welfare No No

Tertiary 8 General Yes
equivalent level
10 Services No No
Not elsewhere
Other 9 General No Note: STEM = science, technology, engineering and mathematics.
classified

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This report also considers education and training delivered outside of used to refer to different types qualifications (degrees, certifications,
formal educational institutions. certificates, etc.) are not standardised across different national
systems, so for this report we use the following definitions for
Much of the knowledge and skills required for the performance of a convenience:
particular occupation is acquired in the workplace. This includes
• Degrees refer to qualifications awarded at the end of a formal
work-based education, which is education or training that takes place
tertiary education programme.
in a real work environment and is an integral part of a formal
education programme. Work-based education is typically included as • Vocational qualifications are awarded upon completion of a
a core component of apprenticeships, which combine classroom- formal vocational education programme.
based instruction with structured, work-based learning under the • Certificates refer to qualifications awarded from non-formal
guidance of experienced professionals. educational programmes such as short-courses.
Formal education of this kind can be distinguished from both non- • Certification refers to a document which recognises and
formal education and informal learning. Non-formal education is validates certain skills or competencies. Certifications are
education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned by an typically awarded upon successful completion of an examination,
education provider, but does not necessarily apply a continuous in some cases with additional criteria, but are not necessarily
pathway-structure. It is therefore considered an alternative or a associated with an organised programme of learning.
complement to formal education, which in contrast does imply a Certifications are often awarded and recognised by an industry
progression through formally recognised and standardised levels. body, and are typically not recognised as part of formal
Non-formal education is typically provided in the form of short educational frameworks.
courses, workshops or seminars. Non-formal education delivered in • A licence is a form of certification which is considered as a
a workplace context is referred to as “on-the-job” (OTJ) training. requirement (legal or otherwise) in order to perform in a certain
Meanwhile, informal learning refers to learning that is not delivered profession, such as an electrician. Licenses typically require
through an organised course or by an institution, but is gained completion of an organised programme of learning, often in the
through activities and interactions in the workplace or through self- form of a vocational education programme.
directed study.

Formal and non-formal education programmes typically award a

qualification upon completion of the programme. Definitions of terms

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Types of qualifications: Degrees, certificates, certifications, and licenses

Credential Typical
Definition Purpose Example Training Modality Notes
Type Duration

Academic qualification In-depth knowledge

Master’s in Often required for high-level
awarded upon completion of a and theoretical Several
Degree Electrical University roles; strong theoretical
tertiary educational understanding in a years
Engineering foundation
programme field

Knowledge, skills
and competencies
NVQ Level 3
Qualification awarded upon specific to a
Vocational Several Electrical Vocational or Often required for trades and
completion of a vocational particular occupation,
qualification years Installation / technical school other vocational occupations
educational programme trade, or class of
Maintenance
occupations
or trades

Does not necessarily mean

Verifies education or A few days to Solar Energy
Proof of completing a specific the person is "certified"; often
Certificate training in a specific several International Short course
course or programme a step toward a license or
area months Certificate
certification

Awarded after passing an

Varies – can
exam and meeting criteria (e.g. Validates skills and
NABCEP Certified involve short Usually voluntary but highly
Certification work experience); usually from competency in a Varies
Solar Installer course, or self- valued
a non-governmental/industry professional area
directed learning
body

Legally authorises Varies

Government/regulatory Apprenticeship, Often mandatory; requires
someone to work in (includes Electrician
License approval to legally practice a technical school, education, experience, and
regulated training plus License
profession on-the-job training an exam
professions exam)

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Occupations, skill levels, and educational matching and plant and machine operators. Low-skilled workers include
elementary occupations.
For the first time, the WEE 2025 report presents modelled
employment results at the occupational level. The occupational Each occupation and skill level is associated with a typical
dimension in our model follows the International Standard requirement for attainment of a particular education level, in line with
Classification of Occupations 2008 (ISCO-08), at the one-digit level, the ILO’s approach to assessing educational mismatch. Attainment
covering nine major occupational groups: of primary education is considered as a normal minimum requirement
for low-skilled jobs; for medium-skilled jobs secondary or post-
1. Managers
secondary non-tertiary education is a normal requirement; and high-
2. Professionals skilled jobs usually require some form of tertiary education. Workers
3. Technicians and associate professionals with educational attainment above and below the typical requirement
are considered overqualified and underqualified, respectively. The
4. Clerical support workers
table below outlines the standard matching of occupations,
5. Services and sales workers educational requirements, and characteristic tasks normally
6. Skilled agricultural, forestry and fisheries workers observed at each skill level.

7. Craft and related trades workers In this report, the IEA has assessed the adequacy of vocational
8. Plant and machine operators, and assemblers educational capacity to fill occupational demand for these vocational
roles in the energy sector. For this purpose, we define “applied
9. Elementary occupations
technical roles” in the energy sector as those occupations typically
These occupational employment results are also presented in this requiring some kind of energy-relevant vocational or short-cycle
report by grouped skill level. We classify managers, professionals, education, including technicians, crafts and trades workers, and plant
and technicians as high-skilled occupations. Medium-skilled and machine operators.
occupations include clerical support workers, services and sales
workers, skilled agricultural workers, craft and related trades workers,

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Occupations, skill levels and typical educational requirements

Typical minimum educational
Skill Occupational group
requirements Characteristics
level (ISCO-08)
(ISCED-11 levels)
• Performance of complex technical and practical tasks
and/or complex problem solving and decision making,
1. Managers
in either case requiring an extensive body of
High- 2. Professionals
ISCED Levels 5-8: Tertiary education specialised knowledge
skilled 3. Technicians and associate
professionals* • Extended levels of literacy and numeracy and well-
developed to excellent interpersonal communication
skills

4. Clerical support workers • Performance of tasks such as operating, maintaining

ISCED Level 2: Lower secondary
5. Service and sales workers and/or repairing machinery and electronic equipment;
education
6. Skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery driving vehicles; manipulation and storage of
Medium- ISCED Level 3: Upper secondary
workers information
skilled education
7. Craft and related trades workers* • Simple to advanced literacy and numeracy is generally
ISCED Level 4: Post-secondary non-
8. Plant and machine operators, and required; some occupations may require significant
tertiary education.
assemblers* manual dexterity

• Performance of simple/routine physical/manual tasks

Low-
9. Elementary occupations ISCED Level 1: Primary education • Literacy and numeracy, if required, are not a significant
skilled
portion of work
* Included in the definition of applied technical roles in the energy sector.

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Glossary
Academic education: Formal education programmes, typically Employment estimates in this report are expressed in full-time
offered by universities or higher education institutions, that focus on equivalent (FTE) terms. Used synonymously in this report with
theoretical knowledge and lead to degrees in fields such as “workers”, “jobs”, and “workforce”.
engineering, environmental science, or energy economics.
Energy-related education: Refers to educational qualifications in
Applied technical roles: Occupations in the energy sector which the fields of engineering, manufacturing and construction (ISCED-F
typically require some form of vocational education. Includes 2013 field code 07).
technicians, craft and trades workers, and plant and machine
Field of education: The broad domain, branch or area of content
operators and assemblers.
covered by an education programme or qualification. Can also be
Apprenticeship: Combines classroom-based instruction with referred to as a "subject" or “discipline”.
structured, work-based learning under the guidance of experienced
General education: Education programmes that are designed to
professionals.
develop learners’ general knowledge, skills and competencies, as
Certification: Assessment and formal recognition of specific well as literacy and numeracy skills, often to prepare participants for
competencies – often related to technical or digital tasks – acquired more advanced education programmes at the same or a higher
through various means, including informal or non-formal learning. ISCED level and to lay the foundation for lifelong learning. Covers all
education programmes not categorised as vocational education (see
Education level: A grouping of education programmes in relation to
below).
gradations of learning experiences, as well as the knowledge, skills
and competencies which each programme is designed to impart. Informal employment: Includes all persons in employment that are
Examples of education levels include primary education and upper not registered, regulated or protected by existing legal or regulatory
secondary education. frameworks, as well as non-remunerative work undertaken in an
income-producing enterprise in accordance with guidelines
Employment: All persons of working age who are engaged in any
concerning a statistical definition of informal employment by the 17th
activity to produce goods or provide services for pay or profit, whether
International Conference of Labour Statisticians.
this is in paid employment or self-employment. Excludes unpaid
trainee work, volunteer work, and own-use production work.

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Informal learning: Learning that is not delivered through an Occupation: A set of jobs whose main tasks and duties are
organised course or by an institution, and but is gained through characterised by a high degree of similarity.
activities and interactions in the workplace or other social contexts,
On-the-job training: Learning that occurs directly in the workplace,
or through self-directed study.
enabling workers to acquire new skills or adapt existing ones in
Job: See “Employment”. response to evolving technologies or job requirements, often without
formal certification.
Labour force: All individuals who fulfil the requirements for inclusion
among the employed or the unemployed. The employed are defined Unabated fossil fuels: Includes energy resources based on coal, oil,
as those who work for pay or profit for at least one hour a week. The natural gas, or peat. In fuel supply, unabated energy includes coal,
unemployed are defined as people without work but actively seeking oil, natural gas extraction, refining and processing. In power,
employment and currently available to start work. unabated fossil fuel energy includes generation from coal, oil or
natural gas that is not abated through CCS or CCUS technology. In
Low-emissions: In power, low-emissions energy includes
end-use applications, unabated fossil energy includes internal
generation from renewable sources, nuclear and fossil fuels fitted
combustion engine (ICE) vehicles.
with CCUS; battery storage; and electricity grids. In end-use
applications, low-emissions energy includes electric vehicles and Vocational education and training (VET): Education and training
energy efficiency in buildings and industry. In fuel supply, low- programmes that are designed for learners to acquire the knowledge,
emissions energy includes modern bioenergy, low-emissions skills and competencies specific to a particular occupation, trade, or
hydrogen and nuclear fuels. class of occupations or trades.

Non-formal education: Education provided by educational Worker: see “Employment”.

institutions, but sitting outside of recognised formal educational
See the IEA glossary for a further explanation of many of the terms used in
frameworks, in that it does not imply a progression through this report.
standardised levels. Typically provided in the form of short courses,
workshops or seminars, and considered as an alternative or a
complement to formal education.

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Regional groupings
Advanced economies: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti,
Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus1,2, Czech Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, Bolivarian Republic of
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Latvia, Venezuela (Venezuela), and other Central and South American
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, countries and territories.
Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovak Republic, Slovenia,
China: Includes the People’s Republic of China and Hong Kong.
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Republic of Türkiye (Türkiye), United
Kingdom and United States. Emerging market and developing economies (EMDEs): All
countries not included in the advanced economies regional grouping.
Africa: Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Eurasia: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Russian Federation (Russia), Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and
Niger, Nigeria, Tunisia, Republic of the Congo (Congo), Senegal, Uzbekistan.
South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, United Republic of Tanzania
(Tanzania), Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe and other African countries Europe: Albania, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and
and territories. Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus1,2, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Gibraltar, Greece,
Asia Pacific: Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Kosovo, Latvia, Lithuania,
Chinese Taipei, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Luxembourg, Malta, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Macedonia,
Korea), India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Lao People’s Democratic Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovak Republic,
Republic (Lao PDR), Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Republic of Moldova,
Zealand, Pakistan, People’s Republic of China (China), Philippines, Republic of Türkiye (Türkiye), Ukraine and the United Kingdom.
Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam and other Asia Pacific
countries and territories. North America: Canada, Mexico and the United States.

Central and South America: Argentina, Plurinational State of Bolivia

(Bolivia), Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Curaçao,

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Middle East: Bahrain, Islamic Republic of Iran (Iran), Iraq, Jordan,

Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Republic
(Syria), United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
1
Note by Republic of Türkiye: The information in this document with reference to “Cyprus” relates
to the southern part of the island. There is no single authority representing both Turkish and
Greek Cypriot people on the island. Türkiye recognises the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
(TRNC). Until a lasting and equitable solution is found within the context of the United Nations,
Türkiye shall preserve its position concerning the “Cyprus issue”.
2
Note by all the European Union Member States of the OECD and the European Union: The
Republic of Cyprus is recognised by all members of the United Nations with the exception of
Türkiye. The information in this document relates to the area under the effective control of the
Government of the Republic of Cyprus.

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Abbreviations and acronyms

AI Artificial intelligence IEA International Energy Agency
ASM Artisanal and small-scale mining ILO International Labour Organization
BLS Bureau of Labour Statistics IMF International Monetary Fund
CAGR Compound annual growth rate ISCED International Standard Classification of Education
CCS Carbon capture and storage ISCED-F International Standard Classification of Education
CCUS Carbon capture, utilisation and storage Fields of Education and Training
CPS Current Policies Scenario ISCO International Standard Classification of Occupations
DAC Direct air capture ISIC International Standard Industrial Classification of All
Economic Activities
DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo
LFS Labour force survey
EHPA European Heat Pump Association
LNG Liquefied natural gas
EMDE Emerging market and developing economy
MER Market exchange rates
ERI Economic Research Institute
Mt Million tonnes
EU European Union
MW Megawatt
EUR Euro
NEET Not in employment, education or training
EURES EURopean Employment Services
NZE Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario
EV Electric vehicle
ODA Official Development Assistance
FTE Full-time equivalent
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
G20 Group of 20
Development
GDP Gross domestic product
OEM Original equipment manufacturer
GW Gigawatt
OJT On-the-job training
HVAC Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
PPP Purchasing power parity
ICE Internal combustion engine

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PV Photovoltaic US United States

R&D Research and development USD United States dollar
RD&D Research, development and demonstration USEER United States Energy and Employment Report
STEM Science, technology, engineering and mathematics VET Vocational education and training
STEPS Stated Policies Scenario VR Virtual Reality
TVET Technical vocational education and training WEE World Energy Employment report
UAE United Arab Emirates
UK United Kingdom
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization

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Acknowledgements
The World Energy Employment 2025 report was prepared jointly by Valuable comments and feedback were provided by senior
the World Energy Outlook Division of the Directorate of Sustainability, management and colleagues within the IEA, including Alessandro
Technology and Outlooks and the People-Centred Transitions team Blasi, Dan Dorner, Tim Gould, Timur Gül, Dennis Hesseling, Nick
of the Directorate of Energy Markets and Security of the International Johnstone, Christine Brandstatt, Michael Drtil, Thomas Spencer,
Energy Agency. The project was directed by Laura Cozzi and Brian Yasmine Arsalane, Olivia Chen, Eric Fabozzi, Bruno Idini, and
Motherway. The analytical teams were led by Daniel Wetzel and Nikolaos Papastefanakis. Thanks also to Jethro Mullen, Head of the
Jane Cohen. The lead authors were Michael McGovern Communications and Digital Office (CDO), and to CDO colleagues
(Overview), Juliette Denis-Senez (the Future of Energy Skills), Lee Bailey, Poeli Bojorquez, Astrid Dumond, Merve Erdil, Liv Gaunt,
Elspeth Hathaway (Policy recommendations), and Rebecca Ruff Grace Gordon, Oliver Joy, and Rob Stone.
(Fuel supply, power sector and end uses).
This work was made possible through the support and analytical
Energy employment modelling was carried out by Marco Baroni, contribution provided by Enel Foundation, together with the support
Michael McGovern, and Rebecca Ruff, with key contributions from of the IEA Clean Energy Transitions Programme.
Antoine Issac Ismael and Örs Sümeghy and built upon energy
Data from the International Labour Organization (ILO), United
modelling within the Global Energy and Climate Model framework.
Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), India
Other key quantitative analysis was carried out by Jacopo
National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC), Economic
Pasqualotto and Nives Della Valle.
Research Institute (ERI), and national labour statistics were essential
Other key contributions were made by Luke Hatton, Linus Mehl, for this analysis. Additionally, we are grateful to the 734 respondents
Merve Yilmaz, Matthieu Prin, and Fabian Voswinkel. Key underlying that provided essential feedback and shared valuable industry
data was provided by Konstantina Kalogianni (gender data), Aloys insights by participating in the IEA Industry Employment Survey, the
Nghiem (data), and Alessia Scoz (job postings). Marina dos Santos, IEA Labour Employment Survey and the IEA Educators’ Survey.
Reka Koczka, and Dylan Marecak provided other essential support.
Valuable perspectives were collected from industry experts, trade
Project co-ordination was managed by Rebecca Ruff. Diane Munro unions, and academia through deep-dive interviews, and numerous
carried editorial responsibility. external experts peer-reviewed preliminary drafts of the report. Their
comments and suggestions were of great value. They include:

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Katerina Ababiadou UNESCO Andrew Ferguson Heating, Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning Institute of Canada
Natasha Allen Alliance for Rural Electrification
Trey Fournier Oxy
Caleigh Andrews Independent expert
Rafael Garaffa European Commission
Adwoa Asantewaa World Bank
Andrea Garnero OECD
Marco Antonio Juliatto Brazil Ministry of Mines and Energy
Giulia Genuardi Enel Foundation
Mirko Armiento Enel Foundation
Amrita Goldar Indian Council for Research on
Mélanie Auvray European Heat Pump Association International Economic Relations
Fernanda Guedes ABEEólica
Ruby B. de Guzman Department of Energy, Philippines
Anthony Harte Shell UK
Kenneth Barrientos UNEVOC
Kevin Hempl World Bank
Mariana Batista Wind Europe
Shaibu Ibrahim IEEE Young professional
Harmeet Bawa Hitachi Energy
Philip Jordan BW Research
Adam Baylin-Stern Carbon Engineering
Diana Junquera Curiel IndustriALL Global Union
Chris Briggs University of Technology Sydney
Daniel Lee Oxy
Jodi Browne Natural Resources Canada
Maria Lelli Enel Foundation
Alex Callahan Canadian Labour Congress
Jeremy Lemaire Corys
Samantha Constant World Bank
Alina Maria Moldovan Kepler Chevereux
Vitória da Silva Mitsidi (Brazil)
Ernesto Martinelli Enel
Aru David Society for Social Improvement and
Sustainable Transformation (ASSIST) Camila Meireles International Labour Organization
Bert De Wel International Trade Union
Hadrian Mertins-Kirkwood Policy Alternatives (Canada)
Confederation
Fabio Domanico DG EMPL, European Commission Lidiane de Almeida Modesto Energy Research Office, Government
of Brazil
Emil Drevsfeldt Nielsen Dansk Metal
Reema Nanavaty Self-Employed Women’s Association
Casper Edmonds International Labour Organization
Rodrigo Neno European Youth Energy Network

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Jonathan Ngung European Youth Energy Network

Bassey Obeten Renewable Energy Association of
Nigeria
Stevan Palluel Enedis
Alda Paola Baldi Enel
Maria Penahora Garcia Institute for Just Transition, Spanish
Ministry for the Ecological Transition
and the Demographic Challenge
Rita Pinto Da Costa Iberian Region, Energias de Portugal
Glenda Quintini OECD
Martua Raja Confederation of All Indonesian Trade
AbdulHameed Raji Arup
Tshwanelo Rakaibe Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR)
Vincenzo Ranieri Enel
Rehanaben Riyawala Hariyali Green Initiative
Jay Rutovitz University of Technology Sydney
Sneha Satish Hedge IEEE Young professional
Antonius Schröder TU Dortmund University
Alexandre Siné Enedis
Matilde Spoerer Government of Chile
Jasper Van Loo European Centre for the Development
of Vocational Training
Ryan Young BW Research

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