Cairo University

Faculty of Engineering

Electrical power department

Graduation Project 2025

Design of 66/13.8/3.3 KV GIS Substation

Under Supervision
Dr. Mohamed Shams
Dr. Mohamed Hassan

Prepared by
• Alaa Maher Mohamed Ali • Mahmoud Sherif
• Alaa Ibrahim Awad • Mena Allah Sherif
• Ibrahim Ahmed El-Sayed • Nour El-Deen Medhat Shokry
• Seif El-Deen Amr Hussein • Youssef Mohamed Kamel

Sponsored by
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all we would like to thank Allah for the accomplishment of our graduation
project The final step in our long academic journey and thank our families for their
continuous support.
One behalf of our team we want to express our grateful for whom supported us with
their valuable experience and provided us extensive personal and professional
guidance.

• Special thanks to our supervisors:

Dr Mohamed Shams
Dr Mohamed Hassan

• Special thanks to Siemens Energy for sponsoring our graduation project:

Thanks to the expert, Eng. Ashraf Mokhtar, for his great efforts with us during the
technical sessions throughout the project, and to

✓ Eng. Mahmoud Zaki, Head of commissioning

✓ Eng Farag El Saadany, Head of Transmission Solutions

✓ Eng Mohamed El Ghazoly, Head of Engineering Department

✓ Eng Ahmed Abuobida, Site Manager

✓ Eng. Mohamed Salama, Power transformer specialist

for their valuable efforts during our site visit to the Capital Gardens Substation.

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 Table of Contents
Chapter (1) Introduction ................................................................................. 11
1.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................... 11
1.2 Substations Classification ......................................................................................................... 11
1.2.1 Based on Insulation Medium ............................................................................................. 11
1.2.2 Based on Voltage Level ...................................................................................................... 13
1.2.3 Based on Application ......................................................................................................... 13
1.2.4 Based on Equipment Layout .............................................................................................. 14
1.2.5 Based on Busbar Arrangement Configuration ................................................................... 14
1.3 Main Substation Equipment ...................................................................................................... 18
1.3.1 Surge arrestors .................................................................................................................... 18
1.3.2 Disconnect switch (Isolator)............................................................................................... 19
1.3.3 Earth switch (Grounding Switch) ....................................................................................... 19
1.3.4 High Speed Earth Switch ................................................................................................... 20
1.3.5 Current Transformer (CT) .................................................................................................. 20
1.3.6 Voltage Transformers (VT)........................................................................................... 21
1.3.7 Circuit Breakers.................................................................................................................. 22
1.4 Electrical Engineer Roles in substations ................................................................................... 23
1.4.1 Primary Engineer................................................................................................................ 23
1.4.2 Secondary Engineer............................................................................................................ 24
Chapter (2) Project scope ................................................................................ 26
2.1 General Technical Specification ............................................................................................... 26
2.2 Single Line Diagram (SLD) ................................................................................................. 26
2.2.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................ 26
2.2.2 Important studies performed on a Single Line Diagram .................................................... 26
2.2.3 When to update Single Line Diagram ................................................................................ 26
2.2.4 How to design the SLD ...................................................................................................... 27
2.2 Transformer Sizing .................................................................................................................... 30
2.2.1 Three windings transformer ............................................................................................... 30
2.2.2 Two windings transformer.................................................................................................. 32
2.2.3 Auxiliary Transformer ........................................................................................................ 32
2.3 Busbar Sizing ............................................................................................................................ 33
2.3.1 Busbar (66KV) ................................................................................................................... 33
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 2.3.2 Busbar (13.8KV) ................................................................................................................ 34
2.4 Circuit Breaker Sizing ......................................................................................................... 34
2.4.1 Normal Capacity Calculation ............................................................................................. 34
2.4.2 Breaking Capacity Calculation ( SC Capacity ) ................................................................. 35
2.5 Circuit Breaker Selection .......................................................................................................... 35
2.5.1 For the 66 KV ( After the grid and before the transformers ) ............................................ 35
2.5.2 For the 66 KV ( Before three windings transformers ) ...................................................... 36
2.5.3 For the 66 kV (Before two winding transformer) .............................................................. 36
2.5.4 For the 3.3 kV (After three winding transformer) .............................................................. 37
2.5.5 For the 13.8 kV (After two windings transformer) ............................................................ 37
2.5.6 For the 13.8 kV (Booster Motor bay) ................................................................................. 38
Chapter (3) Cable Sizing .................................................................................. 40
3.1 Cable Layers ............................................................................................................................. 40
3.1.1 Conductor ........................................................................................................................... 40
3.1.2 Conductor Screen ............................................................................................................... 40
3.1.3 Insulation ............................................................................................................................ 40
3.1.4 Insulation Shield ................................................................................................................. 40
3.1.5 Metallic Sheath ................................................................................................................... 40
3.1.6 Filler (Bedding) .................................................................................................................. 40
3.1.7 Armour ............................................................................................................................... 40
3.1.8 Outer Jacket ........................................................................................................................ 40
3.2 Cable Routing ........................................................................................................................... 41
3.2.1 Cable trays .......................................................................................................................... 41
3.2.2 Pipes ................................................................................................................................... 41
3.2.3 Underground Cables ........................................................................................................... 41
3.3 Cable Design ............................................................................................................................. 42
3.3.1 Current Carrying Capacity check ....................................................................................... 42
3.3.2 Voltage Drop check ........................................................................................................... 44
3.3.3 Short Circuit check ............................................................................................................. 44
3.4 MV Cable Design in scope of project ....................................................................................... 46
3.4.1 Cables sizing after two windings transformer:................................................................... 46
3.4.2 Cables sizing after three windings transformer:................................................................. 49
3.4.3 Cable sizing from 3.3kV switchgear to Motor : ................................................................. 51

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 3.4.4 Cable sizing from 13.8kV switchgear to Motor : ............................................................... 52
Chapter (4) AC and DC Auxiliary .................................................................. 54
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 54
4.2 Panel Arrangements .................................................................................................................. 54
4.3 AC Auxiliary System ................................................................................................................ 55
4.3.1 AC SLD ........................................................................................................................ 57
4.4 DC Auxiliary System ................................................................................................................ 58
4.4.1 DC SLD .............................................................................................................................. 59
4.5 Batteries ................................................................................................................................. 60
4.5.1 Battery Room Safety .......................................................................................................... 61
4.5.2 Battery Chargers ................................................................................................................. 61
Chapter (5) Grounding System ....................................................................... 63
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 63
5.2 Objective ................................................................................................................................... 63
5.3 Parts of the Substation’s Grounding System............................................................................. 63
5.3.1 The Grounding Network .................................................................................................... 64
5.3.2 The Connection to the Earth ............................................................................................... 64
5.4 Limits of Current Tolerable by the Human Body ..................................................................... 65
5.6 Tolerable Voltages ..................................................................................................................... 65
5.6.1 Metal to metal voltage (Emm) ........................................................................................... 65
5.6.2 Step voltage 𝑬𝒔 .................................................................................................................. 65
3.1.5.c Touch voltage (𝑬𝒕) .......................................................................................................... 65
3.1.5.d Mesh voltage 𝑬𝒎 ............................................................................................................ 65
3.1.5.e Transferred voltage (𝑬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐝)............................................................................. 65
5.7 Overview on our Substation...................................................................................................... 66
5.7.1 Earth Grid Specifications ................................................................................................... 66
5.7.2 Earthing Transformers ........................................................................................................ 67
5.7.3 Neutral Grounding.............................................................................................................. 67
5.8 Grounding Design Steps : ......................................................................................................... 68
5.9 Soil Resistivity Measurement Methods .................................................................................... 69
5.9.1 Wenner Four Pin Method ................................................................................................... 69
5.9.2 Schlumberger Method ........................................................................................................ 70
5.9.3 Driven Rod (3 Pins) Method .............................................................................................. 70
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5.10 Grounding System in our Substation Using Excel ................................................................. 71
5.10.1 Calculation of conductor cross section according to IEEE std 80 ................................... 71
5.10.2 calculation of ground resistance according to IEEE std 80 ............................................. 72
5.10.3 Maximum permissible value of step and touch voltage according to IEEE std 80 ......... 72
5.10.4 mesh and step voltage calculations according to IEEE std/80 ......................................... 73
5.11 Grounding System In the Substation Using CYMGrd : ......................................................... 73
Chapter (6) Protection...................................................................................... 75
6.1 Protective Relays ...................................................................................................................... 75
6.1.1 Distance Relay.................................................................................................................... 75
6.1.2 Differential Relay ............................................................................................................... 81
6.1.3 Over Current Relay ............................................................................................................ 84
6.2 Types of Substation ................................................................................................................... 87
6.2.1 Conventional Substation .................................................................................................... 87
6.2.2 SCADA Based Substation .................................................................................................. 87
6.2.3 SAS (Substation Automation System) ............................................................................... 88
6.3 Protection Schemes and Associated Control & Metering Panels in Substations...................... 89
6.3.1 Local Control Panel (+W) .................................................................................................. 89
6.3.2 Remote Control Panel (+P) ................................................................................................ 91
6.3.3 Protection Unit ................................................................................................................... 91
6.3.4 Metering Unit ..................................................................................................................... 92
6.3.5 Busbar Protection ............................................................................................................... 93
6.4 Types of Bays in a Substation ................................................................................................... 95
6.4.1 Line Bay ............................................................................................................................. 95
6.4.2 Transformer Bay ................................................................................................................. 97
6.4.3 Coupler Bay...................................................................................................................... 101
Chapter (7) CT and VT Sizing ...................................................................... 102
7.1 Current Transformer................................................................................................................ 102
7.1.1 Functions .......................................................................................................................... 102
7.1.2 Types ................................................................................................................................. 102
7.1.3 Metering CT & protection CT .......................................................................................... 103
7.1.4 Specifications of CT ......................................................................................................... 104
7.1.5 CT sizing..................................................................................................................... 106
7.1.6 CTs Cores in our substation ............................................................................................. 107
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7.2 Voltage Transformer ................................................................................................................ 125
7.2.1 Introduction to Voltage Transformers ............................................................................... 125
7.2.2 Types of Voltage Transformers ................................................................................... 125
7.2.3 VT Sizing.......................................................................................................................... 126
Chapter (8) Relay Coordination ................................................................... 131
8.1 The importance of overcurrent protection .............................................................................. 131
8.1.1 Coordination procedure .................................................................................................... 131
8.1.2 Principles of Time/Current grading .................................................................................. 131
8.1.3 Points affecting this method ............................................................................................. 133
8.1.4 Discrimination by both Time and Current ....................................................................... 134
8.2 Relay coordination Using ETAP: ............................................................................................ 135
8.2.1 Three phase Fault at Booster Motor ................................................................................. 137
8.2.2 Fault at 13.8 kV bus ......................................................................................................... 138
8.2.3 Fault at VFD Motor .......................................................................................................... 139
8.2.4 Fault at 3.3 kV bus ........................................................................................................... 140
8.2.5 Fault at primary side of three windings transformer ........................................................ 141
8.2.6 Fault at 66kV bus ............................................................................................................. 141
8.3 Protection Star Views .............................................................................................................. 142
Chapter (9) Lightning Protection and surge arrestor ................................ 146
9.1 Lightning Protection ............................................................................................................... 146
9.1.1 Selected factors ................................................................................................................ 146
9.1.2 Selected Protection Level ................................................................................................. 148
9.1.3 Design Phase .................................................................................................................... 149
9.2 Surge Arrester Sizing .............................................................................................................. 152
9.2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 152
9.2.2 Determination of Minimum Rated Voltage ...................................................................... 153
9.2.3 Verification Using Temporary Overvoltage (TOV) Capability ........................................ 153
9.2.4 Selection of Surge Arrester Type and Class ..................................................................... 154
9.2.5 Determination of Protection Levels (𝑼𝒑𝒍 and 𝑼𝒑𝒔) ....................................................... 154
9.2.6 Calculation of Protection Margins ................................................................................... 155
9.2.7 Selection of Final Surge Arrester Rating.......................................................................... 156
9.2.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 157

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 Table of Figures
Figure 1 Air Insulated Substation ....................................................................................................... 11
Figure 2 Gas Insulated Substation ...................................................................................................... 12
Figure 3 Single bus Configuration ...................................................................................................... 15
Figure 4 Main Bus and Transfer Bus Configuration .......................................................................... 15
Figure 5 Double Bus Double Breaker Configuration ......................................................................... 16
Figure 6 Double Bus Single Breaker Configuration .......................................................................... 16
Figure 7 Ring Bus Configuration ....................................................................................................... 16
Figure 8 Breaker and Half Configuration ........................................................................................... 17
Figure 9 Surge arrestors ...................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 10 Valve type arrestor ............................................................................................................. 18
Figure 11 Metal oxide arrestor ........................................................................................................... 18
Figure 12 Disconnect switch .............................................................................................................. 19
Figure 13 Grounding Switch .............................................................................................................. 19
Figure 14 GIS High Speed Earth Switch ............................................................................................ 20
Figure 15 Current Transformer ........................................................................................................... 20
Figure 16 : Single Line Diagram ........................................................................................................ 28
Figure 17: K-Factors ........................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 18: Transformer derating factor .............................................................................................. 31
Figure 19 : Busbar 66kV..................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 20 : Busbar 13.8kV ................................................................................................................. 34
Figure 21 : Layout .............................................................................................................................. 39
Figure 22 : Cable Layers..................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 23 : Ladder cable tray .............................................................................................................. 41
Figure 24: Air Temperature derating factor ....................................................................................... 42
Figure 25 : Ground Temperature derating factor................................................................................ 42
Figure 26 :Burial depth derating factor .............................................................................................. 43
Figure 27: Soil thermal resistivity derating factor .............................................................................. 43
Figure 28: Grouping derating factor ................................................................................................... 44
Figure 29: Short circuit current in kA for copper and XLPE insulation ............................................ 45
Figure 30 :Two windings transformer Bay......................................................................................... 46
Figure 31 : Selected MV Cable for two winging transformer ............................................................ 47
Figure 32 : Three windings transformer Bay...................................................................................... 49
Figure 33 : Selected MV Cable for three winging transformer .......................................................... 49
Figure 34: AC Auxiliary Loads .......................................................................................................... 56
Figure 35 : AC Auxiliary SLD ........................................................................................................... 57
Figure 36 220v chargers ..................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 37: DC Auxiliary SLD ............................................................................................................ 60
Figure 38 :Grounding Network .......................................................................................................... 64
Figure 39 : Basic shock situations ...................................................................................................... 66
Figure 40 : Design Procedures flow chart ......................................................................................... 68
Figure 41 : Wenner Four Pin Method ................................................................................................. 69
Figure 42 : Schlumberger Method ...................................................................................................... 70
Figure 43 : Driven Rod (3 Pins) Method ............................................................................................ 70
Figure 44: Grid of Grounding Grid 2D View ..................................................................................... 73
Figure 45 :Grid of Grounding Grid 3D View ..................................................................................... 74
Figure 46 : The Potential Profile Plot ................................................................................................. 74
Figure 47 : Permissible vs Actual Ground Potential Values .............................................................. 74
Figure 48: Grounding Resistance ....................................................................................................... 74
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Figure 49 : Operation mechanism and Torque characteristic for Impedance Relay .......................... 75
Figure 50 : Drawbacks of Impedance Relay Characteristic ............................................................... 76
Figure 51 : Directional Impedance Characteristic .............................................................................. 76
Figure 52 : Self-Polarized Mho (Admittance) Characteristic............................................................. 77
Figure 53: Third Zone and Busbar Back-up Zone characteristic ....................................................... 78
Figure 54 : Carrier Starting Unit in Distance Schemes with Carrier Blocking .................................. 79
Figure 55 : Quadrilateral Characteristic ............................................................................................. 79
Figure 56 : Reactance Type Characteristic ......................................................................................... 79
Figure 57: Lenticular Characteristic .................................................................................................. 80
Figure 58 :Typical high impedance differential scheme .................................................................... 81
Figure 59 : Distributed busbar protection ........................................................................................... 82
Figure 60 :Transformer Differential Relay Protection ....................................................................... 83
Figure 61 : Schematic Diagram of Differential Protection Scheme ................................................... 84
Figure 62: Instantaneous Action ......................................................................................................... 84
Figure 63 : time delayed action ......................................................................................................... 85
Figure 64 : Numerical relay time vs current c/cts .............................................................................. 85
Figure 65: Operating time vs current (multiples of pick-up SETTING) ............................................ 86
Figure 66: Line Bay ............................................................................................................................ 95
Figure 67 : Protection Scheme of Line Feeder ................................................................................... 97
Figure 68 : Transformer Bay .............................................................................................................. 97
Figure 69 : Buchholz Relay ................................................................................................................ 99
Figure 70 : Pressure Relief Device ..................................................................................................... 99
Figure 71 : Protection scheme of three windings transformer ......................................................... 100
Figure 72 : Protection Scheme of two windings transformer ........................................................... 100
Figure 73 : Coupler Bay ................................................................................................................... 101
Figure 74 : Protection Scheme of Coupler ....................................................................................... 101
Figure 75 :CT magnetization curve .................................................................................................. 103
Figure 76 : Equivalent circuit of CT ................................................................................................. 103
Figure 77: Knee Point Voltage Definition for CT ............................................................................ 105
Figure 78 : Inductive Voltage Transformers .................................................................................... 125
Figure 79 : Capacitive Voltage Transformers Circuit ...................................................................... 125
Figure 80 : Double Frequency Meter ............................................................................................... 130
Figure 81 :Synchroscope .................................................................................................................. 130
Figure 82 : Relay characteristics for different settings ..................................................................... 134
Figure 83 : CT specs in ETAP .......................................................................................................... 135
Figure 84 : Relay Chosen in ETAP .................................................................................................. 135
Figure 85 : Relay Settings ................................................................................................................ 136
Figure 86 : star view for Booster motor and its protective relay ...................................................... 142
Figure 87 :Star view for the selected relays at 13.6 KV level .......................................................... 143
Figure 88:3Star view for relays of 3 winding bay ............................................................................ 144
Figure 89:Star view of LVCB and cable connected to lambed load ................................................ 145
Figure 90: Lightning Protection Level ............................................................................................. 148
Figure 91 : Air Termination arrangement......................................................................................... 151
Figure 92: Flowchart for selection of surge arresters ....................................................................... 152

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 Tables
Table 1 : Comparison between GIS and AIS .......................................................................... 12
Table 2 : Comparison between Busbar Configurations .......................................................... 17
Table 3 : Grounding Resistance .............................................................................................. 24
Table 4: Equation of relay characteristic................................................................................. 85
Table 5: Equations of ANSI overcurrent relay ....................................................................... 86
Table 6:Different Accuracy Classes for CTs ........................................................................ 104
Table 7:Accuracy Class of protection CT ............................................................................. 105
Table 8 : Comparison between Inductive VT and Capacitive VT ........................................ 126
Table 9 : Relay Settings......................................................................................................... 136

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Chapter (1) Introduction
1.1 Overview
The interconnection of various power system networks relies on a crucial infrastructure
component: the electrical substation. An electrical substation is a sophisticated assembly of
electrical equipment, including busbars, switchgear, power transformers, and auxiliary systems.
These components are organized in a structured sequence to facilitate both manual and automatic
control. During normal operation, substations enable circuits to be switched on and off through
manual commands, while in abnormal situations, such as short circuits, they provide automatic
protective responses to maintain system stability and safety.

An electrical substation consists of multiple incoming and outgoing circuits connected to a shared
busbar system. It receives electrical power from sources like generating stations through incoming
transmission lines and distributes this power through outgoing transmission lines to designated
areas.

1.2 Substations Classification

1.2.1 Based on Insulation Medium
According to the dielectric between the current carrying conductors with each other or between a
current carrying conductor and an earthed surface.

• Air Insulated Substation (AIS)

Air Insulated Substations (AIS) use air as the
primary dielectric material for insulation between
phases and from phase to ground. AIS technology
has been widely used for years prior to the
development of Gas Insulated Substations (GIS).
In AIS, air provides insulation between
components, but it has relatively low dielectric
strength and requires significant physical
clearance. This is particularly challenging in
densely populated urban areas where space is
limited. Environmental factors such as humidity,
rain, and air pollution can degrade the insulating
properties of air, requiring AIS to have larger
physical infrastructure to meet insulation Figure 1 Air Insulated Substation
standards. Moreover, AIS structures are
susceptible to gradual deterioration from atmospheric conditions, and any seismic activity can
jeopardize the stability of the entire setup. These factors lead to complex planning, extended
execution time, and increased capital and operational costs due to frequent maintenance.
To address these limitations, Gas Insulated Substations (GIS) offer a compact and efficient
alternative. GIS enclosures use a special insulating gas, detailed in this paper, which allows for
effective insulation within a much smaller footprint. In GIS, components such as busbars, circuit
breakers, and switchgear are housed within a gas-filled chamber, providing robust insulation with
minimal space requirements. This technology mitigates many of the spatial and environmental
challenges associated with AIS, making GIS a viable solution for modern electrical substations,
especially in urban environments.

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 • Gas Insulated Substation
A Gas Insulated Substation (GIS) is an
electric power substation where all live
components and busbars are enclosed within
grounded metal chambers filled with gas.
The gas commonly used is sulfur
hexafluoride (SF₆), known for its excellent
dielectric properties, which provides
insulation between phases and from phase to
ground at a moderate pressure. In GIS, high-
voltage conductors, circuit breakers,
switches, current transformers, voltage
transformers, and surge protectors are
encapsulated within SF₆-insulated chambers,
offering robust isolation.
The superior dielectric strength of SF₆ gas
allows for significantly reduced phase-to-
phase and phase-to-ground clearance, Figure 2 Gas Insulated Substation
making GIS particularly suitable for densely
populated urban areas where space is limited. The compact design of GIS can reduce the overall
footprint of a substation to approximately 10% of that required by traditional Air Insulated
Substations (AIS).
GIS is also equipped with a gas monitoring system to ensure proper gas pressure within each
compartment, typically maintained at around 3 kg/cm². If the pressure drops, the system
automatically activates gas containment, and in cases of further leakage, a low-pressure alarm or
automatic shutdown is triggered to ensure safety and reliability.

Attribute GIS (Gas Insulated Substation) AIS (Air Insulated Substation)

Size More Compact Large
Suitable for polluted areas and inside big
Usage Typically used outside cities
cities
Capital Cost High Relatively Low
Special Design Required for certain equipment Not required
Free maintenance for 5 years, but complex Requires yearly maintenance
Maintenance
and requires specialized expertise based on operation, but simpler
Installation Quick and easy assembly, requiring less time Installation takes more time
Reliability More reliable Less reliable
Safety Higher level of safety Lower level of safety
Table 1 : Comparison between GIS and AIS

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 1.2.2 Based on Voltage Level
In Egypt, voltage transmission is classified into specific levels based on voltage intensity,
addressing the varying needs of large-scale transmission, regional distribution, and localized
delivery. Each level is defined by a standardized range that aligns with international best practices
for efficient energy distribution and network safety. The classifications are as follows:

• Extra High Voltage (EHV)

✓ Voltage Levels: 500 kV and 220 kV networks
✓ Application: These voltages are primarily used for long-distance transmission across
major regions and to connect high-capacity power plants to the main grid. The extra-
high voltage minimizes energy loss over extended distances and ensures reliable
delivery to high demand areas.
• High Voltage (HV)
✓ Voltage Levels: 132 kV and 66 kV networks
✓ Application: The high-voltage network is used for intermediate transmission
distances, typically connecting substations and large distribution points within
regions. High-voltage transmission supports urban centers and large industrial zones,
enabling efficient power delivery with reduced transmission losses.
• Medium Voltage (MV)
✓ Voltage Levels: 33 kV, 22 kV, and 11 kV networks
✓ Application: Medium-voltage lines distribute power from regional substations to
various urban, suburban, and rural areas, providing electricity to commercial,
industrial, and residential consumers. These levels balance efficiency with localized
distribution needs.
• Low Voltage (LV)
✓ Voltage Levels: Networks below 1,000 V
✓ Application: Low-voltage networks are used primarily for final delivery to end users
in residential, commercial, and light industrial settings. These lines directly power
homes, small businesses, and public facilities, ensuring safety and reliability for end
consumers.
This voltage classification structure supports Egypt’s growing energy demands by optimizing
distribution efficiency and stability while maintaining strict adherence to safety and operational
standards.

1.2.3 Based on Application

• Generation Substation
A step up transmission substation functions as a critical intermediary in the power transmission
process, receiving electrical power directly from a nearby generating facility. Using a high-capacity
power transformer, the substation increases the voltage to levels suitable for efficient transmission
across long distances. This enhanced voltage power is then directed to a transmission bus, which
serves as a distribution hub, allocating electricity to one or more transmission lines for onward
distribution.
Additionally, the substation may incorporate a tap on the incoming power feed from the generation
plant, allowing it to supply power to essential operating equipment within the generating facility
itself. The exact voltage levels dispatched from the stepup transmission substation are tailored to
meet the specific demands of the utility’s customers and are aligned with the requirements for
integration with regional grid connections, ensuring both reliability and consistency across the
network.
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 • Transmission Substation
A transmission substation serves as a pivotal connection point between two or more transmission
lines, enabling the seamless flow and distribution of electrical power across networks. In the
simplest configuration, where all transmission lines operate at the same voltage, the substation is
equipped with high-voltage switches. These switches facilitate the connection or isolation of lines,
enabling maintenance or fault clearance without disrupting the overall system.
More complex transmission substations are outfitted with additional equipment to enhance system
reliability and optimize power flow. They may include transformers to step voltage up or down
between different transmission levels, as well as voltage regulation devices such as capacitors,
reactors, or Static VAR Compensators (SVCs). In cases where precise control of power flow
between two adjacent power systems is necessary, phase-shifting transformers are employed,
allowing for effective load balancing and efficient energy distribution across interconnected
systems.

• Distribution Substation
A distribution substation serves as the link between the high-voltage transmission system and the
lower-voltage distribution system of a specific area. Directly connecting most electricity consumers
to the high-voltage transmission network is generally inefficient and costly unless they have
substantial power demands. Instead, the distribution substation reduces the transmission voltage to
levels suitable for local distribution, making it safe and economical for widespread residential and
commercial use.
The substation’s output is channeled through multiple feeders, each supplying power to a distinct
part of the local distribution network. Distribution voltages typically range from 2.4 to 33 kV,
depending on the geographic area covered and the standards of the local utility. This intermediate
voltage level is carefully selected to balance efficiency in power delivery with the cost and
infrastructure requirements of the distribution system.

1.2.4 Based on Equipment Layout

• Outdoor Substation
Equipment Located Under Open Sky
• Indoor Substation
Equipment Housed Inside a Building

1.2.5 Based on Busbar Arrangement Configuration

• Single Bus
As the name implies, the single bus substation configuration consists of all circuits connected to a
main bus. A fault on the bus or between the bus and circuit breaker will result in an outage of the
entire bus or substation. The failure of a single circuit breaker will also result in an outage of the
entire bus.

Maintenance of any circuit breaker requires shutdown of the corresponding circuit/line and
maintenance of the bus requires a complete shutdown of the bus. A bypass switch across the breaker
should be used for maintenance of the corresponding breaker. Circuit protection is disabled in this
case.

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The single bus substation configuration is the simplest and
least expensive of all configurations. This configuration
requires less installation area, and it can be easily expanded.
Single bus configurations are not considered reliable
systems, and they should only be implemented in
substations where high reliability is not required, such as
large transmission yards. Reliability and availability of this
system can be improved by expanding and sectionalizing the
bus.

• Main Bus and Transfer Bus Figure 3 Single bus Configuration

In the main and transfer bus substation configuration,

one or more additional buses are added to the basic
single bus setup, providing increased flexibility and
reliability. This arrangement may include one or more
circuit breakers to facilitate connections between the
main and transfer buses, allowing for more efficient
maintenance and operational control.
When no tie circuit breaker (Tie CB) is included,
maintenance on a circuit breaker involves energizing
the transfer bus by closing isolator switches to it. The
circuit breaker slated for maintenance is then opened Figure 4 Main Bus and Transfer Bus Configuration
and isolated on both sides, though this setup disables
circuit protection for the duration of maintenance.
With a tie circuit breaker in place, maintenance becomes more streamlined. In this case, the tie
breaker is closed to energize the transfer bus, and the isolator nearest the transfer bus of the breaker
to be serviced is closed. The circuit breaker designated for maintenance is then opened, isolated, and
removed, and its circuit is seamlessly transferred to the transfer bus. This method ensures minimal
disruption to the substation's operation while providing a safe maintenance pathway.
The main and transfer bus configuration offers greater reliability and expandability compared to the
single bus arrangement, though at a higher cost and with increased complexity. The protective relay
scheme in this setup is intricate, as it must manage the tie breaker’s role in maintaining circuit
protection during maintenance. Additionally, the switching procedure required to maintain any
circuit breaker is more involved.
Despite these advantages, a fault on the bus or a circuit breaker failure can still result in an outage of
the entire substation, though less likely than in a single bus configuration. This arrangement is
therefore suitable for facilities needing higher reliability but willing to manage the additional costs
and operational complexities.

Page | 15
 • Double Bus Double Breaker

The double bus double breaker configuration uses two buses

and two breakers per circuit, allowing both buses to remain
energized. Circuits can be maintained without causing
outages, and if one bus fails, circuits switch to the other,
maintaining service continuity.
Though this arrangement requires twice the equipment of a
single bus setup, it provides high reliability and allows for
load balancing by shifting circuits between buses. This
configuration is commonly used in EHV transmission
substations or generating stations, where operational Figure 5 Double Bus Double Breaker Configuration
reliability is critical.

• Double Bus Single Breaker

In the double bus single breaker configuration, substations
are equipped with two buses, each circuit having a single
breaker connected to both buses via isolators. A normally
closed tie breaker links the two buses, providing operational
flexibility. In the event of a fault on one bus, that bus can be
isolated, and circuits continue to operate via the opposite bus.
This scheme is more costly and requires additional
installation space compared to a single bus configuration. It
is frequently used with an extra transfer bus in EHV
transmission substations, where enhanced reliability and Figure 6 Double Bus Single Breaker Configuration

flexibility are needed.

• Ring Bus
The ring bus configuration arranges circuit breakers in a ring,
with isolators on each side, allowing each circuit to be fed from
both directions. This design provides high operational flexibility
and reliability, as any circuit breaker can be isolated for
maintenance without disrupting service.
In the event of a fault, two breakers on either side of the affected
circuit trip, isolating only the faulted circuit while keeping all
other circuits in operation. However, a fault also splits the ring,
potentially creating two isolated sections. This may lead to an
imbalance if source and load circuits are not optimally arranged Figure 7 Ring Bus Configuration
side by side.
While the ring bus can be expanded to support additional circuits, it generally functions best with a
maximum of six. Careful planning is recommended to manage future expansion limitations
effectively.

Page | 16
 • Breaker and Half
When substation expansion is needed, the ring bus can be
upgraded to the "one-and-a-half breaker" configuration. This
setup features two main buses, both energized, with three
breakers arranged between them for every two circuits hence
the "one-and-a-half" designation. Each circuit has a dedicated
breaker and shares a middle breaker with an adjacent circuit,
like the dual-feed design of a ring bus.
This configuration allows any breaker to be taken out for
maintenance without disrupting power to other circuits, and
either main bus can be maintained without affecting circuit Figure 8 Breaker and Half Configuration
service. In case of a middle breaker failure, adjacent breakers
trip to isolate the affected circuits, while a failure in an adjacent breaker does not interrupt service to
the remaining circuit.
The one and a half breaker scheme is highly reliable, flexible, and more economical than the double
bus double breaker design, though it requires additional space and a complex protective relay setup
due to shared breakers.

Configuration Reliability Cost Area Required

Single Bus Single Breaker Low Low Small

Main and Transfer Bus Moderate Moderate Moderate

Double Bus Single Breaker Moderate High Large

Double Bus Double Breaker Very High Very High Very Large

Ring Bus High Moderate Moderate

Breaker and Half Very High High Very Large

Table 2 : Comparison between Busbar Configurations
Notes:
➢ Single Bus Single Breaker: Least reliable and least costly; suitable for low-reliability
applications.
➢ Main and Transfer Bus: Moderate reliability with a moderate cost increase; offers
improved maintenance flexibility.
➢ Double Bus Single Breaker: Higher reliability than the single bus with flexibility, but
significantly higher cost and area requirements.
➢ Double Bus Double Breaker: Very high reliability and flexibility; very high cost and area
needs, typically for critical substations.
➢ Ring Bus: High reliability and moderate cost; compact but limited to smaller setups with up
to six circuits.
➢ Breaker and Half: High reliability with cost and area savings over the double bus double
breaker; complex but highly flexible and reliable for larger setups.

Page | 17
 1.3 Main Substation Equipment
1.3.1 Surge arrestors
Surge arresters protect substation equipment from harmful
voltage surges caused by lightning strikes or switching
operations. They safely redirect excess voltage to the ground,
shielding sensitive equipment from potential damage. Surge
arresters are especially important in overhead transmission lines
(OHTL), where they play a key role in ensuring reliable power
transfer.

Figure 9 Surge arrestors

• Types of Surge Arresters

✓ Valve Type Arrestor

The valve type arrester comprises a series of multiple
spark gaps combined with a nonlinear resistor
element. Each spark gap consists of two components.
To achieve a non-uniform voltage distribution across
each gap, nonlinear resistors are connected in parallel
with each gap, as illustrated below. This configuration
ensures effective control over surge voltage, allowing
the arrester to respond dynamically to varying surge
levels.

✓ Metal oxide arrestor Figure 10 Valve type arrestor

The metal oxide semiconductor material in the arrester

functions as a resistor, designed to absorb energy from any
surge in voltage or current that exceeds safe levels. This
material dynamically adjusts its resistance to safely dissipate
the surge energy, thereby protecting connected equipment from
potential damage, as illustrated.

Figure 11 Metal oxide arrestor

Page | 18
 1.3.2 Disconnect switch (Isolator)
Disconnect switches are used to isolate and disconnect substation
equipment from the power grid, creating a visible open gap in the
electrical circuit to ensure safety during maintenance and repair
work. This clear separation helps prevent accidental energizing of
equipment, providing a secure environment for personnel working
on the system.
• Types Of Disconnect Switch
✓ Center Break Disconnect Switch
Center break disconnect switches feature a symmetrical design,
with a center gap that opens to separate contacts, ensuring clear
isolation. These switches are widely used in high-voltage
applications and are typically motor-operated or manually operated.

✓ Pantograph Disconnect Switch

Pantograph disconnect switches are specifically designed for Figure 12 Disconnect switch
overhead transmission lines. Utilizing a pantograph mechanism,
they create a visible air gap between conductors, enhancing safety during maintenance. These
switches are often motor-operated and are essential for isolating sections of transmission lines.

✓ Vertical Break Disconnect Switch

Vertical break disconnect switches have contacts that separate vertically when opened. Commonly
found in high-voltage applications, these switches are available as motor-operated or manually
operated, providing reliable isolation for maintenance and operational flexibility.

1.3.3 Earth switch (Grounding Switch)

An HV earth switch is a device used in high voltage
substations to provide a safe and reliable grounding
method for electrical equipment or sections of the power
system. Its primary purpose is to create a low-resistance
path to the ground, ensuring the safe discharge of any
residual electrical energy. This grounding protects
personnel and equipment during maintenance or fault
conditions by reducing the risk of accidental energization
and safeguarding against electrical hazards.
Figure 13 Grounding Switch

Importance of Grounding Switch

➢ Safety During Maintenance
The earth switch provides a safe method to ground the circuit breaker and related equipment
during maintenance and repair. By grounding the circuit breaker (CB), the earth switch
ensures that the equipment is fully deenergized and isolated from the power supply,
significantly reducing the risk of electrical shocks and accidents.
➢ Isolation of Faulty Circuit Breaker
In the event of a circuit breaker malfunction or fault, the earth switch can isolate the faulty
CB from the rest of the system. By grounding the faulty CB, it halts the flow of electrical
current, preventing the fault from spreading to other parts of the electrical network and
protecting the overall system integrity.
Page | 19
 1.3.4 High Speed Earth Switch
High speed earthing switches are engineered for rapid and reliable
operation, allowing for swift grounding of the system when
needed. Typically motor-operated or pneumatically driven, these
switches establish a low-resistance path to earth almost
instantaneously. Upon activation, the earthing switch creates a
mechanical bridge between conductors using a low-resistance
contact, effectively channeling any fault current safely to the
ground. This rapid response is essential for protecting equipment
and maintaining system stability during fault conditions.

Figure 14 GIS High Speed Earth Switch

Importance
➢ Critical Role in Transformer Protection
High speed grounding switches are vital for protecting power transformers within
substations. Their ability to respond swiftly to faults helps maintain the integrity of the
electrical system, making them an indispensable component in electrical engineering.
➢ High Speed Earthing Switch (HSES) in GIS
A high-speed earthing switch (HSES) is a permanently installed switching device within gas-
insulated metal-enclosed switchgear (GIS). A spring driven HSES has been developed and
tested in both single-phase and three-phase synthetic test circuits. With rated voltages of 245
kV and 300 kV, this HSES can perform closing (making) operations on peak short circuit
currents up to 100 kA twice consecutively without maintenance. This high durability and
reliability make it highly suited for demanding, high voltage environments in power systems.

1.3.5 Current Transformer (CT)

A Current Transformer (CT) is a type of instrument transformer used for

measuring and monitoring electrical currents in power systems. It steps
down high currents from power lines to a safer, more manageable level,
enabling accurate measurement and safe operation of monitoring and
protection devices. By reducing current levels, CTs allow sensitive
equipment to assess and respond to system conditions without being
exposed to potentially damaging high current levels.

• Types Of CT According to it’s insulation

✓ Oil insulated type
✓ SF6 insulated type
✓ Dry insulated type

Figure 15 Current Transformer

Page | 20
Importance of CT
➢ Current Measurement
Current Transformers (CTs) are primarily used to measure the current flowing through power
lines with precision. They provide a scaled-down version of the primary current, enabling
instruments and devices to safely and accurately measure and monitor current levels in high-
voltage environments.
➢ Protection and Control
CTs are essential in protection and control systems within substations. They connect to
protection relays and devices that monitor current conditions for abnormalities, such as
overcurrent or fault currents. When a fault or abnormal condition is detected, the protection
system isolates the affected section to protect the equipment and ensure operational safety.
➢ Voltage Current Relationship

CTs operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. They contain a primary winding
connected in series with the power line carrying the measured current and a secondary
winding connected to measuring or protection devices. The secondary winding has fewer
turns than the primary winding, creating a reduced current in the secondary that is
proportional to the primary current, thus making it manageable for measurement and
protection purposes.

1.3.6 Voltage Transformers (VT)

Voltage Transformers (VT), also known as Potential Transformers (PT), are used to step down high
voltages to levels that are safe and suitable for measurement, control, and protection purposes. Like
Current Transformers (CT), they operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. However,
VT focus on measuring and providing a scaled-down version of the primary voltage rather than the
current, allowing precise monitoring and protection in high-voltage environments without exposing
devices to dangerous voltage levels.
• Types of Voltage Transformers
✓ Inductive Voltage Transformers (IVTs)
IVTs function on the principle of electromagnetic induction. They have a primary winding
connected in parallel with the high-voltage line and a secondary winding connected to measuring or
protection devices. A burden resistor is typically paired with the primary winding to manage the
current flow, creating a magnetic field that induces a proportional voltage in the secondary winding.
This induced voltage is a scaled-down version of the primary voltage, providing a safe and accurate
voltage level for monitoring and control.
IVTs are widely applied in medium- and high-voltage systems, valued for their precision and
stability. Their reliability makes them indispensable for accurate voltage monitoring and protection
across power networks.

✓ Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVTs)

CVTs operate using the principle of capacitive voltage division. They consist of a series-connected
stack of capacitors that form a capacitive voltage divider. The high-voltage line is connected to the
primary side of this divider, while the measuring or protection devices are linked to the secondary
side. The capacitive divider splits the voltage proportionally across each capacitor, resulting in a
scaled-down replica of the primary voltage at the secondary side, which is suitable for safe and
accurate measurement.
CVTs are typically used in high-voltage, extra-high-voltage, and ultra-high-voltage applications.
They are known for their high insulation levels, long-term stability, and strong resistance to
electromagnetic interference, making them ideal for environments where these qualities are critical.
Page | 21
Importance of VTs
➢ Voltage Measurement
Voltage Transformers (VTs) are primarily used for precise measurement of voltage levels in
power systems. They step down high voltages to a manageable level, producing a scaled-down
version of the primary voltage that is suitable for metering and monitoring devices.
➢ Metering and Instrumentation
VTs are integral to voltage measurement instruments, such as voltmeters and energy meters,
within substations. By providing accurate voltage readings, they facilitate effective monitoring
and control of the system's voltage levels.
➢ Protection and Control

VTs are crucial for protection and control systems in high voltage substations. They connect to
protective relays and other devices that monitor for abnormal voltage conditions, such as
overvoltage or undervoltage. These protective relays rely on VTs to detect and respond to
voltage irregularities by isolating faulty sections of the power system, ensuring system
stability and protecting equipment.

1.3.7 Circuit Breakers

Circuit breakers are electrical devices designed to interrupt or disconnect an electrical circuit,
offering protection against overcurrent, short circuits, and other electrical faults. In high-voltage
(HV) systems, circuit breakers play a critical role in maintaining system safety and reliability. Their
operation is typically managed by protective relays, which monitor the circuit for abnormal
conditions. When a fault is detected, the relay signals the circuit breaker to open, isolating the faulty
section and preventing damage to equipment and reducing the risk of outages in the power system.

• Types of Circuit Breakers

✓ SF6 Circuit Breaker
SF₆ circuit breakers are widely used for voltage levels ranging from 36 kV to 420 kV. They utilize
sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆) gas as an insulating and arc-quenching medium. SF₆ gas has excellent
electrical insulating properties and high thermal stability, making it ideal for interrupting high-
voltage currents efficiently. SF₆ circuit breakers are known for their reliability, fast operation, and
low maintenance, making them well-suited for high-voltage applications in power systems.

✓ Vacuum Circuit Breaker

Vacuum circuit breakers are primarily used for medium voltage applications up to 36 kV. They
employ a vacuum as the arc-quenching medium, where the arc is extinguished when the contacts
separate within a vacuum chamber. The vacuum provides excellent insulating properties and fast arc
extinction, making VCBs efficient and reliable for medium-voltage systems. Known for their
durability, low maintenance, and compact design, vacuum circuit breakers are widely used in
industrial, commercial, and utility applications for effective protection and control.

✓ Air blast Circuit Breaker

Air blast circuit breakers are used for high-voltage applications, typically in the range of 110 kV to
400 kV. They use a high-pressure air blast to extinguish the arc when interrupting the current,
rapidly cooling and dispersing the arc energy. This design allows for quick arc extinction and a fast
recovery of dielectric strength, making them suitable for high-voltage systems where reliable and
rapid fault clearing is essential. Air blast circuit breakers are commonly found in high-voltage
transmission networks due to their efficiency and high-speed operation.
Page | 22
 ✓ Oil Circuit Breaker
Oil circuit breakers are typically used in medium-voltage applications, within the range of 3.6 kV to
12 kV. They use insulating oil as both the arc-quenching and insulating medium. When the contacts
open during a fault, an arc is formed, which is extinguished by the surrounding oil. The oil cools
and absorbs the energy from the arc, preventing it from reigniting. Oil circuit breakers are valued
for their reliable performance in medium-voltage systems, though they require regular maintenance
due to the potential for oil degradation over time.3

1.4 Electrical Engineer Roles in substations

At a substation, electrical engineers are responsible for a range of duties across the design and
operational phases. Effective collaboration between primary and secondary engineers is essential to
ensure the substation’s reliability and safety.

1.4.1 Primary Engineer

The primary engineer focuses on high-voltage equipment and infrastructure design, performing
tasks to establish a robust, safe, and efficient substation layout. Responsibilities include:

• Selection of a Suitable Busbar Arrangement

The primary engineer must select a suitable busbar arrangement by considering:
✓ Simplicity for ease of understanding and operation.
✓ Maintenance Accessibility to facilitate equipment servicing.
✓ Service Continuity to minimize service interruptions.
✓ Future Expansion to allow for additional circuits without disconnecting existing ones.
✓ Further details on various configurations can be found in section 2.5.

• Design of the Substation General Layout

The primary engineer is responsible for designing a clear layout, organizing the substation into
distinct areas for functionality and safety. The layout must also include:
• Clearance for Air-Insulated Parts: The minimum safe distances for phase-to-earth and
phase-to-phase separations, which are critical to prevent dielectric breakdown. Clearances
can be determined by:
✓ Project specifications.
✓ The IEC-61936 standard, which considers power frequency and lightning impulse levels.
✓ An assumed clearance of 1 cm/kV (not recommended due to variability).
• Design of the Substation Earthing System
Designing the earthing system is one of the most critical tasks. The earthing system must protect
against touch voltage (voltage between a metal surface and human contact) and step voltage
(voltage difference between a person's feet).
✓ Objective: Ensure that fault currents have a safe return path, enabling the protection
system to function effectively.
✓ Ground Potential Rise (GPR): GPR is the maximum voltage on the ground surface,
given by: 𝐺𝑃𝑅 = 𝐼𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 × 𝑅𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
✓ Reducing GPR: The ground resistance should be kept within safe limits, which vary by
facility type:

Page | 23
 Facility Type Permissible Resistance (Ohms)
Power Stations 0.5
Extra-High Voltage (EHV) Substations 1
33 kV Stations 2
Distribution/Transmission Centers 5
Tower Foot Resistance 10
Table 3 : Grounding Resistance

Generating stations and transformer stations, which experience high fault currents, require very low
ground resistance. This is achieved by creating a ground mesh network of electrodes, distributing
the fault current and reducing dangerous voltage levels on grounding conductors.

• Design of the Substation Lightning Protection System

The primary engineer must design a lightning protection system to safeguard substation equipment
from lightning strikes, ensuring safe dissipation of surge energy.

• Design of the Cable Raceway

The cable raceway must be carefully designed to organize and protect the cables running throughout
the substation. This includes planning routes to optimize space and ensure easy access for
maintenance, while also protecting cables from environmental and mechanical stress.

Primary engineers play a foundational role in ensuring that each design element within the
substation meets operational, safety, and maintenance requirements, creating a reliable and resilient
power infrastructure.

1.4.2 Secondary Engineer

The secondary engineer focuses on designing and maintaining systems that provide reliable control,
measurement, and protection within the substation. Key responsibilities include:

• Single Line Diagram Calculations

The secondary engineer calculates and specifies equipment ratings within the single line diagram
(SLD) based on client requirements. This diagram serves as the blueprint for the substation’s
electrical flow, illustrating connections between major components and ensuring all equipment is
rated appropriately for its role.

• Current Transformer (CT) and Voltage Transformer (VT) Sizing

✓ Voltage Transformers (VTs): Essential in both air-insulated and gas-insulated high-
voltage substations, VTs provide measurement signals for control, protection, and
metering systems, which are critical for maintaining the reliability of switchgear and
overall substation performance
✓ Current Transformers (CTs): Serve two primary functions in substations:
o Measuring Purpose: Measurement CTs reduce high current levels according to their
specified ratio (e.g., 1000:1, 800:1, 400:1), enabling accurate current readings on
metering devices.
o Protection Purpose: Protection CTs maintain accuracy during fault conditions and do
not saturate under high current, ensuring that fault current levels are correctly
transmitted to protective relays. This helps trigger circuit breaker tripping to isolate
faults and protect the system.

Page | 24
• Battery System Sizing: The DC battery system plays a crucial role in substations by
providing a reliable power source for key systems:
• Protection Systems: Many protective relays and fault-detection devices rely on DC power to
operate independently of the AC system, ensuring continuous operation even during AC
faults.
• Control and Monitoring: DC power enables precise control and monitoring of substation
equipment, such as switchgear and circuit breakers, ensuring efficient coordination and stable
operation.
• Alarm and Indication Systems: Alarms and indicators within protective relays rely on DC
power to alert operators of faults or abnormal conditions. DC-powered signals help operators
identify fault locations quickly and take corrective action.
• Telecommunication and Signaling: Communication systems, including data transmission
and control equipment, are powered by DC to ensure reliable and uninterrupted
communication across the substation for effective monitoring and control.
• Insulation Coordination: Insulation coordination is a technique for ensuring the electrical
strength of various substation components matches system requirements and expected
voltage levels. The goal is to reduce the likelihood of failures caused by insulation
breakdowns to an acceptable operational and economic level.
• Protection Scheme : Protection scheme coordination involves designing and configuring
protection devices so they respond selectively to faults. The secondary engineer ensures that
each protective device activates only under specific conditions, isolating faults in a targeted
manner to prevent unnecessary system-wide outages. Proper coordination minimizes service
interruptions, limits equipment damage, and maintains overall system reliability.
• Cable Sizing : Cable sizing is crucial to ensure that cables can safely and efficiently handle
the electrical load. The secondary engineer calculates the appropriate cable size based on
factors such as current-carrying capacity, voltage drop, thermal limits, and short-circuit
conditions. Correct cable sizing prevents overheating, maintains voltage stability, and
extends the lifespan of both the cable and connected equipment, ensuring safe and reliable
operation.
• Grid Impact Studies: Grid impact studies assess the potential effects of new substation
installations or modifications on the larger electrical grid. The secondary engineer analyzes
how changes in load, generation, and protection settings will impact grid stability, voltage
levels, and fault behavior. These studies ensure that the integration of new infrastructure does
not compromise grid performance or reliability, enabling safe and efficient operation within
the broader network.

Page | 25
Chapter (2) Project scope
2.1 General Technical Specification
This chapter focuses on the design and engineering considerations for a substation that steps down
power from a primary voltage level of 66kV to secondary levels of 13.8kV and 3.3kV. The design
prioritizes compactness, reliability, and efficiency, making it suitable for urban or space-constrained
environments. The substation incorporates advanced Gas Insulated Substation (GIS) technology to
optimize space usage and ensure operational safety.
Key highlights include:
• Primary Voltage Level: 66kV, used for power transmission into the substation.
• Secondary Voltage Levels: 13.8kV for industrial and utility-scale applications, and 3.3kV
for high capacity motor loads and auxiliary systems.
• Auxiliary Voltage Support: 0.4kV for control systems, lighting, and auxiliary equipment.
• Layout Design: The entire substation fits within a 150x100 meter area, showcasing a space-
efficient layout.
• GIS Technology Integration: Enhances safety, minimizes maintenance, and ensures robust
performance in limited spaces.

2.2 Single Line Diagram (SLD)

2.2.1 Overview
A single-line diagram is a high-level schematic diagram showing how incoming power is distributed
to equipment (also known as an SLD or one-line diagram). It is a simplified representation of an
electrical system. Symbols and lines are used to represent the nodes and connections in the system,
and electrical characteristics may be included as well.
Single-line diagram is used to visualize the power distribution system to improve planning and
troubleshooting, ensure redundancy, and reduce potential outages. Which is helpful for everyday
operations and maintenance & Engineering power system studies (Example: Power flow studies, SC
studies). That require the electrical single line diagram be kept up to date and available.

2.2.2 Important studies performed on a Single Line Diagram

• Load flow studies (to know the continuous current through the system.)
• Short circuit studies (to ensure equipment can withstand a fault.)
• Coordination studies ( to ensure the right devices are tripped in time.)
• Arc flash studies (to know the arc flash hazard levels on equipment.)

2.2.3 When to update Single Line Diagram

A new installation or system modification as :
• Change in utility or source
• Change in system impedance, configuration, or loading
• Change in protection devices or settings
• The SLD design of a substation is a primary step that could be done guided by technical
specification verified by the utility within similar conditions

Page | 26
2.2.4 How to design the SLD
It is the arrangement of the documents according to the priority in case of confliction as follows:
1) Price List
2) Guarantee Schedule
3) S-Schedule
4) PTS

1) Project Technical Specification (PTS): A technical specification is a document outlining the

product's requirements and features for it to function as desired. It provides comprehensive
information on creating these features, including details about product design and technical
development. It may include sections on project scope, requirements gathering, design
specifications, system architecture, testing criteria, and other relevant information. This type of
document is like a roadmap to put it plainly, technical specifications describe what the product
will do and how the development team will achieve that.

The main points that technical specifications aim to address :

• Product abilities and limitations
• The purpose of the project
• Development milestones
• Security and privacy measures
• The planned timeline
2) S-Schedule:
It is a document which consists of a group of tables specifying each equipment parameters
It’s provided by the consultant
Containing the ideal parameters (these parameters may be included in the SLD)

3) Guarantee Schedule:
It is a document which consists of a group of tables specifying each equipment parameters, similar
to S-Schedule but the parameters in the tables are filled by the manufacturer (therefore, each
equipment in the table has an empty space for the parameters to be filled)
It’s provided by the Manufacturer
Containing the actual parameters (these parameters may be included in the SLD)
May be deviated from the S-Schedule

4) Price List:
It is a document which consists of the BOQ of the substation which containing item description,
also the price and quantity of each equipment
It’s provided by the Contractor
It has the most priority (according to the POD) over the above documents in case of confliction

Page | 27
Figure 16 : Single Line Diagram

Page | 28
Page | 29
 2.2 Transformer Sizing
Transformers play a pivotal role in stepping down voltage levels from the high voltage (66kV)
transmission system to medium voltage (13.8kV) and medium voltage (3.3kV) distribution
systems. Their sizing is determined by the load requirements, efficiency, and operational
flexibility.
Load Requirements and Transformer Capacity
To size the transformers, the total load on the substation and individual voltage levels must be
considered. This includes:
Assumptions
• Diversity Factor (Div. F): 0.8
This accounts for the likelihood that not all loads operate at full capacity simultaneously,
optimizing transformer capacity and sizing for practical operation scenarios.
• Demand Factor (D.F): 1
This assumes the load operates at its full capacity under specific conditions, ensuring the
system is designed to handle peak loads without overloading.
• According to NEMA :Transformer is loaded with 80% of full load capacity
• According to 𝑵 − 𝟏 Criteria :Each transformer is designed to withstand the full load
capacity

2.2.1 Three windings transformer

For VFD Motor Load (3.3kV):
✓ Rated Power: 9000 kW.
✓ Power Factor: 0.89.
✓ Rated Current 𝐼𝑟 : 1818 A
✓ Efficiency: 97.3 %

Figure 17: K-Factors

Page | 30
 Figure 18: Transformer derating factor

𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 × 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 (𝑴𝑾)

𝑴𝑽𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓(𝑵𝑬𝑴𝑨) ×
𝑫𝒊𝒗. 𝑭 × 𝜼 × 𝑷𝒇 × 𝑫𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝟐×𝟗
= 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟑 𝑴𝑽𝑨 ≅ 𝟐𝟓 𝑴𝑽𝑨
𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟑 × 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗 × 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓

• Three windings transformer its rating is 25 MVA feed two VFD motor
• For secondary side, the primary MVA is divided on both secondary delta sides therefore their
ratings are 12.5 MVA
• Transformer Type:
Choose the appropriate transformer type based on the specific application and requirements.
The common type for power substations is oil-filled transformer
• Cooling Method:
We select the cooling method based on the substation's operating conditions and available
resources. We selected (ONAF)
• Vector Group:
YNd5d5
✓ YN – Primary winding (High Voltage side): Connected in star (wye), with a neutral
point available.
✓ d5 – Secondary winding (Medium Voltage side): Connected in delta, with a neutral
point derived artificially (i.e., through grounding transformer or zigzag).
The '5' indicates a 150° phase shift (5 × 30° lagging of secondary with respect to
primary).
✓ d5 –Second Secondary winding (Medium Voltage side):

Page | 31
2.2.2 Two windings transformer
Booster Motor Load (13.8kV):
✓ Rated Power: 2200 kW
✓ Power Factor: 0.84
✓ Rated Current 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 110.1𝐴
✓ Efficiency : 95.9%

𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 × 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 (𝑴𝑾)

𝑴𝑽𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓(𝑵𝑬𝑴𝑨) × + 𝟐 𝑨𝒖𝒙. 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔
𝑫𝒊𝒗. 𝑭 × 𝜼 × 𝑷𝒇
(𝟖 + 𝟐(𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆)) × 𝟐. 𝟐
= 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟐(𝑨𝒖𝒙. ) = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝑽𝑨 ≅ 𝟑𝟎 𝑴𝑽𝑨
𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟗 × 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒

• Transformer Type
Choose the appropriate transformer type based on the specific application and requirements.
The common type for power substations is oil filled transformer.

• Cooling Method
We select the cooling method based on the substation's operating conditions and available
resources. Common cooling methods include oil-immersed (ONAN), forced air (ONAF)

• Vector Group:
YNd5
✓ Y – The primary winding is connected in star (wye).
✓ N – The star point on the primary is neutral-connected, typically grounded.
✓ d – The secondary winding is connected in delta.‘5’ The phase displacement between
primary and secondary is 150° (clock notation 5 o'clock)

2.2.3 Auxiliary Transformer

Auxiliary Loads (0.4kV):
Typically for lighting, control systems, and cooling equipment. A detailed load analysis
should include auxiliary power requirements at 0.4kV and selected 1 MVA

Page | 32
2.3 Busbar Sizing
When selecting busbars for substations, we should consider:
2.3.1 Busbar (66KV)

Figure 19 : Busbar 66kV

• Rated Current
25000 30000
𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = (4 + 1(𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒)) ∗ ( )+( ) = 1355.9 ≈ 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐀 To the nearest standard
√3∗66 √3∗66
Conductor type: CU

• Short Circuit Withstand

the short circuit level in the 66 kV network is 40 kA for 1 sec.

• Voltage Level
Based on the voltage level of the substation, we select bus bars with the rated voltage of 66 kV

• Configuration
Double Bus Single Breaker

Page | 33
 2.3.2 Busbar (13.8KV)

Figure 20 : Busbar 13.8kV

• Rated Current
1000
𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ((8 + 2(𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒)) ∗ 110.1) + 2 ∗ ( ) = 1184.7 ≈ 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝐀 To the nearest
√3∗13.8
standard
Conductor type: CU

• Short Circuit Withstand

the short circuit level in the 13.8 kV network is 25 kA for 1 sec.

• Voltage Level
Based on the voltage level of the substation, we select bus bars with the rated voltage of
17.5kV approximately to the nearest standard rating

2.4Circuit Breaker Sizing

2.4.1 Normal Capacity Calculation
• The Key Formula for calculating the rated current :
𝑺
𝑰𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 =
√𝟑 𝑽𝑳
• This will be applied to the transformers , feeders , etc.
• We can also get this value from running the load flow on ETAP
• After Calculating the rated current we go to size the C.B according to this formula and
choose the next circuit breaker size which is available in the market.
• We will have 25% Safety Margain
• After that we will check the Rated Voltage level
• Then we will go to the circuit breakers catalogue to choose the suitable one

Page | 34
 2.4.2 Breaking Capacity Calculation ( SC Capacity )
• Firstly, we will obtain the Maximum Short-Circuit Current using short-circuit study results
we got from ETAP.
• Apply the safety margin ( 10 – 25 ) % :
• Choose a breaker with a rated breaking capacity greater than or equal to the adjusted fault
current.
• After that we will check the Rated Voltage level
• Then we will choose the suitable one which matches with the normal Capacity specifications

2.5 Circuit Breaker Selection

2.5.1 For the 66 KV ( After the grid and before the transformers )
• Normal Capacity Calculation
25000 30000
𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = (4 + 1(𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒)) ( )+( ) = 1355.9 𝐴
√3 × 66 √3 × 66
𝐼𝐶𝐵 = 1.25 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 1.25 × 1355.9 = 1694.9 we select nearest standard 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑨
• Breaking Capacity Calculation
𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.25 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 1.25 × 5.69 = 7.11 𝑘𝐴
• Making Current Calculation
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2.55𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 18.13 𝑘𝐴
✓ We chose the Siemens 8VM3 Blue GIS Circuit
Breaker.
✓ Rated voltage 66 kV
✓ Max. system voltage 72.5 kV
✓ SF₆-insulated, compact, maintenance friendly.
✓ Highly dependable for medium to high voltage
GIS stations.
✓ Rated normal current 1500 A
✓ Rated short circuit current up to 40 kA for 1 sec.

Page | 35
2.5.2 For the 66 KV ( Before three windings transformers )
• Normal Capacity Calculation
25000
𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ( ) = 218.69 𝐴
√3 × 66
𝐼𝐶𝐵 = 1.25 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 1.25 × 218.69 = 273.4 we select 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑨

• Breaking Capacity Calculation

𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.25 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 1.25 × 0.58 = 0.725 𝑘𝐴
• Making Current Calculation
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2.55𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.85 𝑘𝐴
✓ We chose the Siemens 8VM3 Blue GIS Circuit Breaker.
✓ Rated voltage 66 kV
✓ Max. system voltage 72.5 kV
✓ SF₆-insulated, compact,
maintenance friendly.
✓ Highly dependable for medium
to high voltage GIS stations.
✓ Rated normal current 1250 A
✓ Rated short circuit current up to
40 kA for 1 sec.

2.5.3 For the 66 kV (Before two winding transformer)

• Normal Capacity Calculation
30000
𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ( ) = 262.4 𝐴
√3 × 66
𝐼𝐶𝐵 = 1.25 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 1.25 × 262.4 = 328 we select 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑨

• Breaking Capacity Calculation

𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.25 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 1.25 × 0.535 = 0.669 𝑘𝐴
• Making Current Calculation
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2.55𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.7 𝑘𝐴
✓ We chose the Siemens 8VM3 Blue GIS
Circuit Breaker.
✓ Rated voltage 66 kV
✓ Max. system voltage 72.5 kV
✓ SF₆-insulated, compact, maintenance friendly.
✓ Highly dependable for medium to high voltage
GIS stations.
✓ Rated normal current 1250 A
✓ Rated short circuit current up to 40 kA for 1sec.

Page | 36
2.5.4 For the 3.3 kV (After three winding transformer)

• Normal Capacity Calculation

12500
𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ( ) = 2186.9 𝐴
√3 × 3.3
𝐼𝐶𝐵 = 1.25 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 1.25 × 2186.9 = 2733.6 we select 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑨
• Breaking Capacity Calculation
𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.25 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 1.25 × 10.862 = 13.577 𝑘𝐴
• Making Current Calculation
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2.55𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 34.622 𝑘𝐴
✓ Rated voltage 7.2 kV
✓ SF₆-insulated, compact, maintenance friendly.
✓ Rated normal current 3000 A
✓ Rated short circuit current up to 40 kA for 3 sec.

2.5.5 For the 13.8 kV (After two windings transformer)

• Normal Capacity Calculation

30000
𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ( ) = 1255.1 𝐴
√3 × 13.8
𝐼𝐶𝐵 = 1.25 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 1.25 × 1255.1 = 1568.9 we select 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑨
• Breaking Capacity Calculation
𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.25 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 1.25 × 3.126 = 3.91 𝑘𝐴
Page | 37
• Making Current Calculation
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2.55𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 9.96 𝑘𝐴
✓ Rated voltage 17.5 kV
✓ SF₆-insulated, compact, maintenance friendly.
✓ Rated normal current 2000 A
✓ Rated short circuit current up to 40 kA for 3 sec.

2.5.6 For the 13.8 kV (Booster Motor bay)

Load Flow

Short circuit

• Normal Capacity Calculation

𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 100 𝐴
𝐼𝐶𝐵 = 1.25 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 1.25 × 100 = 125 𝐴
we select 𝟔𝟑𝟎 𝑨
• Breaking Capacity Calculation
𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.25 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 1.25 × 10.027 = 12.53 𝑘𝐴
• Making Current Calculation
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2.55𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 31.9 𝑘𝐴
✓ Rated voltage 17.5 kV
✓ SF₆-insulated, compact, maintenance friendly.
✓ Rated normal current 630 A
✓ Rated short circuit current up to 25 kA for 3 sec.

Page | 38
Figure 21 : Layout

Page | 39
Chapter (3) Cable Sizing
3.1 Cable Layers

Figure 22 : Cable Layers

The cables may consist of 8 layers as follows:

3.1.1 Conductor
It is the current-carrying element, whether it is copper or aluminum, and its cross-sectional area
depends on the value of the current passing through it. The greater the current, the larger the cross-
sectional area is needed.
The conductor is made of stranded wires to reduce the skin effect and thus increase the electrical
capacity of the cable.
3.1.2 Conductor Screen
It is a thin layer of semi-conducting material used to obtain a better distribution of the electric field
on the joint surface between the conductor and the insulator, as the conductors are made in strands,
which leads to an irregularity in the electric field. Therefore, this layer is placed to make the surface
of the conductor as smooth as possible.
3.1.3 Insulation
The most famous types are: XLPE which used in hot countries, PVC which used in cold countries.
3.1.4 Insulation Shield
A very thin layer of a semiconducting material that helps regulate the distribution of the electric field
on the outside of the insulator.
3.1.5 Metallic Sheath
It is a 0.1 mm thick copper strip that is wrapped around each phase to protect it from short circuits
and moisture.
3.1.6 Filler (Bedding)
used to fill the gap between conductors, usually made of paper or plastic, for support and
waterproofing.
3.1.7 Armour
It is a wire or strip of galvanized steel, the purpose of which is to increase the mechanical protection
of the cable.
3.1.8 Outer Jacket
To protect metal parts from corrosion, heat and humidity, it is often made of PVC.

Page | 40
 3.2 Cable Routing
Ways of cable routing could be classified as :
3.2.1 Cable trays
•
• Ladder cable tray
• Perforated cable tray
• Solid bottom type
• Wire mesh cable tray
• Channel cable tray
Cable trays can be specified by their : Width, Height, Thickness,
Cover, Material, Length
Figure 23 : Ladder cable tray

3.2.2 Pipes
• PVC hoses
Used inside walls and floors
• UPVC (Unrecycled Poly Vinyl Chloride)
They are similar to PVC pipes, but do not contain any recycled components. These pipes are
of higher quality than PVC, but they are more expensive and are used above a dropped or
suspended ceiling.
• Flexible spiral pipes
• Electrical Metallic Tube

3.2.3 Underground Cables

MV cables can be laid
underground according to the
following steps specified by the
Egyptian code

1) We dig a hole in the ground 100 cm deep

2) We put about 10 cm of fine sand on it and press it
3) We put the cable in the middle of the hole.
4) Then we put sand on it up to 20 cm from the bottom of the hole
5) Then we put bricks on top of it by 8 bricks per linear meter
6) We put fine sand over the rest of the hole
7) About 30 cm before the end, we put an orange warning tape

Page | 41
 3.3 Cable Design
While making a cable design, we must ensure that 3 conditions are met as follows:
• Current carrying capacity.
• Voltage drop.
• Short circuit.

3.3.1 Current Carrying Capacity check

The rated current values that we get from manufacturers are at a certain temperature and conditions,
and this value is called Ampacity.
when the cable is placed in other conditions, a new value must be calculated as a result of these
conditions, and this value is called current carrying capacity which calculated by knowing the
Derating factors appropriate for each condition as follows:

3.3.1a Effect of temperature

• If the cable is extended in the air, the temperature de-rating factor is chosen from the following
table

Figure 24: Air Temperature derating factor

• If the cable is buried in the ground, the correction is made according to the soil temperature so
the temperature de-rating factor is chosen from the following table

Figure 25 : Ground Temperature derating factor

Page | 42
3.3.1b Effect of burial depth
If the cable is buried underground, the burial depth de-rating factor will be chosen from this table

Figure 26 :Burial depth derating factor

3.3.1c Effect of specific temperature of soil

If the cable is buried underground, the specific temp. de-rating factor will be chosen from this
table

Figure 27: Soil thermal resistivity derating factor

Page | 43
 3.3.1d Effect of grouping
Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit of single-core cables (note 2) to be applied
to the current carrying capacity for one circuit of single-core cable in free air

Figure 28: Grouping derating factor

3.3.2 Voltage Drop check

The voltage drop can be calculated in several ways:
Knowing constant (𝑚𝑣/𝐴/𝑚) if it is given by the manufacturers and multiplying it by the length of
the cable and the value of the current passing through it.
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑍𝑝𝑢 × 𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝐷 = √3 × 𝐼 × 𝐿 × (𝑅 cos(𝜙) + 𝑥 sin(𝜙))

3.3.3 Short Circuit check

In this test, we test the cable's ability to withstand high currents that pass for a short period during
faults, and this short period represents the period that the C.B will take to disconnect the fault.
Therefore, it must be ensured that the cables will withstand the passage of this current during this
period.
There is some information we need to do this test, which is as follows:
• The value of the maximum short circuit and this value we obtain through the short circuit study.
• The time it will take for the C.B to disconnect the fault.
• The maximum value of current that the cable can withstand during the fault period, this value
can be obtained in 3 ways as follows.

Page | 44
Determination of the short circuit capacity of a cable
3.3.3a Using manufacturers' tables: theses tables show the relationship between the cable
cross-section and the maximum short circuit it can withstand in a certain period as shown in
this table

Figure 29: Short circuit current in kA for copper and XLPE insulation

3.3.3b Using equations

From the following equations we can get max short circuit current can cable withstand.
✓ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 9.1 × √𝑡𝑠𝑐 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 for copper.
✓ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 14.2 × √𝑡𝑠𝑐 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 for aluminum.

Page | 45
 3.4 MV Cable Design in scope of project
At our station, we have designed medium voltage cables for the following portions :
3.4.1 Cables sizing after two windings transformer:
Cables from each Secondary of 30MVA transformer to MV
switchgear.

3.4.1a Current carrying capacity check :

Get the rated current draws from the transformer secondary side
by substitute in :
𝑴𝑽𝑨 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝑰= = = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟓. 𝟏 𝑨
√𝟑 𝑽𝑳 (𝒌𝑽) √𝟑 × 𝟏𝟑. 𝟖

✓ Temperature Derating Factor

Determine the derating factors for this cable From El-Sewedy
Cables Catalogue :
Figure 30 :Two windings transformer Bay

All values in this catalogue are at 30 °C , so the first derating factor is for temperature :
➢ Choosing XLPE is suitable for insulation requirements in this level
➢ 50 °C is the nearest value in our country So 𝑫. 𝑭𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖

✓ Burial depth derating factors :

➢ We can assume the 𝒃𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏𝒎

➢ Single core is chosen due to the high current drawn So 𝑫. 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐
Page | 46
✓ Third derating factor is Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit of single-
core cables to be applied to the current carrying capacity for one circuit of single core cable

in free air
➢ So 𝑫. 𝑭𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔
1255.2
➢ So 𝐼𝐶𝐶𝐶 = = 2033.911𝐴
0.78∗0.92∗0.86

Figure 31 : Selected MV Cable for two winging transformer

Page | 47
➢ Based on our voltage level 13.8KV we chose this category of cables with its line voltage till
15KV
➢ Single core due to the high current drawn
➢ Existence of these cables in our situation in ducts make us choose these cables unarmored
➢ Existing in duct bank so we chose these cables laid in free air
➢ We chose to eliminate the effect of total magnetic field in these cables
➢ Based on our ampacity we chose cable 𝟑 ∗ (𝟏𝑪) 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎² 𝑪𝑼/𝑿𝑳𝑷𝑬/𝑷𝑽𝑪 / 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆

3.4.1b Short circuit check :

• 42.9KA Short circuit current is accepted

3.4.1c Voltage drop check :
√𝟑 ×𝑰×𝑳×(𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜱)+𝑿𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜱))
Use the equation : 𝑽. 𝑫 =
𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟎𝟎
Where,
𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟑.𝟗𝟏𝟏
𝑰: Current flow through single cable (A), From calculations 𝑰 = = 𝟔𝟕𝟕. 𝟗𝟕 𝑨
𝟑
𝑳: Length of cable (Km) , From Etap software 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝑲𝒎
𝑹: Resistance of cable (ohm/Km), From catalogue 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟗𝟐 𝒐𝒉𝒎/𝒌𝒎
𝟎.𝟐𝟗𝟗𝟒
𝑿: Reactance of cable (ohm/Km), From catalogue 𝑿 = 𝟐𝝅 × 𝟔𝟎 × ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟕 𝒐𝒉𝒎/𝒌𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒇: power factor, From Etap software 𝑷𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟖𝟐 → 𝝓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟖𝟐) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟒𝟖𝟖𝒐
−𝟏 (

100
2033.911 ( ) (0.0792𝑐𝑜𝑠(14.488) + 011287𝑠𝑖𝑛(14.488))
𝑽. 𝑫 = √3 × ( ) × 1000
3 13800
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟗% < 𝟎. 𝟓% ( 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒆𝒅 )

Page | 48
 3.4.2 Cables sizing after three windings transformer:
Cables from each Secondary of 25MVA transformer to MV switchgear.
The substation includes four 3-winding transformers, each feeding two VFD-driven motors, resulting
in a total of eight identical outgoing cables. Since all cables have the same specifications, length,
installation method, and loading conditions, the design and calculations were performed for a single
representative cable. The same results and parameters are applicable to the remaining seven cables.

Figure 32 : Three windings transformer Bay

3.4.2a Current carrying capacity check :

Get the rated current draws from the transformer secondary side by substitute in :
𝑴𝑽𝑨 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝑰= = = 𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟔. 𝟗𝟑 𝑨
√𝟑 𝑽𝑳 (𝒌𝑽) √𝟑 × 𝟑. 𝟑
2186.93
The same previous derating factors, so 𝐼𝐶𝐶𝐶 = = 3543.68𝐴
0.78∗0.92∗0.86
• Based on our current carrying capacity, we chose
𝟑 ∗ (𝟏𝑪) 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎² 𝑪𝑼/𝑿𝑳𝑷𝑬/𝑷𝑽𝑪 / 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆

Figure 33 : Selected MV Cable for three winging transformer Page | 49

 3.4.2b Short circuit check :

• 114.5 KA Short circuit current is accepted

3.4.2c Voltage drop check :
𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜱)+𝑿𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜱)
Use the equation : 𝑽. 𝑫 = √𝟑 × 𝑰 × 𝑳 ×
𝟑𝟑𝟎𝟎
Where,
𝟑𝟓𝟒𝟑.𝟔𝟖
𝑰: Current flow through single cable (A), From calculations 𝑰 = = 𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟏. 𝟐𝟑 𝑨
𝟑
𝑳: Length of cable (Km) , From Etap software 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝑲𝒎
𝑹: Resistance of cable (ohm/Km), From catalogue 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝒐𝒉𝒎/𝒌𝒎
𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟖
𝑿: Reactance of cable (ohm/Km), From catalogue 𝑿 = 𝟐𝝅 × 𝟔𝟎 × ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟒 𝒐𝒉𝒎/𝒌𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒑𝒇: power factor, From Etap software 𝒑𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟕 → 𝝓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟕) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝟔𝒐
100
3543.68 ( ) ( 0.0356𝑐𝑜𝑠(14.76) + 0.0964𝑠𝑖𝑛(14.76))
𝑉. 𝐷 = √3 × ( ) × 1000
3 3300
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟔% < 𝟎. 𝟓% ( 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒆𝒅 )

Page | 50
 3.4.3 Cable sizing from 3.3kV switchgear to Motor :
The system includes four 3 winding transformers, each of
which feeds two VFD driven motors through medium voltage
switchgear, resulting in a total of eight identical MV cables.
Since all cables share the same specifications, length,
installation method, and loading conditions, the design
calculations have been carried out for one representative cable
only. The results and design parameters are equally applicable
to the remaining seven cables.
3.4.3a Current carrying capacity check :
The same of previous sizing
𝟑 ∗ (𝟏𝑪) 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎² 𝑪𝑼/𝑿𝑳𝑷𝑬/𝑷𝑽𝑪 / 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆

3.4.3b Short circuit check :

• 114.5 KA Short circuit current is accepted

3.4.3c Voltage drop check :
𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜱)+𝑿𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜱)
Use the equation : 𝑽. 𝑫 = √𝟑 × 𝑰 × 𝑳 ×
𝟑𝟑𝟎𝟎
Where,
𝑰: Current flow through single cable (A), From calculations 𝑰 = 𝟑𝟓𝟒𝟑. 𝟔𝟖/𝟑 𝑨
𝑳: Length of cable (Km) , From Etap software 𝑳 = 𝟏 𝑲𝒎
𝑹: Resistance of cable (ohm/Km), From catalogue 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝒐𝒉𝒎/𝒌𝒎
𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟖
𝑿: Reactance of cable (ohm/Km), From catalogue 𝑿 = 𝟐𝝅 × 𝟔𝟎 × (𝟎. ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟒 𝒐𝒉𝒎/𝒌𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒇: power factor, From Etap software 𝑷𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗 → 𝝓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑷𝒇 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝒐
−𝟏

3543.68 0.0356𝑐𝑜𝑠(27.127) + 0.0964𝑠𝑖𝑛(27.127)

𝑉. 𝐷 = √3 × ( ) ×1× =
3 3300
𝟒. 𝟔𝟗 < 𝟓% ( accepted as it is at end user side )
Page | 51
3.4.4 Cable sizing from 13.8kV switchgear to Motor :
The system includes two 2-winding transformers, each feeding four
booster motors, resulting in a total of eight identical outgoing MV
cables. As all cables have the same length, installation conditions,
and electrical loading, the design and voltage drop calculations were
performed for a single representative cable. The same results and
specifications apply to the remaining seven cables.

Given that the load current drawn by each motor is relatively low, the
short-circuit withstand capacity of the cable becomes the primary
design criterion. Therefore, the cable selection was initially based on
its ability to withstand the maximum short-circuit current at the
motor terminals. Once a suitable cable was identified for short-circuit
performance, its continuous current carrying capacity was verified to
ensure adequacy under normal operating conditions.

3.4.4a Short circuit check :

• 17.2 KA Short circuit current is accepted

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 3.4.4b Current carrying capacity check :

• Nominal current for cable = 100A, so we select

(𝟏𝑪) 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝒎² 𝑪𝑼/𝑿𝑳𝑷𝑬/𝑷𝑽𝑪 / 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆

3.4.4c Voltage drop check :

𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜱)+𝑿𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜱)
Use the equation : 𝑽. 𝑫 = √𝟑 × 𝑰 × 𝑳 ×
𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟎𝟎
Where,
𝑰: Current flow through single cable (A), From calculations 𝑰 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑨
𝑳: Length of cable (Km) , From Etap software 𝑳 = 𝟏 𝑲𝒎
𝑹: Resistance of cable (ohm/Km), From catalogue 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟓𝟗 𝒐𝒉𝒎/𝒌𝒎
𝟑𝟒𝟓𝟔
𝑿: Reactance of cable (ohm/Km), From catalogue 𝑿 = 𝟐𝝅 × 𝟔𝟎 × (𝟎. ) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒐𝒉𝒎/𝒌𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒇: power factor, From Etap software 𝑷𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕 → 𝝓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝒐
3543.68 0.0356𝑐𝑜𝑠(27.127) + 0.0964𝑠𝑖𝑛(27.127)
𝑉. 𝐷 = √3 × ( ) ×1× =
3 13800
𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟓 < 𝟓% ( accepted as it is at end user side )

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Chapter (4) AC and DC Auxiliary
4.1 Introduction
Auxiliary systems are a fundamental part of any substation, as they ensure the continuous and
reliable operation of various critical components. These systems provide the necessary support
infrastructure required for both the primary power transmission functions and the control,
protection, and communication functions within the substation.
Auxiliary systems are responsible for the following key roles:
• Powering internal station loads including all equipment and services that operate on both
AC and DC power, such as lighting, air conditioning, control panels, and protection relays.
• Supplying the protection and measurement systems which must always remain powered
to detect electrical faults, measure system parameters, and trigger protective actions in case
of abnormal conditions.
• Supporting the control, monitoring, and communication infrastructure including
SCADA systems, remote terminal units (RTUs), and Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs),
all of which rely on stable auxiliary power to function and to ensure real-time supervision of
substation status.
• Maintaining safety and emergency systems such as firefighting equipment, alarm systems,
and emergency lighting, which must function reliably during both normal operation and fault
conditions.
In this chapter, we provide a comprehensive overview of the auxiliary systems implemented in the
Substation, covering AC and DC auxiliary systems, communication infrastructure, and
monitoring/control systems, along with the relevant single-line diagrams (SLDs).
4.2 Panel Arrangements

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 4.3 AC Auxiliary System
The AC auxiliary system is designed to supply alternating current (AC) power to all essential station loads.
This is accomplished through a dedicated auxiliary transformer, which steps down the medium voltage of
13.8 kV to a low voltage level of 400 V. The low-voltage output feeds into the Main Distribution Board
(MDB), which then distributes power to various load centers within the facility.

The capacity of the auxiliary transformer is determined based on the total power requirements of the
station loads. In this case, the transformer is rated at 1 MVA. Additionally, a backup auxiliary
transformer is installed to ensure redundancy and maintain uninterrupted operation in case of
failure or maintenance of the main unit.

This system ensures the reliable operation of all AC-powered equipment necessary for the substation's
functionality, safety, and control.

Typical AC Loads:

• Power Distribution Boards (Buildings) General supply for electrical systems within the buildings.
• HVAC Distribution Boards Support for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems.
• Lighting Distribution Boards Interior and exterior lighting systems.
• Firefighting System Power for pumps, alarms, and fire safety controls.
• Other Loads Includes miscellaneous systems such as communication equipment, control room
panels, and auxiliary services.
• Dc Chargers (220V & 48V)

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Figure 34: AC Auxiliary Loads

Page | 56
4.3.1 AC SLD

Figure 35 : AC Auxiliary SLD

Page | 57
 4.4 DC Auxiliary System
The DC auxiliary system plays a crucial role in maintaining protection, control, and communication
functions, especially during power outages or emergencies. Each station is equipped with a battery
room and a charger room, which together ensure continuous DC power supply to critical systems.
The system typically includes:

• Batteries, which serve as the main backup power source.

• Battery chargers, which maintain the batteries at optimal charge levels.
• DC distribution panels, which route power to the various connected loads.

Two standard DC voltage levels are utilized:

• 220 V DC: used primarily for protection and emergency systems.

• 48 V DC: used for communication circuits and signaling devices.

The 220 V DC system supports the following critical loads:

• Emergency Lighting
• Cables Protection Panels
• Transformer Protection Panels
• Bus Coupler Protection Panels
• Bus Bar Protection Panels
• Remote Control Panels
• Protection Panels Provide power to protection relays and associated devices.
• GIS Control Panels Power for Gas Insulated Switchgear control operations.

This setup ensures that the station’s most vital components remain operational during loss of AC
power, enabling safe shutdown procedures, fault detection, and continued communication with
supervisory systems.

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4.4.1 DC SLD

Figure 36 220v chargers

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 4.5 Batteries
A battery is an electrochemical energy storage device that stores energy in chemical form and
releases it as electrical energy through an electrochemical reaction. In substations, batteries serve
as a reliable and uninterrupted DC power source for critical systems, especially during loss of
AC supply or emergency conditions.
Batteries are typically installed in dedicated rooms, with environmental and safety considerations
such as ventilation, temperature control, and insulation from electrical interference. They are
connected to battery chargers that keep them continuously charged and ready to supply power
when needed.

The battery system is designed to provide:

• Stable DC voltage (commonly 220 V DC or 48 V DC) depending on the application.

• Sufficient autonomy: the duration for which the battery can supply power without external
input, typically ranging from 1 to 8 hours depending on system requirements.

Figure 37: DC Auxiliary SLD

• Immediate response: no startup time, ensuring instant availability of power.

Battery technologies commonly used include:

• Lead-Acid (VRLA or flooded types) are known for reliability and low maintenance.

• Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) are preferred for high temperature tolerance and longer life in
harsh environments.
The proper sizing, maintenance, and monitoring of battery systems are essential to guarantee the
availability and performance of the substation’s critical control and protection infrastructure.

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 4.5.1 Battery Room Safety
As batteries are continuously charged in the station, the charging process results in the emission of
hydrogen gas, which poses a significant explosion risk if its concentration exceeds 14% within the
battery room. Therefore, strict safety measures must be implemented to ensure personnel safety and
system integrity.
The battery room must comply with the following safety conditions:
• Adequate ventilation using mechanical extractors to expel accumulated gases and ensure
proper air circulation.
• Acid-resistant thermal ceramic flooring to withstand electrolyte spills and maintain
cleanliness and durability.
• Explosion-proof lighting switches, which must be located outside the room whenever
possible. If installed inside, switches must be certified for hazardous environments.
• Metal doors that open outward, allowing quick and safe exit in case of emergency; wooden
doors are prohibited due to flammability.
• Emergency water basin with a foot-operated faucet, installed inside the room. In case of
accidental exposure to battery acid or alkali, operators can rinse affected areas especially the
face and hands, without using their hands to activate the water flow.
These safety precautions help minimize risks associated with chemical exposure and hydrogen
accumulation, ensuring a safe environment for personnel working with battery systems.

4.5.2 Battery Chargers

Battery chargers serve dual function within the substation:

1. Supplying DC power directly to protection and control equipment, and
2. Charging the batteries to ensure their readiness for backup operation.
In this installation, the configuration includes:
• 220 V chargers

• 48 V chargers

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Each charger is connected to its respective DC distribution panel, which supplies a group of
designated DC loads. Every panel includes a built-in meter that displays both the output voltage
and the load current, allowing operators to monitor charger performance in real time.
Batteries can be charged through one of two methods:
• Float Charging (Charging During Operation):
The battery remains continuously connected to the charger. This method compensates for
natural self-discharge and ensures the battery remains fully charged and ready at all times.
• Equalizing Charge (Fast Charging):
A higher-than-normal voltage is applied to the battery to ensure full activation. This method
is typically used during:
o Initial commissioning
o Post-maintenance procedures
The equalizing charge usually lasts 8 hours or more, depending on battery type and
condition.
Proper operation and maintenance of the charger system are critical for ensuring the reliability of
the DC auxiliary power supply and the long-term health of the battery bank.

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Chapter (5) Grounding System
5.1 Introduction
A grounding system is an essential part of any electric system. It interconnects the equipment
neutrals, equipment housings, lightning masts, surge arresters, overhead ground wires, and
metallic structures, placing them at Earth’s potential.
The subject of grounding systems in substations made up of a network of conductors
interconnecting the metallic parts of equipment and structures, and an arrangement of buried
conductors providing an electrical connection to the earth.

5.2 Objective
The objective of a grounding system may be summarized as follows:
• To provide safety to personnel during normal and fault conditions by limiting step and touch
potential.
• To assure correct operation of electrical devices.
• To prevent damage to electrical apparatus.
• To dissipate lightning strokes.
• To stabilize voltage during transient conditions and therefore minimize the probability of
flashover.

A safe grounding design has two key objectives:

• To provide means to carry electric currents into the earth under normal and fault conditions
without exceeding any operating limits.
• To assure that a person in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to the danger of
critical electric shock.

Practical Approach to Safe Grounding:

A practical approach to safe grounding focuses on controlling the interaction of two types of
grounding systems:
• Intentional Ground:
Ground electrodes intentionally buried at a certain depth below the earth’s surface to
establish a low-resistance path.
• Accidental Ground:
A temporary ground condition established when a person is exposed to a potential gradient
near grounded facilities.

5.3 Parts of the Substation’s Grounding System

A substation grounding system has two well-defined parts, the grounding network and the
connection to the earth.

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 5.3.1 The Grounding Network
The grounding network contains the conductors responsible for offering a low impedance path
between the equipment frames or metallic structures and the connection to the earth. This network
should have high reliability because the breaking of a ground connection can cause safe equipment
to become dangerous.

The usual practice is connecting the equipment frames and metallic structures individually to the
ground electrode with copper conductors or straps.

Figure 38 :Grounding Network

The equipment 4, located at another substation, has a separate connection to the earth. By using
the grounding conductor, the ground connections of the two substations work in parallel; this is
generally beneficial as it reduces the return of current through the ground, lessening the surface
potential gradients.
Without the grounding conductor, all ground fault current from equipment 4 will return through
the earth. The connection to the earth in both substations should have low impedance, so that the
ground fault current magnitude will be large enough to activate the overcurrent protection system,
clearing the fault, and the generated surface potential gradients will be safe.

5.3.2 The Connection to the Earth

There are three main methods to connect a substation grounding network to the earth:
5.3.2a Radial
The radial system consists of one or more grounding electrodes with connections to each device
in the substation. It is the most economical, but the least satisfactory because, when a ground fault
occurs, it produces enormous surface potential gradients.

5.3.2b Ring
The ring system consists of a conductor placed around the area occupied by the substation
equipment and structures and connected to each one by short links. It is an economical and efficient
system that reduces the significant distances of the radial system. The surface potential gradients
decrease because the ground-fault current travels through several prearranged paths.

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 5.3.2c Grid
The grid system is usual. It consists of a grid of horizontally arranged copper conductors,
embedded a little below grade, and connected to the substation equipment and metallic structures;
grounding rods can be added to reach layers of lower resistivity at a greater depth. This system is
the most effective but also the most expensive.

5.4 Limits of Current Tolerable by the Human Body

The magnitude as well as the duration at 50-60 Hz of the current needs to be below the threshold
for ventricular fibrillation for 99.5% of the population. The threshold for ventricular fibrillation
can be as low as 60 mA. Currents in the range of 1 → 6𝑚𝐴 are commonly referred to as let go
currents. Currents in this range are unpleasant, however they do not affect the ability of the person
to let go of the energized object. 7 Currents ranging from 9 → 25 𝑚𝐴 are painful and affect the
muscles and make it difficult or impossible to release the object. However, if currents are above
the threshold for ventricular fibrillation, they can cause heart paralysis, inhibition of breathing, and
burns.

5.6 Tolerable Voltages

There are five voltages that a person can be exposed to inside of a substation. Which include:

5.6.1 Metal to metal voltage (Emm)

Substation metal-to-metal touch voltages may be present when a person is standing on or touching
a grounded object or structure comes into contact with a metallic object or structure within the
substation site that is not bonded to the ground grid. This can be avoided by bonding potential
danger points to the substation grid.

5.6.2 Step voltage (𝑬𝒔 )

The step voltage is considered as the difference in surface potential that is experienced by a person
bridging a distance of 1 meter without contacting any other grounded object.

3.1.5.c Touch voltage (𝑬𝒕 )

The touch voltage is the difference of potential between the GPR and the surface potential at the
point where a person is standing while having a hand in contact with a grounded structure.

3.1.5.d Mesh voltage (𝑬𝒎 )

Mesh voltage can be described as the maximum touch voltage within a mesh of a ground grid.

3.1.5.e Transferred voltage (𝑬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐝 )

A special case of the touch voltage where a voltage is transferred into or out of the substation from
a remote or external substation site is called the transferred voltage.

Page | 65
 Figure 39 : Basic shock situations

5.7 Overview on our Substation

5.7.1 Earth Grid Specifications
• Type: Buried mesh grounding system under the entire substation area.
• Material:
✓ Conductor: Copper anneal soft drawn.
✓ Rod: Copper clad steel.
• Depth: Typically 0.5 𝑚 below surface.
• Conductor:
✓ Spacing: 5 ∗ 5 m
✓ Cross section area 240 𝑚𝑚2
• Number of Rod: 35 rod length of each on 4 𝑚.
• Connected Elements:
✓ Power transformer neutrals
✓ GIS metallic enclosures
✓ CTs, VTs, and CBs frames
✓ High-speed and maintenance earth switches
✓ Earthing transformer secondaries
✓ Surge arresters base and cable sheaths
✓ Cable sealing ends (CSEs)
✓ Metallic fences and support structures
• Surface Layer: Granet 8000 Ω. m and its thickness 0.15 𝑚
• Enhanced Martial: Marconite which reduce resistivity by 70%

Page | 66
 5.7.2 Earthing Transformers
Used at 3.3 kV and 13.8 kV levels to:
• Provide a ground reference point for ungrounded systems.
• Allow zero sequence current flow during line to ground faults.
• Typically connected in zig zag Transformer.
• Rated around 800 A.

5.7.3 Neutral Grounding

• Primary side must be solidly grounded via neutral point of star connection.
• Secondary side must be grounded via NGRs (Neutral Grounding Resistors) via zig zag
transformer.
• Secondary of VT for neutral detection may also be grounded.

IEEE Std 80 - 2000 Method :

Designing an effective grounding system in accordance with IEEE standards involves

several key steps. Here is a summary of the process:
1) Purpose and Requirements: Clearly define the purpose and requirements of the grounding
system, such as safety, equipment protection, or compliance with regulations.
2) Site Information: Gather relevant data about the site, including soil resistivity, fault currents,
layout, and electrical system configuration.
3) Grounding System Configuration: Determine the appropriate grounding system configuration
based on site information and requirements, considering factors like fault currents, system
voltage, and continuity needs.
4) Grounding Electrodes: Select suitable grounding electrodes based on soil resistivity and
required resistance-to-ground, considering factors such as material, size, and spacing.
5) Ground Resistance Calculation: Calculate the total ground resistance by considering
individual electrode resistances and system resistance, using analytical formulas provided in
the IEEE 80 standard.
6) Step and Touch Voltage Evaluation: Assess step and touch voltages to ensure electrical
safety during fault conditions, ensuring they are within safe limits.
7) Lightning Protection: If the site is prone to lightning strikes, incorporate appropriate
measures like lightning rods or surge arresters into the grounding system design.
8) Standards Compliance: Verify that the designed grounding system complies with relevant
IEEE standards, local codes, and industry regulations, considering factors like fault current
handling and safety criteria.
9) Documentation: Document the grounding system design, including drawings, calculations,
and specifications for future reference, installation, maintenance, and troubleshooting.
10) Installation and Testing: Properly install the grounding system, ensuring correct connections
and bonding. Conduct testing and measurements to verify ground resistance and evaluate
system performance.

Page | 67
 5.8 Grounding Design Steps :
The Flowchart Describes the Design Procedures of Substation Grounding:

Figure 40 : Design Procedures flow chart

Page | 68
 5.9 Soil Resistivity Measurement Methods
Soil resistivity measurement is a critical step in designing grounding systems for substations, as it
directly influences ground resistance, ground potential rise (GPR), and safety parameters like touch
and step voltages.
5.9.1 Wenner Four Pin Method
• The most widely used technique.
• Involves placing four equally spaced probes in a straight line, injecting current through the
outer two probes, and measuring voltage between the inner two probes.
• Soil resistivity is calculated using the formula 𝜌 = 2𝜋𝑎𝑅, where a is the probe spacing and
R is the measured resistance.
• By varying probe spacing, resistivity at different depths is obtained, enabling the
development of a soil resistivity profile or multilayer soil model.
• Measurements are taken along multiple profiles and orientations to ensure accuracy and
detect anomalies.
• Depth of measurement corresponds approximately to the probe spacing, so increasing
spacing probes deeper layers.
• This method is mandated by standards such as those used by National Grid Electricity
Distribution and IEEE.

Figure 41 : Wenner Four Pin Method

Page | 69
 5.9.2 Schlumberger Method
This method involves the inner probes to be placed closer together and the outer probes further
apart. Unlike the Wenner method where all of the probes need to be repositioned whenever testing
needs to be done at the particular location, the Schlumberger method only requires that outer probes
to be repositioned for varying measurements. As a result, measurements from the tests can be
performed quicker and economy of manpower is gained.

Figure 42 : Schlumberger Method

5.9.3 Driven Rod (3 Pins) Method

The driven rod or 3-pin method is suitable for cases such as those involving transmission line
structure earths, or areas that have difficult terrain due to shallow penetration or localized
measurement areas. This method, the depth of the driven-rod located in the soil tested is varied. The
other two rods remain as reference rods and are driven to a shallow depth in a straight line. The
location of the voltage rod is varied between the test rod and the current rod.

Figure 43 : Driven Rod (3 Pins) Method

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5.10 Grounding System in our Substation Using Excel
5.10.1 Calculation of conductor cross section according to IEEE std 80

Page | 71
5.10.2 calculation of ground resistance according to IEEE std 80

5.10.3 Maximum permissible value of step and touch voltage according to IEEE std
80

Page | 72
5.10.4 mesh and step voltage calculations according to IEEE std/80

5.11 Grounding System In the Substation Using CYMGrd :

Figure 44: Grid of Grounding Grid 2D View

Page | 73
 Figure 45 :Grid of Grounding Grid 3D View

Figure 46 : The Potential Profile Plot

Figure 47 : Permissible vs Actual Ground Potential Values

Figure 48: Grounding Resistance

Page | 74
Chapter (6) Protection
6.1 Protective Relays
Distance protection, in its basic form, is a non-unit protection offering considerable
economic and technical advantages. Unlike overcurrent protection, the key advantage of
distance protection is that its fault coverage of the protected circuit is virtually independent
of source impedance variations. In the next example, overcurrent protection cannot be
applied satisfactorily. Also, it can provide both primary and remote backup functions in a
single scheme. It can easily be adapted to create a unit protection scheme when applied
with a signaling channel.

6.1.1 Distance Relay

There are different distance relay characteristics, which utilized for transmission
line protection. The most common distance relay characteristics include:
a) Impedance Characteristic.
b) Directional Impedance Characteristic.
c) Self-Polarized Mho (Admittance) Characteristic.
d) Offset Mho Characteristic.
e) Quadrilateral Characteristic.
f) Reactance Type Characteristic.
g) Lenticular Characteristic

6.1.1a Plain Impedance Characteristic:

• Voltage and current elements of the relay are obtained from a PT connected in
parallel with The line to be protected and a CT in series with the line,
respectively.
• The torque produced by the current element is opposed by the torque produced by
the voltage element.
• The torque equation is: 𝑻 = 𝑲𝟏 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑲𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑲𝟑

Figure 49 : Operation mechanism and Torque characteristic for Impedance Relay

Page | 75
The operating characteristic of the impedance relay is shown by means of “Impedance
diagram’’ or the “R – X diagram”.
Any value of Z less than the radius of the circle will result in producing a positive torque.
Any value of Z greater than the radius of the circle will produce a negative torque
regardless of the phase angle between V & I.

Drawbacks of Impedance Relay Characteristic

1) Non directional: a directional element is required for correct discrimination
(directional impedance relay).
2) Highly sensitive to power swing and load encroachment.
3) Affected by arc resistance.

Figure 50 : Drawbacks of Impedance Relay Characteristic

One advantage of a non-directional zone of impedance measurement is that it is able to

operate for a close-up, zero impedance fault, in situations where there may be no healthy
phase voltage signal or memory voltage signal available to allow operation of a
directional impedance zone.

6.1.1b Directional Impedance Characteristic:

• If a fault occurs at F close to C on the parallel line CD, the directional unit
for the impedance relay at A will restrain due to current 𝐼𝑓1 .
• If this control is not provided, the under impedance element could operate prior to
circuit breaker C opening.

Figure 51 : Directional Impedance Characteristic

• Reversal of current through the relay from IF1 to IF2 when C opens could then result
in incorrect tripping of the healthy line if the directional unit operates before the
impedance unit resets

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• This is an example of the need to consider the proper coordination of multiple relay
elements to attain reliable relay performance during evolving fault conditions
• In older relay designs, the type of problem to be addressed was commonly referred
to as one of “contact race”.

6.1.1c Self-Polarized Mho (Admittance) Characteristic:

• It is inherently directional, thereby
eliminating the “contact race” problems that
may be encountered with separate reach and
directional control elements.
• As a result, they have been widely deployed
worldwide for many years, and they are still
emulated in the algorithms of some modern
numerical relays.
• Under an arcing fault condition, or an earth Figure 52 : Self-Polarized Mho (Admittance) Characteristic
fault involving additional resistance, such as
tower footing resistance or tree faults, the value of the resistive component of fault
impedance will increase to change the impedance angle.
• Thus, the relay having a characteristic angle equivalent to the line angle will under-
reach under resistive fault conditions.
• Therefore, it is usual to set the relay characteristic angle (φ) less than the line angle,
so that it is possible to accept a small amount of fault resistance without causing
under-reach.
• On long overhead lines carried on steel towers with overhead earth wires, the effect
of arc resistance can usually be neglected
• The effect is most significant on short overhead lines and with fault currents below 2000A
• (i.e. minimum plant condition), or if the protected line is of wood-pole construction
without earth wires.
• This problem can usually be overcome by using a relay with a Quadrilateral characteristic.
• Where a power system is resistance-earthed, it should be appreciated that this does not
need to be considered with regard to the relay settings other than the effect that
reduced fault current may have on the value of arc resistance seen.
• The earthing resistance is in the source behind the relay and only modifies the source
angle and source to line impedance ratio for earth faults.
• Therefore, it would be taken into account only when assessing relay performance in
terms of system impedance ratio.

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 6.1.1d Offset Mho Characteristic:
If the current bias is employed, the mho characteristic is shifted to cover the origin, so
that the measuring element can operate or close-up faults in both forward and reverse
directions.
The offset mho relay has two main applications:
• Third Zone and Busbar Back-up Zone.
✓ In this application it is used in conjunction with mho measuring units as a fault
detector and/or Zone 3 measuring unit.
✓ With the reverse reach arranged to extend into busbar zone.
✓ It will provide back-up protection for busbar faults. This facility can also be
provided with quadrilateral characteristics.

Figure 53: Third Zone and Busbar Back-up Zone characteristic

• Carrier Starting Unit in Distance Schemes with Carrier Blocking.

✓ A further benefit of the Zone 3 application is for switch-on-to- fault (SOTF)
protection, where the Zone 3-time delay would be bypassed for a short period
immediately following line energization to allow rapid clearance of a fault
anywhere along the protected line or in the event of accidental line energization
with maintenance earthing clamps left in position.
✓ This is required in situations, where there may be no healthy phase voltage signal
or memory voltage signal available to allow operation of a directional impedance
zone.
✓ The carrier is transmitted if the fault is external to the protected line but inside the
reach of the offset mho relay, to prevent accelerated tripping of the 2 or 3 zone
relay at remote station.
✓ Transmission is prevented for internal faults by operation of the local mho relay,
which allows high-speed fault clearance by the local and remote end circuit
breakers.

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 Figure 54 : Carrier Starting Unit in Distance Schemes with Carrier Blocking

6.1.1e Quadrilateral Characteristic

✓ The characteristic is provided with forward reach and resistive reach
settings that are independently adjustable.
✓ Therefore, it provides better resistive coverage than any mho-type characteristic for short
lines.

Figure 55 : Quadrilateral Characteristic

✓ This is especially true for earth fault impedance measurement, where the arc
resistances and fault resistance to earth contribute to the highest values of fault
resistance.
✓ Quadrilateral characteristic is highly flexible in terms of fault impedance
coverage for both phase and earth faults.
✓ For this reason, most numerical distance relays now offer this form of characteristic.

6.1.1f Reactance Type Characteristic

✓ The significant thing about this
characteristic is that the resistance
component of the impedance has no
effect on the operation of the relay.
✓ In other words, the relay responds solely
to the reactance component

Figure 56 : Reactance Type Characteristic

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 6.1.1g Lenticular Characteristic
There is a danger that the offset mho relay may operate under maximum load transfer
conditions if Zone 3 of the relay has a large reach setting.

Figure 57: Lenticular Characteristic

✓ A large Zone 3 reach may be required to provide remote back- up protection for
faults on the adjacent feeder.
✓ To avoid this, a shaped type of characteristic may be used, where the resistive
coverage is restricted.
𝒂
✓ With a lenticular characteristic, the aspect ratio of the lens is adjustable, enabling
𝒃
it to be set to provide the maximum fault resistance coverage consistent with non-
operation under maximum load transfer conditions.
✓ The figure shows how the lenticular characteristic can tolerate much higher degrees
of line loading than offset mho and plain impedance characteristics, while
reduction of load impedance from 𝑍𝐷3 to 𝑍𝐷1 will correspond to an equivalent
increase in load current.
✓ Numerical relays typically do not use lenticular characteristic, but instead use load
encroachment (load blinder) detection.
✓ This allows a full mho characteristic to be used, but with tripping prevented in the
region of the impedance plane known to be frequented by load
(𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 − 𝑍𝐶 − 𝑍𝐷 )

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6.1.2 Differential Relay
6.1.2a High Impedance for Busbar

High impedance protection system is a simple technique which requires that all CTs used in the
protection scheme have relatively high knee point voltage, similar magnetizing
characteristic and the same ratio.
These CTs shall be installed in all ends of the protected object. In order to make the
scheme, all CTs belonging to one phase shall be connected in [Link] high
impedance differential scheme is shown in the opposite figure. Note that only one phase
is shown in this figure. Due to the parallel CT connections the high impedance
differential relay can only measure the operating quantity.
That means that there is no any stabilizing quantity in such schemes. Therefore in order to
guaranty the stability of the relay during external faults the operating quantity must not
exceed the set pickup value.

Figure 58 :Typical high impedance differential scheme

For external faults, even with severe saturation of some of the current transformers, the
voltage across the CT paralleling point shall not rise above the relay pickup value.
To achieve that a suitable value for setting resistor Rs shall be selected in such a way that
the saturated CT provides a much lower impedance path as compared with the measuring
branch.
Thus, in case of an external fault causing current transformer saturation, the non-saturated
current transformers will drive most of the spill differential current through the secondary
winding of the saturated current transformer and not through the measuring branch. The
voltage drop across the saturated current transformer secondary winding will appear also
across the measuring branch; however it will typically be relatively small. Therefore, the
pick-up value of the relay has to be set above this false operating voltage.
In case of an internal fault, the fault current tries to flow through the measuring branch.
Due to high ohmic value of setting resistor this will result in a steep voltage increase
across the whole scheme and fast saturation of all current transformers. The differential
relay is designed to operate under such conditions.

To ensure reliable operation with internal faults, the knee-point voltage of the current
Page | 81
transformers used in the scheme must be about two times the set pickup voltage.
Often the non-linear resistors are required in order to limit the over voltages during
internal fault to less than 2kV peak value, which is standard insulation level for used for
secondary equipment and wiring.

The differential protection sensitivity corresponds to the sum of magnetizing currents of

all parallel connected current transformers, current drawn by non-linear resistor and the
relay operating current for set pick-up voltage.

6.1.2b Low Impedance for Busbar

Low-impedance bus differential relays are so named because the differential relay current
inputs have a low impedance to the flow of CT secondary current. This means that the
low- impedance bus differential relays can share the CTs with other relays, meters,
transducers, etc.
The low impedance bus differential scheme typically has one set of current inputs for
each phase from every set of CTs in the scheme.
Distributed busbar protection scheme, as shown in Figure, which uses Data Acquisition Units
(DAUs) installed in each bay to sample and pre-processes the signals and provides trip
rated output contacts. It uses a separate Central Unit (CU) for gathering and processing
all the information and fiber-optic communications between the CU and DAUs to deliver
the data.
The main advantages of this scheme is reduced wiring, however the architecture of this
scheme is less reliable due to complexity in data transfer.

Figure 59 : Distributed busbar protection

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 6.1.2c Transformer Differential Relay Protection:

Figure 60 :Transformer Differential Relay Protection

Generally Differential protection is provided in the electrical power transformer rated

more than 5MVA.

The Differential Protection of Transformer has many advantages over other schemes of
protection:
1) The faults occurring in the transformer inside the insulating oil can be detected by
Buchholz relay. But if any fault occurs in the transformer but not in oil then it
cannot be detected by Buchholz relay. Any flash over at the bushings are not
adequately covered by Buchholz relay. Differential relays can detect such type of
faults. Moreover, Buchholz relay is provided in transformer for detecting any
internal fault in the transformer but Differential. Protection schemes detect the
same in faster way.

2) The differential relays normally response to those faults which occur inside the
differential protection zone of the transformer. Differential Protection Scheme in a
Power Transformer. Principle of Differential Protection scheme is one simple
conceptual technique. The differential relay actually compares between primary
current and secondary current of power transformer, if any unbalance found in
between primary and secondary currents the relay will actuate and inter trip both
the primary and secondary circuit breaker of the transformer.
Suppose you have one transformer which has primary rated current Ip and secondary
current Is. If you install CT of ratio Ip/1A at the primary side and similarly, CT of ratio
Is/1A at the secondary side of the transformer. The secondaries of these both CTs are
connected together in such a manner that secondary currents of both CTs will oppose each
other.

In other words, the secondaries of both CTs should be connected to the same current coil
of a differential relay in such an opposite manner that there will be no resultant current in
that coil in a normal working condition of the transformer. But if any major fault occurs

Page | 83
inside the transformer due to which the normal ratio of the transformer disturbed then the
secondary current of both transformers will not remain the same and one resultant current
will flow through the current coil of the differential relay, which will actuate the relay
and inter trip both the primary and secondary circuit breakers. To correct phase shift of
current because of star-delta connection of transformer winding in the case of three-phase
transformer, the current transformer secondary should be connected in delta and star as
shown here.

Figure 61 : Schematic Diagram of Differential Protection Scheme

At maximum through fault current, the spill output produced by the small percentage
unbalance may be substantial. Therefore, differential protection of transformer should be
provided with a proportional bias of an amount which exceeds in effect the maximum
ratio deviation.

6.1.3 Over Current Relay

Overcurrent relaying is the simplest and cheapest type of protection used for protection of lines,
transformers, generators and motors.
Based on operating time characteristics, normally defined by the time versus current PSM
curve, there are two main types of overcurrent relays:
✓ Instantaneous (ANSI code: 50).
✓ Time overcurrent (definite time or inverse time), (ANSI code: 51).

• Instantaneous overcurrent relay operates without time delay, so they are called instantaneous
units. However, its operation can be delayed after a specified time according to the
application.

Figure 62: Instantaneous Action

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• Definite time relay operates with some time delay, and this delay is adjustable as well as the
pickup setting.

Figure 63 : time delayed action

• Inverse time overcurrent relay has an operating time depending on the value of the current.
Generally, with an inverse characteristic, the operation time of the relay is smaller as
the current gets larger.

Figure 64 : Numerical relay time vs current c/cts

There are different types of inverse curves.

✓ Most common three types of IEC curves are used, Normal Inverse (NI), Very
Inverse (VI) and Extremely Inverse (EI).

Relay Characteristic Equation (IEC60255)

0.14
Standard Inverse (SI) 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑀𝑆 ×
𝐼𝑟0.02
−1
13.5
Very Inverse (VI) 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑀𝑆 ×
𝐼𝑟 − 1
80
Extremely Inverse (EI) 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑀𝑆 ×
𝐼𝑟2 − 1
120
Long time standard earth 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑀𝑆 ×
𝐼𝑟 − 1
Table 4: Equation of relay characteristic

Page | 85
Where:
𝑰
• 𝑰𝒓 = , I is the measured fault current, and Is is the relay setting current (PS for
𝑰𝒔
electromechanical relay).
• 𝑇𝑀𝑆 is the time Multiplier setting, and T is the relay operating time in sec.

Figure 65: Operating time vs current (multiples of pick-up SETTING)

✓ ANSI Overcurrent relays also have different equations, as follow: TD is the time dial or
called time dial setting (TDS)

Characteristic Equation
𝑇𝐷 0.0515
IEEE Moderately Inverse 𝑡= [( ) + 0.114]
7 𝐼𝑟0.02 − 1
𝑇𝐷 19.61
IEEE Very Inverse 𝑡= [( ) + 0.491]
7 𝐼𝑟2 − 1
𝑇𝐷 28.2
IEEE Extremely Inverse 𝑡= [( ) + 0.1217]
7 𝐼𝑟2 − 1
𝑇𝐷 5.95
US CO8 Inverse 𝑡= [( ) + 0.18]
7 𝐼𝑟2 − 1
𝑇𝐷 0.02394
US CO8 Short Time Inverse 𝑡= [( ) + 0.01694]
7 𝐼𝑟0.02 − 1
Table 5: Equations of ANSI overcurrent relay

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6.2 Types of Substation
There are different types of substations based on the level of automation and control systems
used. The three main types are:
• Conventional Substation.
• SCADA Based Substation.
• SAS (Substation Automation System).

6.2.1 Conventional Substation

✓ A Conventional Substation is the traditional type of substation where operations and
control are carried out manually.
✓ In this system, there is no automation or centralized remote control. All switching
operations, monitoring, and fault handling are performed locally by operators who must
be physically present at the site.
✓ Each bay in the substation is equipped with its own Local Control Cubicle (LCC), and
many devices such as circuit breakers and disconnectors are controlled using push buttons
or mimic panels with discrepancy switches.
✓ The protection and monitoring systems are simple, and communication between different
bays or with a control room is minimal or non-existent.

6.2.2 SCADA Based Substation

In a SCADA-Based Substation, the operation and monitoring of the equipment are managed
remotely using a SCADA system (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition).
The SCADA system consists of:
• A group of screens (HMIs - Human Machine Interfaces):

Page | 87
 ✓ Each screen displays detailed
diagrams showing the complete
substation layout, status of breakers,
isolators, alarms, measurements, etc.
✓ Operators sit in front of these screens
and control the substation remotely.

• Servers and Databases:

A set of servers are used to collect, store, and process data received from the substation
equipment, ensuring real-time monitoring and historical analysis.

• Remote Terminal Unit (RTU):

✓ The RTU acts as an interface between the field
devices and the SCADA system.
✓ It collects data (such as breaker status, measurements,
alarms) from the physical equipment using
conventional wiring.
✓ Then, it communicates the collected information to the
SCADA system over communication networks (fiber
optics, radio, or Ethernet).
✓ It also receives control commands from the SCADA
and sends them back to the field devices.

Note:
The SCADA system can be used not only in substations but in any industrial or infrastructure
project, such as water plants, oil and gas facilities, or manufacturing factories. It is a general control
system, adapted according to the required protocols and applications.

6.2.3 SAS (Substation Automation System)

The Substation Automation System (SAS) is a specialized type of automation system
designed only for substations.
✓ In SAS, there is no intermediary like an RTU between the equipment and the control
system.
✓ All equipment (breakers, CTs, VTs, protection relays) are directly connected through
communication protocols such as IEC 61850, using fiber optics or Ethernet, without
the need for traditional hardwiring for signals.
✓ The system provides real-time control, monitoring, fault analysis, and automated
protection schemes, all via communication networks.
✓ Thus, SAS offers faster and more reliable operation compared to SCADA-based
systems, especially during fault conditions.

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 • Current Practice in Egypt
In Egypt, it is common to find a combination of systems such as:
✓ Conventional + SCADA
✓ Conventional + SAS
Many existing substations still rely on conventional systems for basic operation but integrate
SCADA or SAS for enhanced monitoring, control, and reliability.
This hybrid approach helps in modernizing old substations without fully replacing their
traditional infrastructure.
6.3 Protection Schemes and Associated Control & Metering Panels in
Substations
Modern substations are equipped with various protection schemes and panel systems that
work together to ensure safe and reliable operation. These systems are essential for detecting
faults, isolating affected parts of the network, and maintaining overall system stability.
Control panels provide interfaces for local and remote operation of substation equipment,
while protection units monitor system conditions and trigger necessary actions during
abnormal events. Metering panels continuously measure electrical quantities, supporting
monitoring, diagnostics, and decision-making.
This section presents an overview of the main components involved in protection, control,
and metering schemes within substations. Each will be discussed in detail to highlight its
function, configuration, and role in the overall system.
6.3.1 Local Control Panel (+W)
• Each Local Control Panel is typically installed in front of each bay in the substation. -It
allows operators to locally monitor and control the equipment in that specific bay.
• The control can be done either through pushbuttons or using a mimic diagram with
discrepancy switches, which indicate the actual position of the equipment versus the
command position.

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• Additionally, beside each primary
equipment (like circuit breakers,
disconnectors, or earthing
switches), there is a local box
mounted for field operations.
However, this box is mainly used
for maintenance and testing
purposes only, due to the noise and
high operating force required in
the field.

• Inside the LCP, we typically find :

➢ multi-function meter
that displays electrical quantities such as:
✓ Voltage (V)
✓ Current (I)
✓ Active Power (P)
✓ Reactive Power (Q)
✓ Power Factor (Pf)
Instead of a multi-function meter, some LCPs might use a 7-position voltage selector switch,
which allows operators to monitor:
✓ Phase-to-earth voltages (R, Y, B)
✓ Line-to-line voltages (RY, YB, BR)
And an individual ammeter is usually installed for each phase to show the current values.

➢ alarming unit
✓ which provides visual and audible indications of abnormal conditions or faults,
helping operators quickly identify issues.
✓ There’s also a test pushbutton to check that all indicator lamps on the panel are
working correctly.

• Local/Remote Selector Switch

✓ Local mode: allows control directly from the LCP.

✓ Remote mode: hands over the control to the Remote Control Panel (RCP), which is
usually located in the control room.

• Interlocking systems
✓ are also included to enhance operational safety. For example, a disconnector cannot
be opened or closed unless the circuit breaker is already open. This is enforced
through electrical or mechanical interlocks.
✓ in emergency situations, there is a feature called Interlock Bypass. It consists of a
selector switch with a key, and it allows authorized personnel to override the
interlocking logic — but only under special circumstances, and with extreme caution.

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 6.3.2 Remote Control Panel (+P)
The Remote Control Panel (RCP) is located in the substation control room and provides centralized
monitoring and control of bays and equipment. It contains several key components:
• Bay Control Unit (BCU)
✓ Acts as the brain of the panel.
✓ Performs the function of a multifunction
meter, displaying:
➢ Voltage (V)
➢ Current (I)
➢ Active and reactive power (P & Q)
➢ Power factor (Pf)
✓ Can serve as a backup control unit,
especially in 66 kV substations.

• Alarm Unit
✓ Provides visual and audible alerts for faults or abnormal conditions.
✓ Helps operators quickly detect and respond to system issues.

• Lamp Test Pushbutton

✓ Used to verify the operation of all indicator lamps on the panel.
✓ Ensures that no faulty indicators go unnoticed during operation.
2.2.4 Local / Remote Selector Switch
✓ Allows the operator to choose the control source:
➢ Local: Control from the RCP itself.
➢ Remote: Control from a higher-level system (like SCADA or SAS).

• Mimic / BCU Selector Switch

Provides flexibility in control mode:
✓ Mimic: Control using the traditional mimic diagram with pushbuttons and indicator
LEDs.
✓ BCU: Control via the digital interface of the Bay Control Unit.
✓ This structured configuration of the RCP allows for efficient and safe operation of the
substation, especially during normal operation, fault conditions, or emergencies.

6.3.3 Protection Unit

• The Protection Unit is usually installed in the control room or inside the Remote Control
Panel (RCP). Its main function is to detect electrical faults and operate the circuit breakers to
isolate the faulted section, ensuring the safety of equipment and stability of the network.
• The protection scheme varies based on the voltage level.
✓ Voltage-Level Based Philosophy
➢ 220 kV Systems:
− Use two Main Relays (Main 1 & Main 2).
− Since power transfer is high, faults can affect system stability.
− Protection must quickly clear faults to return the system to its steady state.

➢ 66 kV Systems:

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 − Use Main + Backup Relays.
− Power levels are lower, so one main protection and one backup are sufficient.
− In the substation studied (66 kV), the backup relay can either be a separate
physical device Or integrated inside the BCU.

✓ Main & Backup Protection Relays

➢ Main Relay:
− Primary fault detection and tripping device.
➢ Backup Relay:
− Acts if the main relay fails or doesn't operate within the required time.
− In 66 kV substations, it may be physically separate or built into the BCU.

✓ Lockout Relay (86 Relay)

➢ Operates when a serious fault occurs.
➢ Receives signals from either the Main or Backup relay.
➢ Sends an additional trip command to the Circuit Breaker (CB).
➢ Inserts a normally closed (NC) contact to block re-closing of the CB.
➢ Requires a manual reset after verifying that the fault has been cleared.
➢ Prevents unnecessary wear on the CB, which has a limited number of operations.

✓ Trip Circuit Supervision (TCS)

➢ Monitors the trip path between the relay and circuit breaker.
➢ Sends a small supervision current through the trip circuit:
− If the current returns, the path is healthy.
− If not, it indicates a problem in the wiring or breaker coil.
− Enhances reliability and helps identify hidden failures.

✓ Test Plug
➢ Used during relay testing and commissioning.
➢ Allows the engineer to inject current or voltage into the relay.
➢ Simulates real fault conditions to check:
− Whether the relay detects the fault properly.
− Whether it sends the correct trip signal.

6.3.4 Metering Unit

• The metering unit is one of the key components inside the substation panels. It is mainly
responsible for measuring electrical quantities with very high accuracy. These readings are
critical because they are used for energy billing and financial settlements between different
parties (such as between the utility company and customers or between two utilities).
• The metering unit is typically installed inside a dedicated panel close to the control and
protection units, often placed in the relay room or control room of the substation.

Page | 92
 ✓ Energy Meter
➢ Measures active energy (kWh), reactive
energy (kVARh), and sometimes apparent
energy (kVAh).
➢ Very high accuracy (Class 0.2S or 0.5S).
➢ Used for billing and auditing purposes.

6.3.5 Busbar Protection

• The busbar is a key component in any substation, as it connects multiple incoming and
outgoing circuits. Because of its central role, any fault occurring on the busbar can lead to
serious consequences if not cleared quickly. Therefore, a dedicated busbar protection system
is essential to isolate faults and maintain the stability and safety of the power system.

• When a fault occurs on the busbar, it is crucial to trip all the circuit breakers connected to the
affected section in order to isolate the fault as quickly as possible.
• Busbar Differential Protection detects internal faults by comparing currents entering and
leaving the busbar using Kirchhoff’s Current Law.

Page | 93
 High Impedance Scheme connects
CTs in parallel with a high-impedance
relay; it detects faults based on voltage
rise caused by unbalanced currents.
Low Impedance Scheme uses a
modern relay that measures each CT
input separately, compares them
digitally, and applies restraint logic for
accurate fault detection.

• There are two main types of busbar

protection schemes:
✓ Distributed Busbar Protection:
➢ In this scheme, each bay is equipped with a local protection device called a Bay Unit (BU).
➢ These bay units are responsible for measuring and monitoring the current using CTs
(Current Transformers).
➢ The bay units do not trip the breakers directly. Instead, they send signals to a central unit
(CU), which makes the final decision.
➢ The communication between bay units and the CU is usually done via fiber optic cables,
while the current signals from CTs to the bay units are transmitted via copper cables.
➢ This setup provides a balance between local monitoring and centralized decision-making,
and it allows for flexibility in system design and expansion.

✓ Centralized Busbar Protection:

In this type, there is only one main protection device responsible for the entire busbar system.
➢ This device is equipped with multiple cards to receive inputs from all connected CTs via
copper cables.
➢ The centralized unit continuously monitors the current flows and checks for faults.
➢ It also includes breaker failure protection, which monitors whether a circuit breaker has
actually opened after being commanded to trip.
➢ If the breaker fails to open, the system sends a signal to trip backup breakers. If that fails
too, it trips all the breakers connected to the faulty busbar to ensure complete isolation.

Choosing between distributed and centralized busbar protection depends on the size of the
substation, complexity, and reliability requirements. While distributed systems offer
flexibility and scalability, centralized systems provide simplicity and centralized control.
Both aim to detect faults rapidly and isolate the busbar to prevent damage and maintain
power system stability

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 6.4 Types of Bays in a Substation
In a substation, a bay refers to a distinct section or unit that contains all the necessary equipment
for a specific function in the power system. Bays are typically categorized based on their role and
the type of equipment they connect to. The main types include:
Line Bay
Connects the substation to overhead transmission lines, underground cables, or mixed lines.
Transformer Bay
Connects power transformers to the substation’s busbars, enabling voltage level changes between
transmission and distribution systems.
Bus Coupler Bay
Connects two busbars together and allows flexibility in load sharing, maintenance, and fault
isolation.

6.4.1 Line Bay

The Line Bay in a substation is responsible for connecting the outgoing or
incoming transmission lines to the busbar system. It is a critical element
that ensures power flow between the substation and other parts of the
electrical grid. There are three types of line connections typically
encountered:
• Overhead Transmission Line (OHTL)
• Underground Cable
• Mixed Line (a combination of OHTL and cable)

Protection Schemes
The protection system varies depending on the line type:
✓ Overhead Transmission Line (OHTL):
Protected primarily using Distance Protection which detects faults
based on the impedance seen by the relay.
✓ Cable Line:
Protected using Differential Protection, as cables have low and
Figure 66: Line Bay
consistent impedance, making differential protection highly
effective.
✓ Mixed Line (OHTL + Cable):
Also typically protected using Distance Protection, although special coordination is needed
due to the differing characteristics of the cable and overhead line segments.
✓ Current Transformers (CTs)
For a 66 kV Line Bay, the typical CT arrangement includes 3 cores per phase:
➢ Measurement Core:
Used for feeding signals to the Multifunction Meter (MF), Bay Control Unit (BCU), and
Energy Meter (EM).
➢ Protection Core:
Dedicated to Main and Backup Protection Relays, ensuring accurate and reliable fault
detection.
➢ Busbar Protection Core:

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 Utilized for Busbar Protection, which safeguards the entire busbar zone against internal
faults.

✓ Voltage Transformers (VTs)

Each line bay also includes 2-core VTs:
➢ Protection Core:
Supplies voltage signals to the Main and Backup Protection Relays.
➢ Measurement Core:
Feeds voltage signals to the Multifunction Meter, BCU, and Energy Meter.

Relay Functions and Fault Analysis

▪ Differential (87)
▪ Distance (21)
is used as a backup for Differential Protection because Differential protection relies on
communication (usually fiber optics).
A failure in the communication link can cause the protection to malfunction.
So It remains active until the communication issue is resolved and differential protection is
restored.
▪ Directional (67)
▪ Over Current Instantaneous (50)
▪ Over Current Delayed (51)
▪ Event Recorder (ER):
Logs all significant operations and changes in status (e.g., breaker trips, protection relay
actions).
▪ Fault Recorder (FR):
Records detailed data specifically related to faults—such as voltage, current waveforms, and
relay responses.
▪ Fault Locator (FL):
Estimates the distance to the fault location using *impedance values* measured by the distance
protection function. This helps in quickly identifying and isolating the fault on the transmission
line.
▪ Neutral Protection Relays:
51N – Time-delayed earth fault protection
50N – Instantaneous earth fault protection
67N – Directional earth fault protection

-These relays operate based on the residual current. If a neutral is present, it is monitored
directly. If not, the sum of the three-phase currents (𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 ) is calculated. Under normal
conditions, this sum should be zero. If it exceeds a certain threshold, it indicates a ground fault.

Page | 96
 Figure 67 : Protection Scheme of Line Feeder

6.4.2 Transformer Bay

✓ The Transformer Bay in a substation is responsible for
connecting the power transformer to the busbar system. It
plays a vital role in stepping up or stepping down voltage
levels between the transmission and distribution networks.
This bay ensures safe and efficient voltage transformation
while allowing for proper control, protection, and monitoring
of the transformer unit.
✓ The Transformer Bay is considered one of the most critical
parts of the substation due to the importance and high cost of
the transformer. Therefore, it is equipped with specialized
protection systems to detect internal and external faults and to
minimize equipment damage and outage time.

• Protection Schemes
✓ The main protection scheme for power transformers is the
Differential Protection. This protection method operates based Figure 68 : Transformer Bay
on the principle of Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states that
the current entering the transformer should be equal to the current leaving it (after accounting
for the turns ratio).
✓ Current Transformers (CTs) are installed on both the primary and secondary sides of the
transformer. Under normal conditions, the differential current (the difference between
primary and secondary currents, adjusted by the CT ratio) is nearly zero. However, if an
internal fault occurs within the transformer (such as winding short-circuit or insulation
failure), a significant differential current appears, which triggers the protection relay to
isolate the transformer.
✓ It is important to note that while Transformer Differential Protection compares currents
locally at the transformer terminals, the Line Differential Protection, especially in cable
connections, operates differently. Line differential schemes require real-time communication
between both ends of the line to exchange current measurements. This ensures accurate fault
detection along the length of the cable by comparing the current entering and exiting the line.

• Current transformers(CTs)
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 For the primary side (66kv), the typical CT arrangement includes 4 cores per phase:
✓ Measurement Core:
Used for feeding signals to the Multifunction Meter (MF), Bay Control Unit (BCU), and
Energy Meter (EM).

✓ Protection Core:
Dedicated to Main and Backup Protection Relays, ensuring accurate and reliable fault
detection.

✓ Busbar Protection Core:

Utilized for Busbar Protection, which safeguards the entire busbar zone against internal
faults.

✓ Earth Fault Core:

− detects leakage or unbalanced current flowing to earth, indicating insulation failure or
ground faults within the transformer.
− For the secondary side (Medium Voltage), the typical CT arrangement includes also 4 cores
per phase.
− The CT cores on the primary side of the transformer are similar to those on the secondary
side, with one main difference: instead of a busbar protection relay on the primary side, the
secondary side typically uses a Feeder Manager Relay.
− The Feeder Manager is responsible for providing protection and control functions for the
outgoing feeder. It is commonly used in medium voltage networks and allows for
monitoring, tripping, and isolation of the feeder in case of faults or abnormal conditions.
− However, in high voltage substations, protection and control are usually handled by
separate dedicated devices, providing more advanced and flexible functionalities.

• Relay Functions and Fault Analysis

These functions can be categorized into electrical protections, mechanical protections, and
monitoring features

• Electrical Protection Functions:

✓ Overload Protection(49):
Monitors the thermal condition of the transformer based on load current. Since oil is used for
cooling, the maximum permissible loading is usually limited to 80% to avoid excessive
temperature rise due to losses. If the overload exceeds the allowed limit, the relay can initiate
load rejection or trip the transformer to prevent damage.
✓ Overfluxing Protection(24):
Detects overfluxing conditions caused by high voltage or low frequency, which can lead to
core saturation and overheating. It protects the magnetic core and windings from thermal
stress.
✓ Disturbance Recorder (DR):
Records key electrical events and disturbances such as faults or switching operations.
Transformers contain mechanical parts that may react violently during disturbances, potentially
causing vibrations that accelerate aging or internal damage. The DR helps in post-event analysis.

✓ Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection:

− REF protection is a high-sensitivity scheme designed to detect internal earth faults within

Page | 98
 the transformer windings, specifically in the zone between the phase CTs and the neutral
point. It works by summing the currents of all three phases and comparing them to the
current flowing through the neutral CT.
− Under normal conditions, the sum of the phase currents should equal the neutral current.
However, in case of an internal winding fault, such as a short circuit between a few turns, a
portion of the fault current will flow through the neutral, causing an imbalance. This
imbalance is detected by the REF relay, which then issues a trip signal.
− REF is more sensitive than the main differential protection, as it is focused on a smaller
zone and can detect low-magnitude internal faults that might not trigger the main
differential relay.

✓ Sensitive Earth Fault (SEF) Protection:

− SEF protection is used to detect low-level earth leakage currents anywhere in the system or
feeder, not just inside the transformer. It is especially useful in medium voltage systems
with resistance or high
− In SEF, a dedicated CT is placed on the neutral earthing connection (sometimes called a
core-balance CT or zero-sequence CT). It detects even very small residual currents
(e.g., < 1 A), making it ideal for detecting incipient insulation failures or high-impedance
faults that wouldn't be caught by other protection schemes.

• Mechanical Protection Functions:

These are often external devices but are connected to the protection system through auxiliary
inputs to the main relay:
✓ Buchholz Relay:
Installed on oil-filled transformers to detect gas accumulation
or oil movement due to internal faults. It provides alarm and
trip functions.

✓ Oil Temperature Protection:

Monitors the temperature of the insulating oil. High oil
temperature may trigger alarms or trips to prevent
overheating.

✓ Winding Temperature Protection: Figure 69 : Buchholz Relay

Measures the heating effect caused by load current. The

current is sensed through CTs located inside the bushings, and then converted into an equivalent
thermal signal.

✓ Pressure Relief Device:

Provides mechanical protection by releasing excessive pressure from
the transformer tank. In extreme conditions, it may explode or open
suddenly to relieve internal overpressure and prevent tank rupture.

Figure 70 : Pressure Relief Device

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All these mechanical devices are connected to the main protection relay using auxiliary contacts,
allowing centralized monitoring, alarming, and tripping functions. This integration ensures that
both electrical and mechanical conditions are effectively supervised and acted upon.

Figure 72 : Protection Scheme of two windings transformer

Figure 71 : Protection scheme of three windings transformer

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 6.4.3 Coupler Bay
• The Coupler Bay in a substation plays a key role in
enhancing operational flexibility and system reliability. It
is used to interconnect two busbars (typically in a double
busbar scheme), allowing the transfer of loads or feeders
from one busbar to another without interruption. This bay
provides switching flexibility during maintenance, fault
isolation, or load balancing between bus sections.

• The Coupler Bay is equipped with protection schemes to

ensure safe operation during busbar coupling or transfer
operations. Its presence in the substation layout allows for
increased system redundancy, operational continuity, and
easier fault management during abnormal conditions. Figure 73 : Coupler Bay

• Protection Schemes
✓ The protection of the Coupler Bay must strike a balance between speed, selectivity, and
coordination with surrounding bays and the overall busbar protection system.
▪ Busbar protection is the main protection for the coupler bay.
▪ 51 / 51N act as backup protections for abnormal current flow.

• Current Transformers (CTs):

the typical CT arrangement includes 4 cores per phase:

✓ Measurement Core:
Used for feeding signals to the Multifunction Meter (MF), Bay Control Unit (BCU), and
Energy Meter (EM).
✓ Protection Core:
Dedicated to Main and Backup Protection Relays, ensuring accurate and reliable fault
detection.
✓ Busbar Protection(2 Cores):
Utilized for Busbar Protection, which safeguards the entire busbar zone against internal
faults.

Figure 74 : Protection Scheme of Coupler

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Chapter (7) CT and VT Sizing
7.1 Current Transformer
A current transformer is defined as “as an instrument transformer in which the secondary current
is substantially proportional to the primary current (under normal conditions of operation) and
differs in phase from it by an angle which is approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the
connection.
7.1.1 Functions
Adapting the current value at the primary to the characteristics of the metering or protection
devices by supplying a secondary current with a reduced, but proportional current value.
Isolating power circuits from the metering and/or protection circuit.
7.1.2 Types
• High remanence type CT.
• Low remanence type CT.
• Non remanence type CT.

• The high remanence type:

Has no limit for the remanent flux. This CT has a magnetic core without any airgap and a
remanent flux might remain almost infinite time. In this type of transformers, the remanence
can be up to around 80% of the saturation flux. Typical examples of high remanence type CT
are class P, PX, TPS, TPX according to IEC, class P, X according to BS (old British Standard)
and non gapped class C, K according to ANSI/IEEE.
• The low remanence type:
Has a specified limit for the remanent flux. This CT is made with a small air gap to reduce the
remanence to a level that does not exceed 10% of the saturation flux. The small air gap has only
very limited influences on.
• The non remanence type:
CT has practically negligible level of remanent flux. This type of CT has relatively big air gaps
in order to reduce the remanence to practically zero level. At the same time, these air gaps reduce
the influence of the DC component from the primary fault current.
The air gaps will also decrease the measuring accuracy in the non-saturated region of operation.
Class TPZ according to IEC is a non-remanence type CT.
A CT has a unique magnetization curve, With the transformation ratio, this characterizes its
operation. This magnetization curve (voltage 𝑉𝑜 , magnetizing current function 𝐼𝑚 ) can be divided
into 3 zones:
✓ Non saturated zone: 𝐼𝑚 is low and the voltage 𝑉𝑜 (and therefore 𝐼𝑠 ) increases virtually
proportionately to the primary current.
✓ Intermediary zone: there is no real break in the curve, and it is difficult to situate a
precise point corresponding to the saturation voltage.
✓ Saturated zone: the curve becomes virtually horizontal; the error in transformation ratio
is high, the secondary current is distorted by saturation.

Page | 102
 Figure 75 :CT magnetization curve

7.1.3 Metering CT & protection CT

We must choose a CT with characteristics that are suited to its application.
• Metering CT
This requires good accuracy (linearity zone) in an area close to the normal service current; it
must also protect metering devices from high currents by saturating earlier.

• Protection CT
This requires good accuracy at high currents and will have a higher precision limit (linearity
zone) for protection relays to detect the protection thresholds that they are meant to be
monitoring.

Where: Figure 76 : Equivalent circuit of CT

✓ 𝐼1 : primary current.
✓ 𝐼2 : primary current divided by the turns ratio for a perfect CT.
✓ 𝐼𝑠 : secondary current actually flowing through the circuit.
✓ 𝐼𝑚 : magnetizing current.
✓ 𝐿𝑚 = magnetization inductance equivalent to the CT
✓ 𝑉𝑆 = Voltage across secondary of transformer
✓ 𝑅𝑐𝑡 = resistance at the CT secondary
✓ 𝑅𝑝 = burden resistance

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 7.1.4 Specifications of CT
• Rated Primary Current
This is referring to the value of primary current which appears in the designation of the
transformer, and on which the performance of the current transformer is based.

• Rated Secondary Current

This is referring to the value of secondary current which appears in the designation of the
transformer and on which the performance of the current transformer is based.
Typical values of secondary current are 1 A or 5 A.

• Rated Burden
This is referring to the apparent power of the secondary circuit in Volt-amperes expressed at
the rated secondary current and at a specific power factor (0.8 for almost all standards).

• Accuracy Class
In the case of metering CT s, accuracy class is typically, 0.2, 0.5, 1 or 3.

This means that the errors have to be within the limits specified in the standards for that
particular accuracy class.
The metering CT has to be accurate from 5% to 120% of the rated primary current, at 25%
and 100% of the rated burden at the specified power factor.
In the case of protection CTs, the CTs should pass both the ratio and phase errors at the
specified accuracy class, usually 5P or 10P, as well as composite error at the accuracy limit
factor of the CT.

Table 6:Different Accuracy Classes for CTs

Page | 104
 Table 7:Accuracy Class of protection CT

• Current Ratio Error

The error with a transformer introduces into the measurement of a current and which arises
from the fact that actual transformation ratio is not equal to the rated transformer ratio. The
current error expressed in percentage is given by the formula:
(𝐾𝑎 × (𝐼𝑠 − 𝐼𝑝))
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 % = × 100
𝐼𝑝
Where
✓ 𝐾𝑎 = rated transformation ratio
✓ 𝐼𝑝 = actual primary current
✓ 𝐼𝑠 = actual secondary current when 𝐼𝑝 is flowing under the conditions of measurement

• Accuracy Limit Factor

This is referring to the value of primary current up to which the CT complies with
composite error requirements. This is typically 5, 10 or 15, which means that the composite
error of the CT has to be within specified limits at 5, 10 or 15 times the rated primary current.

• Knee Point Voltage

That point on the magnetizing curve where an increase of
10% in the flux density (voltage) causes an increase of 50%
in the magnetizing current. The Knee Point Voltage (𝑉𝑘𝑝 )
is defined as the secondary voltage at which an increase of
10% produces an increase in magnetizing current of 50%. It
is the secondary voltage above which the CT is near
magnetic saturation.

Figure 77: Knee Point Voltage Definition for CT

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 7.1.5 CT sizing
7.1.5a Determine CT ratio
Get the operating current of the line which subjected to put the CT on it and multiply it by
1.2 as safety factor.
Then Get the secondary operating current from the relay that will be used if the input
current is 5A or 1 A.
MVA ∗ 103
𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = , 𝐼 ≥ 1.2 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
√3 ∗ 𝐾𝑉

7.1.5b Determine the knee point voltage

• To keep the CT away from saturation during fault times and operate properly.
• Calculate the maximum voltage that will be occur at the maximum current during short
circuit times and multiply it by 1.2 as a safety factor.
𝑉𝐾 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 × (2𝑅𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 )
𝑇
𝑉𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑇 ≥ 1.25 𝑉𝐾
Where,
✓ 𝐼𝑠𝑐 : is the maximum through fault current in the feeder.
𝑝 𝐼
✓ 𝑇: is the CT Ratio ( )
𝐼𝑠
✓ 𝑅𝐶𝑇: is the CT Secondary Winding Resistance in [Link] the Relay Burden in ohms
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑉𝐴
✓ 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 = 2 .
𝐼𝑠𝑐

✓ 𝑅𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑 : is the total wiring resistance connected to the CT secondary in ohms.

7.1.5c CT Burden
• CT burden is an impedance of secondary circuit expressed in ohms.
• CT Burden can be expressed in two terms as example: 0.5 ohm impedance 10 VA at
5A. (British method) here 5A is rated secondary current and 2Volt across secondary.
• 𝐶𝑇𝐵𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛 = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦1 𝐵𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛 + 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦2 𝐵𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛 + 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦3 𝐵𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛 + ⋯ + ⋯

Page | 106
7.1.6 CTs Cores in our substation
7.1.6a Protective Core for incoming lines

Page | 107
7.1.6b Measurement Core for incoming lines

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7.1.6c Protective Core for 3 winding transformer (3.3KV)

Page | 109
7.1.6d Measurement Core for 3 winding transformer (3.3KV)

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7.1.6e Protective Core for 3 winding transformer(66KV)

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7.1.6f Measurement Core for 3 winding transformer (66KV)

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7.1.6g Protective Core for 2 winding transformer(13.8kV)

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7.1.6h Measurement Core for 2 winding transformer(13.8kV)

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7.1.6i Protective Core for 2 winding transformer(66KV)

Page | 115
7.1.6j Measurement Core for 2 winding transformer(66KV)

Page | 116
7.1.6k Protective Core for motors (13.8kV)

Page | 117
7.1.6l Measurement Core for motors (13.8KV)

Page | 118
7.1.6m Protective Core for Aux.

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7.1.6n Measurement Core For Aux.

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7.1.6o Protective Core for Coupler(13.8kV)

Page | 121
7.1.6p Measurement Core for Coupler(13.8kV)

Page | 122
7.1.6q Protective Core for Coupler (66kV)

Page | 123
7.1.6r Measurement Core for Coupler(66kV)

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7.2 Voltage Transformer
7.2.1 Introduction to Voltage Transformers
Voltage Transformers (VTs), also known as potential transformers (PTs), are a type of
instrument transformer used to step down high voltages to lower, standardized voltages for
metering, protection, and control in power systems. They allow measurement and monitoring
equipment to safely operate with high voltage levels indirectly.

7.2.2 Types of Voltage Transformers

7.2.2a Inductive Voltage Transformers
✓ These are electromagnetic devices that operate on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
✓ They consist of a primary winding connected to the high-voltage
line and a secondary winding connected to the measuring
instruments or protective relays.
✓ It is constructed similar to power transformer.

Figure 78 : Inductive
7.2.2b Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVTs) Voltage Transformers

✓ CVTs use a capacitive voltage divider in

combination with an inductive element
and tuning reactor. They are widely used
in high voltage transmission systems
because they are cost-effective and
provide better insulation.

✓ It’s more economical to use than

electromagnetic voltage transformer
when the system nominal voltage is
Extra High Voltage (EHV) or Ultra High
Figure 79 : Capacitive Voltage Transformers Circuit
Voltage (UHV). It is also useful in
communication systems, where CVTs in
combination with Wave Traps are used for filtering high-frequency communication
signals from power frequency and this forms a carrier communication network throughout
the transmission network. (Power Line Carrier – PLC).

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 Feature Inductive VT Capacitive VT

Principle Electromagnetic induction Capacitive voltage division

Cost Higher Lower

Size Bulkier More compact

Frequency response Better for protection Suitable for high voltage metering

Accuracy High Moderate

Table 8 : Comparison between Inductive VT and Capacitive VT

7.2.3 VT Sizing
• Voltage ratio (ex: 220KV/100V or 110V).
• Total burden of devices + VT Cores + Cables < VT burden.
• Accuracy class (ex: 3P for protection and 0.5M for measurement).

Page | 126
7.2.3a VT for 66KV Bus

Page | 127
7.2.3b VT for 13.8KV Bus

Page | 128
• Accuracy Class of Voltage Transformers
The accuracy class defines the permissible error limits of a VT under specified conditions. It
is important in ensuring the correct operation of measuring and protection devices.

• Voltage Error and Phase Error

Voltage Error (%): The difference between the actual secondary voltage and the ideal
voltage expressed as a percentage of the ideal value.
Phase Error (minutes): The phase displacement between primary and secondary voltages.

Accuracy Class Voltage Error (%) Phase Error (min) Application

Precision
0.1 ±0.1 ±0.05
measurement
High-accuracy
0.2 ±0.2 ±0.10
metering
General
0.5 ±0.5 ±0.30
measurement
1.0 ±1.0 ±0.60 General metering
3P ±3.0 ±10.0 Protection
6P ±6.0 ±20.0 Protection

• Applications (Measurement vs Protection)

✓ Measurement VTs: Require high accuracy; used with meters and monitoring devices.
Typical classes: 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0.
✓ Protection VTs: Emphasis on reliable performance during fault conditions; less stringent
accuracy under normal conditions. Typical classes: 3P, 6P.

• Voltage Monitoring and Synchronization Devices

✓ Double Voltage Meter
The double voltage meter is used to monitor two voltage levels concurrently. In a substation, it
typically displays the voltage of separate bus sections or compares the voltage at different points
within the switchyard. This allows operators to quickly detect voltage imbalances and ensure
that all parts of the substation are within proper operating limits.

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 ✓ Double Frequency Meter
In a substation, the double frequency meter ensures that the
power system operates at a consistent frequency. It monitors and
displays the frequency of two sources, which is essential when
interconnecting different parts of the grid or integrating power
from multiple generators.

Figure 80 : Double Frequency Meter

✓ Synchroscope
The synchroscope is critical for safely synchronizing generators
and linking separate network segments within the substation. It
provides a visual indication of the phase difference between two
voltage sources, ensuring that they are in sync before connecting
them.

Figure 81 :Synchroscope

✓ Synchronization Check Relay

The synchronization check relay is employed to protect the substation by ensuring that any
power source to be connected (such as a generator) meets the required synchronization criteria.
It prevents the closure of circuit breakers if the voltage, frequency, or phase angle deviates from
the set limits, thereby safeguarding the network from potential disturbances or damage.

• Conclusion
In a substation setting, these devices serve as crucial components for monitoring and controlling
power flow, ensuring system stability, and protecting equipment:

✓ Double Voltage Meter: Verifies voltage levels in different substation sections.

✓ Double Frequency Meter: Ensures uniform frequency across different sources.

✓ Synchroscope: Provides visual guidance for synchronizing phases.

✓ Synchronization Check Relay: Guarantees that only correctly synchronized sources are
connected to the system.
The proper integration and operation of these devices, coupled with the accurate voltage output
from the VT, are essential to maintaining a reliable and safe substation environment.

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Chapter (8) Relay Coordination
The Fundamentals of protection relay co ordination and time/current graphing
principles:
8.1 The importance of overcurrent protection
Transmission and distribution systems are exposed to overcurrent flow into their elements. In an
electric power system, overcurrent or excess current is a situation where a larger than intended
electric current exists through a conductor, leading to excessive generation of heat, and the risk of
fire or damage to equipment.
Possible causes for overcurrent include short circuits, excessive load, transformer inrush current,
motor starting, incorrect design, or a ground fault.
Therefore, for normal system conditions, some tools such as demand – side management, load
shedding, and soft motor starting can be applied to avoid overloads. In order for the relay to operate,
it needs to be energized. This energy can be provided by battery sets (mostly) or by the monitored
circuit itself.
This chapter deals with co-ordination between protection relays in general and principles of
Time/Current grading used to achieve correct relay co-ordination.
1) Coordination procedure
2) Principles of Time/Current grading
3) Discrimination by Time
4) Discrimination by Current
5) Discrimination by both Time and Current.

8.1.1 Coordination procedure

Correct overcurrent relay application requires knowledge of the fault current that can flow in each
part of the network.
Since large-scale tests are normally impracticable, system analysis must be used.
The data required for a relay setting study are:
• Single line diagram of the power system involved, showing the type and rating of the
protection devices and their associated current transformers.
• The impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of all power transformers, rotating machine
and feeder circuits.
• The maximum and minimum values of short circuit currents that are expected to flow
through each protection device.
• The maximum load current through protection devices.
• The starting current requirements of motors and the starting and locked rotor/stalling times of
induction motors.
• The transformer inrush, thermal withstand and damage characteristics.
• Decrement curves showing the rate of decay of the fault current supplied by the generators.
• Performance curves of the current transformers.
• The relay settings are first determined to give the shortest operating times at maximum fault
levels and then checked to see if operation will also be satisfactory at the minimum fault
current expected.
8.1.2 Principles of Time/Current grading
Among the various possible methods used to achieve correct relay co-ordination are those using
either time or overcurrent, or a combination of both. The common aim of all three methods is to

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give correct discrimination. Each one must isolate only the faulty section of the power system
network, leaving the rest of the system undisturbed.

• Discrimination by Time:
In this method, an appropriate time setting is given to each of the relays controlling the circuit
breakers in a power system to ensure that the breaker nearest to the fault opens first. A simple
radial distribution system is shown in the following figure, to illustrate the principle.

Overcurrent protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that is, at the infeed end of each section of the
power system.
Each protection unit comprises a definite-time delay overcurrent relay in which the operation of the
current sensitive element simply initiates the time delay element. Provided the setting of the current
element is below the fault current value, this element plays no part in the achievement of
discrimination.
For this reason, the relay is sometimes described as an ‘independent definite-time delay relay’, since
its operating time is for practical purposes independent of the level of overcurrent.
It is the time delay element, therefore, which provides the means of discrimination. The relay at B is
set at the shortest time delay possible to allow the fuse to blow for a fault at A on the secondary side
of the transformer.
After the time delay has expired, the relay output contact closes to trip the circuit breaker. The relay
at C has a time delay setting equal to t1 seconds, and similarly for the relays at D and E.
If a fault occurs at F, the relay at B will operate in t seconds and the subsequent operation of the
circuit breaker at B will clear the fault before the relays at C, D and E have time to operate.
The time interval t1 between each relay time setting must be long enough to ensure that the
upstream relays do not operate before the circuit breaker at the fault location has tripped and cleared
the fault.
The main disadvantage of this method of discrimination is that the longest fault clearance time
occurs for faults in the section closest to the power source, where the fault level (MVA) is highest.

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 • Discrimination by Current:
Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault current varies with the position of the fault
because of the difference in impedance values between the source and the fault.

For a fault at F1, the system short-circuit current is given by:

6350
𝐼 = 𝐴
𝑍𝑆 + 𝑍𝐿1
Where:
✓ 𝑍𝑆 : source impedance = 112 / 250 = 0.485 Ω
✓ 𝑍𝐿1 = cable impedance between C and B = 0.24 Ω
6350
Hence, 𝐼 = = 8800 𝐴
0.725

8.1.3 Points affecting this method

However, there are two important practical points that affect this method of co-ordination:
Point (1) – It is not practical to distinguish between a fault at F1 and a fault at F2, since the distance
between these points may be only a few meters, corresponding to a change in fault current of
approximately 0.1%.
Point (2) – In practice, there would be variations in the source fault level, typically from 250MVA
to 130MVA.
At this lower fault level the fault current would not exceed 6800A, even for a cable fault close to C.
A relay set at 8800A would not protect any part of the cable section concerned.
Discrimination by current is therefore not a practical proposition for correct grading between the
circuit breakers at C and B. However, the problem changes appreciably when there is significant
impedance between the two circuit breakers concerned.
Consider the grading required between the circuit breakers at C and A in the past figure. Assuming
a fault at F4, the short-circuit current is given by:
6350
𝐼 =
𝑍𝑆 + 𝑍𝐿1 + 𝑍𝐿2 + 𝑍𝑇
Where:
112
𝑍𝑆 : source impedance = = 0.485 𝛺
250
𝑍𝐿1 : cable impedance between C and B = 0.24 𝛺
𝑍𝐿2 : cable impedance between B and 4MVA transformer = 0.04 𝛺
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𝑍𝑇 : transformer impedance = 0.07 × (112/4) = 2.12 𝛺
Hence,
6350
𝐼 = = 2200 𝐴
2.885
For this reason, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at B and set to operate at a current of 2200A
plus a safety margin would not operate for a fault at F4 and would thus discriminate with the relay
at A.
Now, assuming a fault at F3, at the end of the 11kV cable feeding the 4MVA transformer, the short-
circuit current is given by:
6350
𝐼=
𝑍𝑆 + 𝑍𝐿1 + 𝑍𝐿2
Thus, assuming a 250MVA source fault level:
6350
𝐼 = = 8300𝐴
0.485 + 0.24 + 0.04
Alternatively, assuming a source fault level of 130MVA:
6350
𝐼 = = 5250𝐴
0.93 + 0.214 + 0.04

8.1.4 Discrimination by both Time and Current

Each of the two methods described above has a fundamental disadvantage. In the case of
discrimination by time alone, the disadvantage is due to the fact that the more severe faults are
cleared in the longest operating time.
On the other hand, discrimination by current can be applied only where there is appreciable
impedance between the two circuit breakers concerned. With this characteristic, the time of
operation is inversely proportional to the fault current level and the actual characteristic is a function
of both ‘time’ and ‘current’ settings.
The following figure shows the characteristics of two relays given different current/time settings.

Figure 82 : Relay characteristics for different settings

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8.2 Relay coordination Using ETAP:

Figure 83 : CT specs in ETAP

Figure 84 : Relay Chosen in ETAP

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 Figure 85 : Relay Settings

Overcurrent instantaneous
Relay ID
Pickup time pickup time
Relay158 1.75 0.54 30.95 0.35
incomers Relay370 1.2 0.05 7.86 0.015
Relay347 0.7759 0.23 12.05 0.125
Relay259 0.99 0.35 17.45 0.265 Directional
Relay325 1.083 0.05 10.29 0.015 Directional
Load Side
Relay134 0.826 0.05 6.75 0.04 Directional
Relay18 0.733 0.2 6.475 0.085 Directional
Relay9 1.75 0.39 24.46 0.19
Coupler
Relay373 0.7759 0.25 12.05 0.18
Primary Relay23 2.88 0.32 25.57 0.265
side of
trans. Relay57 1.2 0.05 7.86 0.015
Table 9 : Relay Settings

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8.2.1 Three phase Fault at Booster Motor

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8.2.2 Fault at 13.8 kV bus

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8.2.3 Fault at VFD Motor

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8.2.4 Fault at 3.3 kV bus

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8.2.5 Fault at primary side of three windings transformer

8.2.6 Fault at 66kV bus

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8.3 Protection Star Views

Figure 86 : star view for Booster motor and its protective relay

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Figure 87 :Star view for the selected relays at 13.6 KV level

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Figure 88:3Star view for relays of 3 winding bay

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Figure 89:Star view of LVCB and cable connected to lambed load

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Chapter (9) Lightning Protection and surge arrestor
9.1 Lightning Protection
Before starting the lightning protection design, it is a routine step to assess whether the building
actually requires lightning protection or not.
This is done through an Excel sheet where several factors are entered to determine the need for
protection.
9.1.1 Selected factors
● Building Dimensions:
As shown in the attached image, for our substation case, we need to enter the dimensions of
buildings like the Control Building, GIS Building, and MV Switchgear Building.

● Factor 𝑪𝟏 :
20.0
30

● This relates to whether the building is isolated or surrounded by tall objects like trees.

● Factor 𝑪𝟐 :
This relates to the building material whether it is metallic or non-metallic.

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 ● Factor 𝑪𝟑 :
This concerns the importance of the building contents — whether they are critical or involve
flammable materials.

● Factor 𝑪𝟒 :
This factor depends on the occupancy type of the building.

• Factor 𝑪𝟓 :
This relates to the consequences of a lightning strike whether it would impact the surrounding
environment

based on these factors, we calculate two important values:

● 𝑵𝒄 : The tolerable lightning strike frequency.
𝟏. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟑
𝑵𝒄 =
(𝑪𝟐 )(𝑪𝟑 )(𝑪𝟒 )(𝑪𝟓 )

● 𝑵𝒅 : The actual expected number of lightning strikes.

𝑵𝒅 = (𝑵𝒈 ) × (𝑨𝒆 ) × (𝑪𝟏 ) × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔

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Where
✓ 𝑁𝑔 : Average Flash Density
✓ 𝐴𝑒 : Collective Area
✓ 𝐶1 : Location Factor
If 𝑁𝑑 is less than 𝑁𝑐 , then lightning protection is optional.
If 𝑁𝑑 is greater than 𝑁𝑐 , lightning protection becomes mandatory.

In our substation case, it is expected that we will definitely need to implement lightning protection.
Afterward, we determine the required Class of Protection based on the calculated 𝑁𝑑 and 𝑁𝑐
values.
Since lightning strikes in a substation are considered very critical and dangerous, the Class of
Protection is confirmed to be Class I
9.1.2 Selected Protection Level
𝑵𝒄
𝑬≥𝟏−
𝑵𝒅

Figure 90: Lightning Protection Level

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 9.1.3 Design Phase
9.1.3a Air Termination System
In the design stage, a mesh system is created on the rooftop of the building, and air terminal rods
are installed at specific intervals.
The Protection Class determined earlier is used to refer to standard tables to decide:
✓ How far apart the rods should be.
✓ The mesh dimensions (spacing between conductors).

• Air Terminal Rods:

The air terminal rods are recommended to be installed at an angle between 30° to 45° from the roof
edge.
Referring to the table:
With a Protection Class I and an installation angle of 45°, the rod can protect an area with a 10-
meter radius and should be installed at a 10-meter height.

9.1.3b Mesh System

The mesh dimensions are determined based on the Lightning Protection Level (LPL).

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 9.1.3c Down Conductors
A down conductor is used to transfer the lightning current from the mesh or rods down to the
ground through the nearest concrete column.
According to the standard:
● For every 10 meters of building perimeter, a down conductor must be installed.
● Each down conductor is connected to the nearest concrete column.

9.1.3d Grounding System

Next, we determine whether to connect the lightning protection system to the existing station
grounding system or to design a separate system.
Options:
● Connecting to the Station Grounding System:
○ The station earthing system typically targets a resistance of 0.5 ohms.
○ However, this can expose sensitive equipment to high voltages during a lightning
strike.
● Separate Grounding for Lightning Protection:
○ Lightning protection typically requires an earthing resistance of around 10 ohms.
○ This avoids transferring high voltages to the station's sensitive systems

Note:
If using the station grounding system, it is recommended to have circuit breakers that disconnect
loads during a lightning event.
However, the best practice is to separate the two grounding systems.
2.4 Implementation Example
Below is an AutoCAD excerpt showing the actual application on the project site:
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● Air Termination Rods have been installed on perimeter walls and fire walls separating
transformers, to ensure coverage across most of the substation.
● Access Roads that are not yet covered are being equipped with poles carrying air termination
rods, to cover the entire station including the roadways.

Figure 91 : Air Termination arrangement

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 9.2 Surge Arrester Sizing
9.2.1 Introduction
Surge arresters play a crucial role in protecting electrical equipment from overvoltage transients
caused by switching operations or lightning strikes.
This document outlines the step by step methodology used to determine the appropriate surge
arrester rating for our system.
A standard flowchart is followed for the sizing process:

Figure 92: Flowchart for selection of surge arresters

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 9.2.2 Determination of Minimum Rated Voltage
The first step is to determine the Maximum System Voltage (Us). According to IEC standards, a
margin of 10% is considered when selecting surge arresters.
For a 66 kV system: Us ≈ 42 kV
To determine the minimum rated voltage, we refer to a standard IEC table that requires the
following inputs:
● System Earthing Type (Effectively Grounded or Non-Effectively Grounded)
● Fault Duration (In our case, 1 second)
From the table, we select the minimum rated voltage corresponding to the system earthing type.
Since our system is effectively grounded (solidly earthed, without neutral resistance), we use the
first row in the table.

9.2.3 Verification Using Temporary Overvoltage (TOV) Capability

Once the rated voltage is selected, we consult the datasheet of the corresponding surge arrester.
A Temporary Overvoltage (TOV) Curve is extracted, which provides the TOV withstand

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capability of the arrester for different time durations, the following curve is an example for TOV
curve for a surge arrester :
● Step 1: Enter the curve using the fault duration (1 second).
● Step 2: Read the corresponding TOV capability value.
The selected surge arrester must withstand the maximum expected temporary overvoltage for
the given fault duration.
If this condition is not met, a higher rated surge arrester must be selected.

9.2.4 Selection of Surge Arrester Type and Class

Based on the maximum system voltage, the type and class of the surge arrester are selected from
the following IEC standard table:

For our project, the suitable choice was:

● Surge Arrester Family: PEXLIM R-Y
● Arrester Class: SL

9.2.5 Determination of Protection Levels (𝑼𝒑𝒍 and 𝑼𝒑𝒔 )

Two critical values must be determined from the datasheet:
● 𝑼𝒑𝒍 → Lightning Protection Level
● 𝑼𝒑𝒔 → Switching Protection Level
These values must be lower than:
● The Lightning Insulation Withstand Voltage (LIWV) of the system.
● The Switching Insulation Withstand Voltage (SIWV) of the system.

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 𝑼𝒑𝒍 𝑼𝒑𝒔
From the selected arrester family, we use the following table to extract the values of and
𝑼𝒓 𝑼𝒓

9.2.6 Calculation of Protection Margins

● The margin should be ≥ 20% for effective insulation protection.
● Higher margins are recommended for longer distances between the arrester and the
protected equipment.

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 9.2.7 Selection of Final Surge Arrester Rating
From the PEXLIM R-Y family catalog, we determine the required arrester specifications:
● The maximum system voltage is ~42 kV.
● The corresponding Rated Voltage (Ur) is selected as 42 kV.
The Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage (MCOV) is chosen as 52 kV, based on IEC
selection criteria.

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 9.2.8 Conclusion
Correct surge arrester selection is essential to prevent overvoltage damage to electrical equipment.
This process involves:
1. Determining the Maximum System Voltage and selecting an arrester with an appropriate
rated voltage.
2. Verifying the TOV withstand capability for system stability.
3. Choosing the appropriate arrester class based on IEC standards.
4. Ensuring that the protection levels (Upl and Ups) are within system insulation withstand
limits.
5. Calculating the protection margin to confirm safe operation.
By following this methodology, we have successfully selected a PEXLIM R-Y surge arrester with
a 42 kV rated voltage and 52 kV MCOV, ensuring adequate protection against lightning and
switching overvoltage in our system

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