🌟 Complete Notes on Tenses in English

Grammar
1. What is Tense?
 Definition: Tense is the form of a verb that shows the time of action (present, past,
future).
 It answers:
o When did the action happen? (Time)
o Is it finished or still going on? (Aspect)

👉 Tense = Time + Aspect (Completion / Continuity)

2. Classification of Tenses
There are 3 main tenses:

1. Present
2. Past
3. Future

Each tense has 4 aspects:

 Simple (Indefinite) – fact or habit

 Continuous (Progressive) – ongoing action
 Perfect – completed action with relevance
 Perfect Continuous – action continuing over time

So, in total: 12 Tenses

3. The 12 Tenses in Detail

A. Present Tense

1) Present Simple (Indefinite)

Form: Subject + V1 (+ s/es for he, she, it)

Use:
  Habits: I wake up early.
 Universal truths: The sun rises in the east.
 Scheduled future: The train leaves at 6.

2) Present Continuous

Form: Subject + is/are/am + V1 + ing

Use:

 Action happening now: I am studying.

 Temporary action: She is living in Lahore these days.
 Future plan: We are going to Karachi tomorrow.

3) Present Perfect

Form: Subject + has/have + V3

Use:

 Action completed but relevant to now: I have eaten my lunch.

 Experience: She has visited Turkey.
 Unfinished time: We have worked hard this week.

4) Present Perfect Continuous

Form: Subject + has/have + been + V1 + ing

Use:

 Action started in the past & still continuing: I have been waiting for 2 hours.
 Duration: They have been studying since morning.

B. Past Tense

5) Past Simple (Indefinite)

Form: Subject + V2
Use:

 Completed action in past: I played football yesterday.

  Sequence of actions: She entered the room, sat down, and opened her book.

6) Past Continuous

Form: Subject + was/were + V1 + ing

Use:

 Action happening in past: He was reading a book at 8 p.m.

 Interrupted action: I was sleeping when the phone rang.

7) Past Perfect

Form: Subject + had + V3

Use:

 Action completed before another past action: I had finished my work before he came.
 Reported speech: She said she had lost her purse.

8) Past Perfect Continuous

Form: Subject + had + been + V1 + ing

Use:

 Action continuing up to another past moment: I had been waiting for 3 hours when the
bus arrived.

C. Future Tense

9) Future Simple (Indefinite)

Form: Subject + will/shall + V1

Use:

 Promise or decision: I will help you.

 Prediction: It will rain tomorrow.
 Future fact: She will turn 20 next week.
10) Future Continuous

Form: Subject + will be + V1 + ing

Use:

 Ongoing action in future: I will be studying at 10 a.m. tomorrow.

 Polite inquiry: Will you be joining us for dinner?

11) Future Perfect

Form: Subject + will have + V3

Use:

 Action completed before a point in future: I will have finished my thesis by Monday.

12) Future Perfect Continuous

Form: Subject + will have been + V1 + ing

Use:

 Action continuing up to a future point: By next year, I will have been teaching here for
10 years.

4. Summary Table of 12 Tenses

Tense Formula Example
Present Simple S + V1 (+s/es) She sings.
Present Continuous S + is/are/am + V1+ing I am reading.
Present Perfect S + has/have + V3 They have gone.
Present Perfect Continuous S + has/have been + V1+ing He has been working.
Past Simple S + V2 She played.
Past Continuous S + was/were + V1+ing They were studying.
Past Perfect S + had + V3 I had left.
Past Perfect Continuous S + had been + V1+ing She had been writing.
Future Simple S + will/shall + V1 We will go.
Future Continuous S + will be + V1+ing I will be waiting.
Future Perfect S + will have + V3 She will have finished.
Future Perfect Continuous S + will have been + V1+ing They will have been playing.
5. Tips & Tricks to Master Tenses
 Identify time words: yesterday (past), now (present), tomorrow (future), since/for
(perfect continuous).
 Key helper verbs:
o Present → is/are/am, has/have
o Past → was/were, had
o Future → will/shall
 Practice with timelines → draw a line and place actions on past, present, future with
dots (completed) or arrows (continuous).
 Common confusion:
o Past Simple vs Present Perfect:
 I ate (time is specified, yesterday).
 I have eaten (no time, relevance to now).

Confusion Wrong Correct Explanation

Past Simple vs I have seen him I saw him With specific past time →
Present Perfect yesterday. yesterday. use Past Simple.
Since vs From I am here from 2 I have been here “From” is not used with
o’clock. since 2 o’clock. perfect tense for point of
time.
Will vs Going to It will rain (based It is going to rain. “Going to” for evidence-
on clouds). based prediction.
Continuous with I am knowing the I know the answer. Stative verbs (know, love,
Stative Verbs answer. hate, believe) don’t take -ing.
Future in I will call you I will call you No “will” after time clauses
Subordinate when he will when he arrives. (when, before, until, after).
Clauses arrive.

Special uses of tenses — detailed explanation,

examples, why, and exam tricks ✅
Great — I’ll unpack each of the five special uses you pointed to. For each one you’ll get: form,
meaning (why), timeline (text diagram), examples (affirm./neg./Q), common errors, exam
tricks, and practice questions with answers at the end. Let’s go!

1) Present continuous for future plans / arrangements

Form:
Subject + am/is/are + V-ing
(e.g. I am meeting, She is leaving)

Meaning / Why:
Use the present continuous when a future action is already arranged (someone’s
booked/decided it, a time/place is fixed). The action is future in time but is treated as a current
plan — the speaker has a present arrangement.

Timeline:
[now: plan made] ——> [future: arranged event]

Examples:

 Affirmative: I am meeting Ali at 6 tomorrow.

 Negative: She isn’t coming to the party next week.
 Question: Are you joining us on Friday?

Common errors / traps:

 Confusing with “going to” (both can express future).

o I’m meeting him tomorrow → arrangement with fixed time/place.
o I’m going to meet him → intention or plan (less emphasis on fixed arrangement).
 Using present simple for personal plans — present simple is for timetabled/scheduled
events (trains, official schedule): The train leaves at 9.

Exam trick:
Look for explicit times/places (tomorrow at 5, next Monday, at 7 pm) and verbs of
meeting/visiting/seeing. If the option with am/is/are + V-ing has correct subject-verb
agreement, it’s often the right choice for arrangements.

Practice (choose):

1. (A) I will meet you at 3. (B) I’m meeting you at 3. — Which fits an arranged
appointment?

Answer: (B)

2) Present perfect with since / for

Form:
Subject + has/have + past participle (V3)
used with since (point) or for (duration)
Meaning / Why:
Present perfect links the past and the present: it describes an action/state that started before
now and has present relevance.

 since indicates a starting point (since 2010, since Monday, since 9 am).
 for indicates duration (for 5 years, for two hours).

Timeline:
[start: 2019] ----- ongoing ----- [now]

Examples:

 I have lived here since 2012. → start point (2012) → still true now.
 She has worked here for six months. → duration.

Why choose present perfect (not past simple)?

Because the action/state continues to the present or has a present result. If a specific past time is
given (yesterday, last year), use past simple.

Common errors / traps:

 I have seen him yesterday. ❌ — Saw (past simple) should be used with a specific past
time: I saw him yesterday.
 Using from instead of since in perfect: I have lived here from 2012 ❌ → since 2012 ✔

Exam trick:
If the sentence has since / for — strongly expect a perfect tense (present perfect or present
perfect continuous). If the verb is stative (know, love) prefer present perfect simple: I have
known her since 2010 (not have been knowing).

Practice:
2. Fill: We ______ (live) here ___ 2015.

Answer: have lived / since 2015.

3) Past continuous + Past simple (interruption / background vs event)

Forms:

 Past continuous: was/were + V-ing — background/ongoing in the past.

 Past simple: V2 — completed action that often interrupts.

Meaning / Why:
Past continuous sets a background ongoing action; past simple describes a completed action
that happens while the background action is going on (interrupts it). The continuous shows the
ongoing nature of the first action at a past time.

Timeline:
[past background: —— —— —— ]
[interrupting event: X ]

Examples:

 I was sleeping when the phone rang.

o sleeping = background (past continuous).
o rang = interrupting event (past simple).
 While she was studying, her friend came. / She was studying when the lights went out.

Common errors / traps:

 Reversing the tenses: When the phone rang, I slept. → wrong: should show interruption:
I was sleeping when the phone rang.
 Not using past continuous to show two simultaneous past actions: I was cooking while he
was cleaning.

Exam trick:
If sentence contains when / while:

 when + past simple often introduces the interrupting event, and while + past
continuous introduces the background.
 Look for the interruptor (short action) → put it in past simple.

Practice:
3. Choose correct: While I (was doing/did) homework, the lights went out.

Answer: was doing (past continuous background).

4) Past perfect (to show earlier of two past actions)

Form:
Subject + had + past participle (V3)

Meaning / Why:
Past perfect places one past action before another past action — it clarifies sequence. Use it
when you want to emphasize that Action A happened before Action B, both in the past.

Timeline:**
[earlier past action — had + V3] ——> [later past action — V2]
Examples:

 He had eaten before I arrived. (eating happened first)

 By the time she reached the station, the train had left.

Why not just past simple?

Sometimes the sequence is clear from context, and past simple is okay: I ate and then I left. But
when both actions are in the past and we need to show which came first (or in reported speech),
we use past perfect: He said he had finished the work before the meeting. — important in exam
sentences where clarity of sequence matters.

Common errors / traps:

 Overuse — don’t use past perfect unnecessarily if time order is already clear by adverbs
(then, after).
 Forgetting that past perfect is before a past reference, not before the present.

Exam trick:
Look for two verbs referring to the past where the order is important or where the sentence
contains time markers like before / by the time / already / until then — likely need past perfect
for the earlier action.

Practice:
4. Fill: When I arrived, they ______ (already/leave).

Answer: had already left.

5) Future perfect (completed before a future point — deadlines)

Form:
Subject + will have + past participle (V3)

Meaning / Why:
Future perfect expresses that an action will be completed before some point in the future. It’s
commonly used with time phrases like by tomorrow, by next year, by the time, before.

Timeline:
[now] ——> [future: by 2026 — action completed (will have + V3)]

Examples:

 By next week, I will have finished the report.

 She will have left by the time you arrive.

Common errors / traps:

  Using future simple instead of future perfect when a deadline is given: By Monday I will
finish (less precise than will have finished).
 After by the time in the subordinate clause, use present simple for the time clause: By the
time he arrives, I will have left. (not will arrive)

Exam trick:
If the sentence has by + (time) or by the time, expect future perfect (will have + V3) for the
action completed before that future moment. Also watch for subordinate clause rules: the time
clause uses present simple (when/after/before + present) not future.

Practice:
5. Fill: By 2027, she ______ (complete) her PhD.

Answer: will have completed

Quick reference cheat-sheet (memorize these exam-friendly

hints) 🔑
 since → use present perfect (since = starting point).
 for → use present perfect (for = duration).
 when + short action often → past simple (interruptor).
 while + ongoing action often → past continuous (background).
 by / by the time → check for future perfect (completed before future point).
 arrangements (fixed time/place) → present continuous for future.
 stative verbs (know, like, believe) → avoid continuous forms (I know, not I am
knowing).

Mixed practice — exam style (answers below)

1. Error detection: She has went to the market.
2. Fill in: I ______ (live) here since 2018.
3. Choose: While I (read/was reading) the book, the children (played/were playing) in the
garden.
4. Fill in: By the time you get this message, I ______ (leave).
5. Multiple choice: I ______ him since childhood. (a) have known (b) have been knowing
(c) knew
6. Fill in: We ______ (wait) for over an hour when the bus finally came.
7. Transform to future perfect: She completes the course next month. → By next month, …
8. Choose for arrangement: We (meet/are meeting) at 11 am tomorrow to discuss the plan.
9. Error detection: I am going to Paris last year.
10. Fill in (interrupt): I (sleep) when someone knocked on the door.
Answers + short explanations
1. She has went to the market. → Error: went is wrong form after has. Correct: She has
gone to the market. (Present perfect: has + V3)
2. I have lived here since 2018. (present perfect + since)
3. While I was reading the book, the children were playing in the garden. (two background
simultaneous past continuous actions)
4. By the time you get this message, I will have left. (future perfect → action completed
before future point)
5. Answer: (a) have known. Explanation: stative verb know → present perfect simple; (b) is
wrong because stative verbs usually not continuous.
6. We had been waiting for over an hour when the bus finally came. (past perfect
continuous = waiting continued up to another past event)
7. By next month, she will have completed the course. (future perfect)
8. We are meeting at 11 am tomorrow to discuss the plan. (present continuous for arranged
meeting)
9. I am going to Paris last year. → Error: mismatch of tense/time. Correct: I went to Paris
last year. (past simple + specific past time)
10. I was sleeping when someone knocked on the door. (past continuous background + past
simple interrupting event)

Final tips for FPSC / job tests (fast strategy)

1. Scan time words first (yesterday, since, for, by, tomorrow, when, while). They usually
tell you the tense.
2. Find the timeline: is event connected to now? (use perfect) Is it an arrangement?
(present continuous) Is it interrupting? (past continuous + past simple)
3. Eliminate impossible verb forms: wrong auxiliary, wrong participle (eat → eaten),
subject–verb mismatch (he goS vs they go).
4. Watch stative verbs — they rarely take continuous forms.
5. Practice: convert sentences between tenses until the ‘feel’ of each tense becomes
automatic.

🚨 Important Restriction
Some verbs are stative (show states, not actions) → usually not used in continuous.
Examples: know, love, belong, own, believe, understand.

So we say:

 ✔ I have known her since 2010. (NOT I have been knowing…)

  ✔ She has belonged to this group for years.

That’s why present perfect simple is sometimes the only correct choice with “since/for.”

💡 Exam Tip (FPSC/FGEI)

1. If the verb is dynamic (live, work, study, wait) → both have lived and have been living
can appear. Both are correct, but continuous is more natural for temporary situations.
2. If the verb is stative (know, own, believe) → only present perfect simple is correct.

👉 Example traps:

 I have been knowing her since childhood. ❌

Correct: I have known her since childhood. ✔
 I have been living in Rawalpindi for 10 years. ✔ (ongoing action)
I have lived in Rawalpindi for 10 years. ✔ (state/result)

Got it 👍 You want each part (like Noun, Pronoun, Verb, etc.) written in full detailed notes
form, not just short points. Let’s start with Noun as a complete example in deep detail. Later, I
can expand the same way for the rest of the parts of speech.

📝 Detailed Notes on Noun

🔹 Definition of Noun
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, idea, quality, or action.
It is one of the core parts of speech, because every sentence must have a noun (as subject or
object).

👉 Examples:

1. Person: Ali, teacher, doctor

2. Place: Lahore, school, mosque
3. Thing: book, chair, computer
4. Idea/Feeling: love, honesty, wisdom
5. Quality: kindness, bravery
🔹 Functions of a Noun in a Sentence
 Subject – Ali runs fast.
 Object – She bought a book.
 Complement – He is a teacher.
 Possessive – This is Ali’s car.
 Apposition – My friend, Ahmed, is here.

🔹 Types of Nouns (with examples & tricks)

1. Proper Noun

 Names a specific person, place, or thing.

 Always capitalized.
👉 Examples: Pakistan, Allah, Islamabad, The Quran, Quaid-e-Azam.

💡 Trick: If it is unique → Proper noun.

2. Common Noun

 Refers to a general name, not specific.

👉 Examples: city, girl, river, country, teacher.

3. Concrete Noun

 Names something that we can see, hear, touch, taste, or smell.

👉 Examples: apple, book, pen, dog, perfume.

4. Abstract Noun

 Refers to ideas, emotions, qualities, or conditions.

👉 Examples: love, anger, beauty, truth, freedom, bravery.

💡 Trick: If you can’t touch it but can feel/think it, it’s abstract.
5. Collective Noun

 Refers to a group of people, animals, or things treated as one.

👉 Examples: jury, team, army, family, bunch, flock.

💡 Trick: If many things are considered one unit, it’s collective.

6. Material Noun

 Names substances or materials.

👉 Examples: gold, iron, wood, water, cotton.

7. Countable Noun

 Can be counted (singular/plural forms exist).

👉 Examples: apple/apples, chair/chairs, boy/boys.

8. Uncountable Noun

1. Cannot be counted individually.

2. Usually no plural form.
👉 Examples: milk, sugar, honesty, furniture, information.

🔹 Special Cases & Exceptions

 Dual-role nouns (Countable & Uncountable):
o Experience → (countable: “many experiences”) vs. (uncountable: “much
experience”).
o Hair → (uncountable: “He has black hair”) vs. (countable: “two hairs on the
pillow”).
 Same word can be noun & verb:
o Play → (Noun: “We watched a play”) (Verb: “Children play outside”).
o Work → (Noun: “He finished his work”) (Verb: “He works hard”).
 Collective noun agreement issue:
o In British English, collective nouns can take singular OR plural verbs:
 The team is winning. ✅
 The team are celebrating. ✅
🔹 FPSC/FGEI Exam Focus on Nouns
 Synonyms/Antonyms of abstract nouns
👉 Example: Synonym of “Honesty”? (Integrity)
 Identify the type of noun
👉 Example: In “Wisdom is a great virtue” → Wisdom = Abstract noun.
 Collective noun questions
👉 Example: “A group of lions is called ___?” (Pride).
 Error spotting
👉 Example: He gave me an informations. (❌ → Information is uncountable).
 Fill in the blank
👉 Example: He has much ___ (experience/experiences).

🔹 Extra Tricks to Remember Nouns

 If you can put “the” in front of it → likely a noun (the car, the honesty).
 If it can be pluralized → countable noun.
 If you can measure it with “much/little” instead of “many/few” → uncountable.

Perfect! Let’s continue with Pronouns in the same deep, detailed, exam-focused style with
explanations, examples, exceptions, and FPSC-style tips.
📝 Detailed Notes on Pronouns

🔹 Definition
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun or a noun phrase to avoid repetition in a sentence.
It must agree in number, gender, and person with the noun it replaces (called the antecedent).

👉 Example:

1. Ali is smart. He studies hard. → He replaces Ali.

2. The students completed their assignments. → their replaces the students.

🔹 Functions of Pronouns
 Subject Pronoun – acts as the subject of a sentence.
o She is reading a book.
 Object Pronoun – acts as the object of a verb or preposition.
o I saw him yesterday.
 Possessive Pronoun – shows ownership.
o This pen is mine.
 Reflexive Pronoun – refers back to the subject.
o He cut himself while cooking.
 Demonstrative Pronoun – points to specific things.
o This is my bag.
 Relative Pronoun – introduces relative clauses.
o The man who called you is my uncle.
 Interrogative Pronoun – asks questions.
o Who is at the door?
 Indefinite Pronoun – refers to non-specific things.
o Someone left their bag.
 Reciprocal Pronoun – shows mutual action.
o They helped each other.

🔹 Types of Pronouns (With Examples & Rules)

1. Personal Pronouns
Person Singular Plural
st
1 I / me We / us
nd
2 You You
rd
3 He/She/It / him/her/it They / them

 Subject form: I, you, he, she, it, we, they

 Object form: me, you, him, her, it, us, them
 Possessive: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs

Trick for FPSC:

 I vs me: I is used as subject, me as object.

 Example: ❌ Me and Ali are going. ✅ Ali and I are going.

2. Reflexive & Intensive Pronouns

 Reflexive: refers back to subject, necessary in sentence.

o He hurt himself.
 Intensive: emphasizes subject, not necessary.
o He himself solved the problem.

FPSC Tip: Look for “self/selves” endings.

3. Demonstrative Pronouns

 Points to something specific.

 This, That, These, Those
 Example:
o This is my book.
o Those are beautiful flowers.

Trick: “This/These” → near, “That/Those” → far

4. Relative Pronouns

 Introduces relative clauses (describing nouns).

 Who, Whom, Whose, Which, That
 Example:
o The boy who won is my friend.
 o The book that I bought is new.

Exceptions:

 Who → subject, Whom → object.

 Whom is less common in spoken English (FPSC uses written form rules).

5. Interrogative Pronouns

 Used to ask questions.

 Who, Whom, Whose, Which, What
 Example:
o Who is coming?
o Which book is yours?

6. Indefinite Pronouns

 Refer to unspecified persons or things.

 Examples: someone, anybody, everyone, nobody, all, some, few, many, none.
 Agreement:
o Some singular → Somebody is coming.
o Some plural → Some of the books are missing.

Trick: “None” can be singular/plural depending on context.

7. Reciprocal Pronouns

1. Show mutual action.

2. Only two: each other & one another.
3. Example: The friends helped each other.

🔹 Key Rules / Exceptions

1. Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
o Pronoun must agree with the noun it replaces in number, gender, and person.
o ❌ Everyone must bring their book. ✅ Everyone must bring his/her book. (FPSC
accepts “their” as singular modern usage)
 2. Each / Every → always singular.
o Each student has a notebook.
3. None / Some / All → singular or plural depending on the noun they refer to.
o None of the cake is left. (uncountable)
o None of the cakes are left. (countable)
4. Who vs Whom
o Who = subject → Who called you?
o Whom = object → Whom did you call?
5. Its vs It’s
o Its = possessive → The dog wagged its tail.
o It’s = it is → It’s raining.

🔹 FPSC / FGEI Exam Tips for Pronouns

 Error spotting – look for pronoun-antecedent mismatch.
o Each of the players have a ball. ❌ → has a ball ✅
 Fill in the blanks – select correct pronoun.
o Ali and ___ went to school. (I)
 Synonym / replacement questions
o Replace noun with correct pronoun.
 Relative clause selection
o Choose proper relative pronoun: The man ___ called me is my uncle. (who)
 Reflexive emphasis
o Look for “self/selves” to spot reflexive/intensive usage.

🔹 Tricks to Remember Pronouns for FPSC

 “self/selves” → reflexive or intensive
 Demonstrative → near/far: this/these = near, that/those = far
 Interrogative → question starter
 Indefinite → vague, non-specific
 Reciprocal → each other / one another only
 Each / Every → singular, None → singular or plural

🔹 Tabular Summary of Pronouns

Type Function Examples Exceptions / Notes FPSC Tips
Personal Replaces noun I, you, he, she, Subject vs object Error
 it, we, they forms spotting, fill
blanks
Reflexive / Refers/emphasizes himself, Reflexive = Identify
Intensive subject myself, necessary, self/selves
themselves Intensive = usage
optional
Demonstrative Points to things this, that, This/these = near, Correct
these, those That/those = far selection in
sentence
Relative Introduces clause who, whom, Who=subject, Relative
whose, which, Whom=object clause
that questions
Interrogative Ask questions who, what, – Fill in
which, whom, blanks /
whose MCQs
Indefinite Non-specific someone, None = Error spotting
anybody, singular/plural, / sentence
everyone, all, agreement matters correction
none
Reciprocal Mutual action each other, one Only two pronouns Identify
another correct
mutual
reference
 Word With Uncountable Noun With Countable Plural Noun
None None of the sugar is left. None of the boys are here.
Some Some of the milk is spoiled. Some of the books are missing.

All All the furniture is old. All the students are tired.
Most Most of the water is dirty. Most of the cars are fast.

Word Usage Example

Each Individual, singular verb Each boy is ready.
Every General group, singular verb Every girl wants success.
Each of + plural noun Still singular verb Each of the cars was checked.
Every one of + plural noun Singular verb Every one of the books is useful.

Each after plural subject Verb agrees with plural subject They each have a pen.

Use Word Example

Subject (doer of action) Who Who is calling? (He is calling)
Object (receiver of action) Whom Whom did you see? (I saw him)

After a preposition Whom To whom are you speaking?

Quick Test He/She = Who He is calling.
Quick Test Him/Her = Whom I saw him.
 Gre
at — let’s build detailed FPSC-level notes on Verbs with all types, exceptions, rules, tricky
questions, and exam-focused points. These notes will be conceptual + exam-oriented, so
nothing important is left out.

✦ VERBS (FPSC Complete Notes)

1. Definition
A verb is a word that shows:

 Action → He runs.
 State → She is happy.
 Occurrence → It happened yesterday.

👉 Verbs are the backbone of English grammar — FPSC, CSS, PMS, and FGEI tests always test
verb usage through MCQs.

2. Classification of Verbs
(A) Main (Action) Verbs

 Show actual action.

 Examples: eat, write, sleep.

👉 FPSC Trick: Action verbs may be physical (run, jump) or mental (think, believe).
(B) Linking Verbs

 Connect subject to complement (not an action).

 Common linking verbs: be (is, am, are, was, were), seem, become, appear, feel, look,
taste, smell, remain.

👉 Trick: Words like look, feel, taste, smell can be both action or linking verbs.

 She looks at me. (action)

 She looks tired. (linking)

(C) Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs

 Help the main verb to form tense/voice/question.

 Primary Auxiliaries: be, have, do.
 Examples: is running, has done, do you know?

👉 FPSC usually asks MCQs on correct form of “do/does/did” or “has/have/had”.

(D) Modal Verbs

1. Show possibility, ability, necessity, permission.

2. List: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would, ought to, need, dare, used
to.

Rules / Exceptions (very important for FPSC):

 Modals never take -s/es in 3rd person.

o ✅ He can go.
o ❌ He cans go.
 Modals are always followed by base form of verb (without “to”).
o ✅ He can eat.
o ❌ He can to eat.
 Used to is an exception → always followed by infinitive with “to”.
o He used to play cricket.

👉 FPSC Trick MCQ: “She ___ sing well in her youth.”

 (a) used
 (b) used to
 (c) use
  (d) uses
Correct: (b) used to

(E) Transitive & Intransitive Verbs

 Transitive: needs an object. → He eats an apple.

 Intransitive: no object. → He sleeps.

👉 Tricky Verbs: Some verbs can be both.

 She runs a shop. (transitive)

 She runs fast. (intransitive)

(F) Regular & Irregular Verbs

 Regular: add -ed → play → played → played.

 Irregular: change form → go → went → gone.

👉 FPSC Trap: Wrong irregular forms.

 ❌ bring → brang → brung

 ✅ bring → brought → brought

(G) Finite vs Non-finite Verbs

 Finite: changes with subject/tense.

o He goes. / They go.
 Non-finite: doesn’t change → Infinitive, Gerund, Participle.
o To go, going, gone.

👉 FPSC Trick: Spot finite verb in a sentence.

1. “To err is human.” → finite = is (not “to err”).

Got it 👍 You are asking about finite and non-finite verbs — these confuse many candidates in
FPSC tests. Let me break them down step by step with clear definitions + examples + tricks.
✦ Finite vs Non-finite Verbs
1. Finite Verb
 A finite verb is a verb that changes (is limited) according to:
o Tense (past, present, future)
o Number (singular/plural subject)
o Person (1st, 2nd, 3rd person)

👉 In short: A finite verb is the main working verb of the sentence.

👉 Every complete sentence must have at least one finite verb.

Examples:

 She goes to school. (Present, 3rd person, singular)

 They go to school. (Present, plural)
 He went to school. (Past)

💡 Notice how the verb form changes when subject/tense changes.

2. Non-finite Verb
1. A non-finite verb does not change with subject/tense/person.
2. It does not work as the main verb of the sentence.
3. Acts like noun, adjective, or adverb.

👉 Three types of non-finite verbs:

 Infinitive → “to + verb” (to eat, to go, to study)

 Gerund → “-ing” form used as noun (eating, going, studying)
 Participle → verb used as adjective
o Present participle: playing
o Past participle: played / written / gone

3. Examples & Comparison

(A) Infinitive

 I like to play cricket. (Here to play is non-finite; main verb = “like”)

  She wants to eat mangoes.

(B) Gerund

 Swimming is a good exercise. (Gerund acts as subject/noun)

 He enjoys reading books.

(C) Participle

1. A broken chair was lying in the room. (Past participle = adjective)

2. A smiling baby makes everyone happy. (Present participle = adjective)

4. Tricky FPSC Exam Examples

 “He goes to college.”
o Finite = goes (depends on subject/tense).
 “He likes to play cricket.”
o Finite = likes
o Non-finite = to play
 “Running is good for health.”
o Finite = is
o Non-finite = running (gerund)
 “The book written by him was praised.”
o Finite = was praised
o Non-finite = written

5. FPSC Tricks
 Every sentence must have at least one finite verb (to make it complete).
 Non-finite verbs are “verbals” → behave like noun/adjective/adverb.
 In MCQs, FPSC often asks: “Which word is the finite verb?”
o Example: “To err is human.”
 Finite = is
 Non-finite = to err

✅ So:

 Finite verb = real working verb (depends on subject/tense).

  Non-finite verb = verb form acting like noun/adjective/adverb (infinitive, gerund,
participle).

3. Key Exceptions & Confusing Verbs

 Singular subject with “each/everybody/either/neither” → singular verb.
o Everybody is present.
o Neither of them has passed.
 Plural sense but singular form → singular verb.
o Mathematics is difficult.
o The news was shocking.
 Collective nouns:
o Team is winning. (as a unit)
o Team are arguing. (individually)
 Neither/nor & Either/or Rule:
o Verb agrees with nearest subject.
o Either Ali or his friends are going.
o Either his friends or Ali is going.
 Cattle, police, people → plural verb.
o Police are investigating.
 None → both singular/plural depending on sense.
o None of the work is done.
o None of the students are absent.

4. FPSC Exam Tricks & Common MCQs

(A) Correct Verb Form

👉 “Neither of the boys ___ present.”

 (a) are
 (b) were
 (c) is
 (d) have
✅ Answer: is

(B) Tense Identification

👉 “She had been reading for two hours.”

 Tense? → Past Perfect Continuous

(C) Auxiliary Usage

👉 “He ___ not come yesterday.”

 (a) does
 (b) do
 (c) did
 (d) done
✅ Answer: did

(D) Modal Trick

👉 “You ___ obey your parents.”

 (a) can
 (b) must
 (c) may
 (d) would
✅ Answer: must

(E) Irregular Verb

👉 Correct past form of “sink”?

 (a) sinked
 (b) sank
 (c) sunked
 (d) sink
✅ Answer: sank

5. Tabular Summary (FPSC Quick Revision)

Type Examples Exceptions / Tricks

Action/Main run, eat Can be physical/mental

Linking is, seem, look “look/feel/taste” dual use
Auxiliary is, have, do Forms tense/voice
Modal can, must, should No -s/es, always base verb
Transitive eat an apple Needs object
Intransitive sleep, go No object
 Regular play → played Simple -ed form
Irregular go → went → gone Watch confusing forms
Finite He goes Depends on tense/subject
Non-finite to go, going Infinitive, Gerund, Participle

✦ ADJECTIVES (FPSC Complete Notes)

1. Definition
An adjective is a word that describes, qualifies, or limits a noun or pronoun.
👉 It answers: What kind? Which one? How many? Whose?

 A brave soldier (quality)

 Three apples (number)
 This book (which one)
 My pen (whose)

Excellent 👍 Let’s now go deep into each type of Adjective — with concepts, rules, examples,
tricks, and FPSC-style exceptions.
This way, you’ll master them not just for understanding, but also for spotting errors in MCQs.

✦ Types of ADJECTIVES –

1. Descriptive (Qualitative) Adjectives

👉 Show quality, color, shape, or feature of a noun/pronoun.
Answer the question: What kind of?

Examples:

 He is a brave soldier.
 She has a beautiful voice.
 They live in a wooden house.

⚡ Trick / Exception
  Words like wooden, golden, woolen → adjectives, not nouns.
 Some adjectives can be positive or negative depending on context:
o He has a hard job. (difficult)
o He works hard. (adverb of manner)

2. Quantitative Adjectives
👉 Show quantity/amount (used with uncountable nouns).
Answer the question: How much?

Examples:

 She has little patience.

 We have some sugar left.
 There is enough milk in the jug.

⚡ Trick / Exception

1. Little / A little / The little → FPSC trap:

1. Little = hardly any (negative) → There is little hope.
2. A little = some (positive) → A little knowledge is dangerous.
3. The little = whatever there is → He spent the little money he had.

3. Numeral Adjectives
👉 Show number or position/order.
Answer: How many? Which order?

Types:

 Cardinal (one, two, three) → He has three books.

 Ordinal (first, second, third) → He came first in class.
 Indefinite numeral (several, many, few) → Several boys were absent.

⚡ Trick / Exception

 FPSC confuses “numeral” with “quantitative”:

o “Several students” → numeral, not quantitative.
 Few / A few / The few (for countable nouns):
o Few = hardly any → Few people attended.
o A few = some → A few students passed.
 o The few = all of those → He helped the few friends he had.

4. Demonstrative Adjectives
👉 Point out a specific noun.
Examples: this, that, these, those, such.

Examples:

 This book is mine.

 I like those flowers.
 Don’t trust such people.

⚡ Trick / Exception

 Never use “the this” / “the that” (double pointing ❌).

 “That” can be both adjective or pronoun →
o That book is new. (adjective)
o I like that. (pronoun)

5. Possessive Adjectives
👉 Show possession/ownership.
Examples: my, his, her, their, our, your, its.

Examples:

 My pen is new.
 Their car is expensive.
 The dog wagged its tail.

⚡ Trick / Exception

 Do not confuse with possessive pronouns:

o This is my book. (adjective)
o This book is mine. (pronoun)

6. Interrogative Adjectives
👉 Used in questions before nouns.
Examples: what, which, whose.

Examples:

 Which color do you like?

 Whose bag is this?
 What book are you reading?

⚡ Trick / Exception

 Must be followed by a noun.

 “Whose” alone = adjective, but “who’s” = who is (different word).

7. Distributive Adjectives
👉 Refer to persons/things one by one.
Examples: each, every, either, neither.

Examples:

 Each student must submit homework.

 Every man should vote.
 You can take either road.
 Neither answer is correct.

⚡ Trick / Exception

 “Each” = individual focus, “Every” = general/group focus.

 Verb agreement:
o Each/Every → singular verb.
 Each boy is present.
o Either/Neither → singular verb.
 Neither of them has passed.
8. Proper Adjectives
👉 Derived from proper nouns.
Examples: Pakistani, Islamic, Shakespearean, Victorian.

Examples:

 Pakistani food is delicious.

 He studied Victorian poetry.
 The Islamic culture is diverse.

⚡ Trick / Exception

1. Always start with capital letter.

2. FPSC may confuse with nouns:
1. Pakistan (noun) vs Pakistani (adjective).

9. Degrees of Comparison
Adjectives show degrees:
 1. Positive → He is a tall boy.
2. Comparative → He is taller than Ali.
3. Superlative → He is the tallest boy.

Rules / Exceptions

 -er / -est → small words → tall → taller → tallest

 -y → -ier/-iest → happy → happier → happiest
 More/Most → long words → beautiful → more beautiful → most beautiful
 Irregular:
o good → better → best
o bad → worse → worst
o much/many → more → most
o little → less → least
o far → farther/further → farthest/furthest

⚡ Trick / Exception

1. “More better, most best” ❌ (double comparison not allowed).

2. With “two items” → use comparative, not superlative.
o Of the two, this is the better book. ✅

10. FPSC Common Traps

 Adjective + Preposition
o Senior, junior, superior, inferior, preferable → followed by to, not “than.”
o He is senior to me. (not senior than)
 Adjective vs Adverb
o She sings sweet. ❌
o She sings sweetly. ✅
 Confusing Words
o Less (uncountable) / Fewer (countable)
o Elder (family) / Older (general)
o Farther (distance) / Further (addition)

✦ Quick Summary Table

Type Question it answers Examples Tricky Points

Descriptive What kind? brave, tall, wooden May look like noun
 Quantitative How much? little, some Little / a little / the little

Numeral How many? Which order? one, first, several Few / a few / the few

Demonstrative Which one? this, that, such Don’t use “the this”

Possessive Whose? my, his, their Don’t confuse with pronouns

Interrogative Which/whose/what? Which book, whose bag Must be followed by noun

Distributive One by one each, every, either Always take singular verb

Proper From Proper Noun Pakistani, Islamic Always capitalized

✦ ADVERBS (FPSC Complete Notes)

1. Definition
An adverb is a word that modifies (gives extra information about):

 a verb → He runs quickly.

 an adjective → She is very tall.
 another adverb → He spoke too softly.

👉 Adverbs usually answer questions:

 How? (manner)
 When? (time)
 Where? (place)
 How often? (frequency)
 To what extent? (degree)

2. Types of Adverbs
(a) Adverb of Manner
  Tells how an action is done.
 Commonly end with -ly.
 Examples: quickly, bravely, carefully, slowly.
 Sentences:
o She sings beautifully.
o The soldier fought bravely.

⚠️Trick: If it answers “How?”, it is manner.

(b) Adverb of Time

 Tells when an action happened.

 Examples: now, yesterday, soon, already, today.
 Sentences:
o He came yesterday.
o We will start now.

(c) Adverb of Place

 Tells where an action happened.

 Examples: here, there, outside, inside, everywhere.
 Sentences:
o Come here immediately.
o They looked everywhere for the key.

(d) Adverb of Frequency

 Tells how often something happens.

 Examples: always, often, rarely, sometimes, never.
 Sentences:
o She always speaks the truth.
o He rarely goes to the gym.

⚠️FPSC Trick: In MCQs, "seldom" = almost never, not "sometimes".

(e) Adverb of Degree / Quantity

  Tells the intensity, extent, or degree of an action/adjective/adverb.
 Examples: very, too, quite, enough, extremely, almost.
 Sentences:
o She is very intelligent.
o The water is too hot to touch.

(f) Interrogative Adverb

 Used to ask questions.

 Words: how, when, where, why.
 Sentences:
o How are you?
o When will you arrive?

(g) Relative Adverb

1. Used to join clauses (like a conjunction).

2. Words: when, where, why.
3. Sentences:
o I remember the day when we met.
o This is the house where I was born.

3. Exceptions & Special Cases

 Not all adverbs end in -ly
o Examples: fast, hard, late, daily, early.
o Sentences:
 He runs fast.
 She works hard.
 Some words act as both adjectives and adverbs
o Early: He is an early riser (adj). / He arrived early (adv).
o Daily: This is my daily routine (adj). / He comes daily (adv).
 Comparative & Superlative forms
o Regular: quickly → more quickly → most quickly.
o Irregular:
 well → better → best
 badly → worse → worst

⚠️Error spotting:
  ❌ He ran quick.
 ✅ He ran quickly.
 ❌ She is more better than him.
 ✅ She is better than him.

4. FPSC Style Questions & Tricks

 Identify the error:
o He works hardly. ❌ (Hardly = almost not)
o He works hard. ✅
 Adjective vs Adverb confusion:
o She is a fast runner. (adjective)
o She runs fast. (adverb)
 Double negatives:
o ❌ He did not go nowhere.
o ✅ He did not go anywhere.
 Trick MCQ:
o Choose the correct sentence:
 He sings very sweet. ❌
 He sings very sweetly. ✅

Type Question Answered Examples Sentence Example

Manner How? quickly, bravely He runs quickly.

Time When? now, yesterday I met him yesterday.

Place Where? here, there Come here.

Frequency How often? often, rarely, always She always helps others.
 Degree How much? very, too, quite, enough He is too tired to walk.

Interrogative Asks Qs how, when, where, why How are you?

Relative Joins clauses when, where, why I know the reason why he left.

Excellent point! ✅ You are right — Prepositions are the most confusing part of speech and also
one of the most tested topics in FPSC, CSS, PMS, FGEI exams.
I’ll now prepare full, exam-ready, no-gap notes with all concepts, exceptions, traps, and FPSC-
style questions.
This will be enough for direct prep — no need to search further.

✦ PREPOSITIONS (Complete FPSC Notes)

1. Definition
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to show its relation with another
word in the sentence.
👉 It usually shows direction, place, time, cause, manner, instrument, relation.

Example:

 The book is on the table.

 She is good at mathematics.

2. Types of Prepositions
(a) Simple Prepositions

 Single words: in, on, at, by, for, with, to, from, off, up, down.
 Examples:
o He lives in Lahore.
o She is sitting on the chair.
(b) Compound Prepositions

 Formed by adding prefix (a-, be-, etc.) to a noun/adjective/adverb.

 Examples: into, within, without, upon, inside, outside.
 Sentences:
o He went into the room.
o Stay within the boundary.

(c) Phrasal / Prepositional Phrases

 Group of words working as a preposition.

 Examples: according to, because of, due to, in front of, in spite of, on account of.
 Sentences:
o He succeeded because of hard work.
o The car is parked in front of the house.

(d) Participle Prepositions

 Present participles (-ing form) used as prepositions.

 Examples: concerning, considering, regarding, barring.
 Sentences:
o Considering his age, he is very active.
o There is nothing to worry about regarding the result.

(e) Double Prepositions

 Two simple prepositions used together.

 Examples: from behind, from among, from within, out of.
 Sentences:
o He emerged from behind the curtain.
o She was selected from among the candidates.

3. Rules & Common Confusions (Most Asked in FPSC)

Rule 1: Preposition after certain words (fixed usage)

 Good at (not in) → He is good at maths.

  Interested in (not on) → She is interested in painting.
 Accused of (not for) → He was accused of theft.
 Capable of → She is capable of leading.
 Married to (not with) → She is married to a doctor.

👉 These are called Prepositional Collocations.

Rule 2: Adjective + Preposition

 Angry with a person → He is angry with me.

 Angry at a thing → He is angry at his failure.
 Afraid of, Fond of, Keen on, Different from (UK) / than (US).

Rule 3: Verb + Preposition

 Depend on
 Rely on
 Listen to
 Complain about
 Provide with

Rule 4: Prepositions of Time

 At = exact time → at 5 o’clock, at night

 On = days/dates → on Monday, on 14th August
 In = months/years/centuries → in July, in 1990, in the morning

⚠️Trick:

 ❌ He was born at 1999.

 ✅ He was born in 1999.

Rule 5: Prepositions of Place/Direction

 At = small place/point → at the station

 In = inside an area → in the city, in the room
 On = surface → on the table, on the wall
Rule 6: Idiomatic Phrases (highly tested)

 By chance (not on chance)

 At night (not in night)
 In time (early enough) vs On time (exact punctuality)
 In the end (finally) vs At the end (of something)

Rule 7: Ending Sentence with Prepositions

1. Traditional rule: “Do not end a sentence with a preposition.”

2. Modern English: acceptable in speech.
o What are you waiting for? (Correct, modern usage)
o For what are you waiting? (Formal, old usage)

👉 FPSC usually prefers the formal style.

4. Common Exceptions
 No preposition before home
o ❌ He went to home.
o ✅ He went home.
 No preposition before today, yesterday, tomorrow
o ❌ He will go on tomorrow.
o ✅ He will go tomorrow.
 Prepositions in American vs British English
o UK: different from → Your answer is different from mine.
o US: different than → Your answer is different than mine.
 Adverb vs Preposition confusion
o Preposition = followed by object → He climbed up the ladder.
o Adverb = no object → He climbed up.

5. FPSC Tricks & Question Styles

(a) Fill in the blanks

 He is good ___ mathematics. → at

  She is married ___ a lawyer. → to

(b) Error Spotting

 ❌ He is senior than me.

 ✅ He is senior to me.

(c) One-word substitutions

 Opposite of “in front of” → behind

(d) Confusing Pairs

 In time vs On time
 At the end vs In the end
 Beside (next to) vs Besides (in addition to)

6. Master Trick Table (One-Glance Revision)

Usage Correct Preposition Example Sentence
Good ___ at He is good at cricket.
Married ___ to She is married to a doctor.
Angry ___ person with He is angry with his friend.
Angry ___ thing at He is angry at the result.
Senior / Junior ___ to He is junior to me.
Listen ___ to Listen to your teacher.
Accused ___ of He was accused of theft.
Afraid ___ of She is afraid of snakes.
Provide ___ (thing) ___ (person) with / to He provided food to the poor.
Different ___ (UK) from This is different from mine.

Great — I get you 👍.

Your confusion is exactly the same as most FPSC candidates → mainly with fixed
prepositions (to, with, in, at, of, on).
FPSC loves to test these by giving fill-in-the-blank MCQs or error spotting.

Let me make this super clear with rules, examples, and solved FPSC-style MCQs.
🎯 PREPOSITIONS (MCQ-STYLE
PRACTICE WITH RULES)

1. Prepositions after Verbs

Some verbs are always followed by a fixed preposition.
👉 Trick: Memorize them as a chunk.

 Listen to → Listen to me carefully.

 Wait for → I am waiting for the bus.
 Depend on → We depend on our teachers.
 Believe in → He believes in honesty.
 Apply for (a job), Apply to (a person/office).
o He applied for a visa.
o He applied to the manager.

✅ MCQ Example (FPSC style):

He is waiting ___ his results.

 (A) to
 (B) with
 (C) for ✅
 (D) at

2. Prepositions after Adjectives

Adjectives also take fixed prepositions.

 Good at → She is good at maths.

 Angry with (person), Angry at (thing).
 Afraid of → The child is afraid of the dark.
 Interested in → He is interested in politics.
 Married to → She is married to a lawyer.

✅ MCQ Example:
He is good ___ cricket.

 (A) in
 (B) at ✅
  (C) with
 (D) on

3. Prepositions after Nouns

Some nouns also bind with fixed prepositions.

 Reason for → What is the reason for your absence?

 Need of → There is a need of discipline.
 Influence on → Parents have influence on children.

✅ MCQ Example:
He had no influence ___ the decision.

 (A) on ✅
 (B) in
 (C) at
 (D) to

4. Prepositions of Time & Place (Very Common in FPSC)

 At → exact time / small point
o at 5 pm, at night, at the bus stop
 On → days, dates, surfaces
o on Monday, on 14th August, on the table
 In → months, years, centuries, big areas
o in July, in 1999, in Pakistan, in the room

✅ MCQ Example:
He was born ___ 1990.

 (A) at
 (B) on
 (C) in ✅
 (D) with

5. Tricky Pairs
 1. Beside = next to / Besides = in addition to
2. In time (early enough) vs On time (exact punctuality)
3. Senior/Junior to (not than)
4. Married to (not with)
5. Prefer X to Y → I prefer tea to coffee.

✅ MCQ Example:
She prefers tea ___ coffee.

1. (A) on
2. (B) with
3. (C) to ✅
4. (D) than

6. FPSC Style Error Spotting

❌ He is senior than me.
✅ He is senior to me.

❌ He is married with a doctor.

✅ He is married to a doctor.

❌ He did not listen me.

✅ He did not listen to me.

✦ 10 PRACTICE MCQs (Solved)

1. He is waiting ___ the bus.
→ for ✅
2. She is married ___ a lawyer.
→ to ✅
3. I am interested ___ science.
→ in ✅
4. He was accused ___ theft.
→ of ✅
5. This book belongs ___ Ali.
→ to ✅
6. He is good ___ mathematics.
→ at ✅
 7. They are senior ___ us.
→ to ✅
8. He applied ___ the manager ___ a job.
→ to, for ✅
9. The meeting will start ___ 9 pm.
→ at ✅
10. This table is made ___ wood.
→ of ✅

Perfect 👍 A comprehensive preposition table will solve your confusion in one place.
I’ll make it easy-to-understand, exam-focused, and detailed so that it covers all FPSC MCQ
traps (to, with, in, at, on, of, etc.).

✦ MASTER PREPOSITION TABLE (FPSC

JOB TESTS)

1. Verb + Preposition (Fixed Combinations)

Verb Preposition Example Sentence
Listen to to Listen to me carefully.
Wait for for I am waiting for the bus.
Depend on on We depend on our parents.
Rely on on You can rely on him.
Apply for (thing) for He applied for a job.
Apply to (person/office) to He applied to the manager.
Believe in in She believes in honesty.
Complain about about He complained about the noise.
Provide with (thing) with They provided him with food.
Provide to (person) to They provided food to the poor.

2. Adjective + Preposition
Adjective Preposition Example Sentence
Good at at She is good at maths.
Bad at at He is bad at driving.
 Interested in in He is interested in politics.
Afraid of of The child is afraid of snakes.
Angry with (person) with He is angry with his friend.
Angry at (thing) at He is angry at his result.
Capable of of She is capable of success.
Different from (UK) from This is different from mine.
Married to to She is married to a doctor.
Similar to to His plan is similar to yours.

3. Noun + Preposition
Noun Preposition Example Sentence
Reason for for What is the reason for your delay?
Need of of There is a need of honesty.
Influence on on Parents have influence on children.
Effect on on Pollution has a bad effect on health.
Demand for for There is demand for more jobs.
Key to to Hard work is the key to success.

4. Prepositions of Time
Preposition Usage Example Sentence
At Exact time, festivals He will come at 5 pm. / We pray at night.
On Days, dates She was born on Monday. / Pakistan got freedom on
14th August.
In Months, years, centuries, parts He was born in 1999. / She wakes up early in the
of day morning.

⚠ Trick:
❌ He was born at 1990.
✅ He was born in 1990.

5. Prepositions of Place/Direction
Preposition Usage Example Sentence
At Small point/place He is standing at the bus stop.
In Inside, big areas She is in the room. / He lives in Pakistan.
On Surface The book is on the table. / There is a map on the wall.
6. Tricky Pairs (FPSC Favourites)
Word 1 Meaning / Usage Word 2 Meaning / Usage
Beside Next to Besides In addition to
In time Early enough On time Exact punctuality
At the end Position of something In the end Finally
Senior/Junior Correct usage Senior/Junior ❌ Wrong
to than
Married to Correct Married with ❌ Wrong
Prefer X to Y Correct Prefer X than Y ❌ Wrong

7. Common Exceptions
 ❌ He went to home.
✅ He went home.
 ❌ He will come on tomorrow.
✅ He will come tomorrow.
 ❌ She is superior than me.
✅ She is superior to me.

✦ FPSC Style Sample MCQs (Direct from

Table)
 She is married ___ a doctor. → to
 He is good ___ mathematics. → at
 He is angry ___ his friend. → with
 He applied ___ a job. → for
 He applied ___ the manager. → to
 He was born ___ 1995. → in
 He is waiting ___ the bus. → for
 Hard work is the key ___ success. → to
 This book belongs ___ me. → to
 Parents have influence ___ children. → on

Perfect 👌 You’re absolutely right — Conjunctions are one of the trickiest parts of speech in
FPSC/competitive exams. I’ll give you complete, detailed, exam-focused notes (just like we
did for adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions).
7. Conjunction
👉 Definition:

A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases, or clauses to make the sentence smoother
and more meaningful.

Types of Conjunctions
1. Coordinating Conjunctions (join equal parts)

 Famous formula: FANBOYS

o For → reason (I stayed home, for it was raining.)
o And → addition (She is kind and intelligent.)
o Nor → negative alternative (He didn’t call, nor did he write.)
o But → contrast (He is poor but honest.)
o Or → choice (Do you want tea or coffee?)
o Yet → contrast (He worked hard, yet he failed.)
o So → result (It was raining, so we stayed inside.)

📌 Trick: FANBOYS always join same type (Noun+Noun, Clause+Clause).

2. Subordinating Conjunctions (show relation between dependent + independent

clause)

 Cause/Reason → because, since, as (I stayed home because it was raining.)

 Contrast → although, though, whereas (Although he is rich, he is unhappy.)
 Condition → if, unless, provided that (If you study, you will pass.)
 Time → when, while, after, before, until (Wait here until I return.)
 Purpose → so that, in order that (He studies hard so that he may succeed.)
 Result → so…that, such…that (He was so tired that he slept early.)

📌 Trick: Subordinating conjunctions make one clause dependent.

3. Correlative Conjunctions (come in pairs)

 1. Either…or → choice (Either you come now, or don’t come at all.)
2. Neither…nor → double negative (Neither Ali nor Ahmed was present.)
3. Not only…but also → emphasis (She is not only intelligent but also hardworking.)
4. Both…and → inclusion (Both the teacher and the students enjoyed.)
5. Whether…or → alternatives (I don’t know whether he is at home or at office.)

📌 Exam Trick:

1. Verb agrees with the nearest subject in neither…nor / either…or.

o Neither the teacher nor the students were present.
o Neither the students nor the teacher was present.

Special Notes / Exceptions

1. Double Conjunction Error:
1. Wrong: Although he is rich, but he is unhappy. ❌
2. Correct: Although he is rich, he is unhappy. ✅
2. “As well as” Rule:
1. Verb agrees with the first subject.
2. Ali, as well as his friends, is going. ✅
3. No “than to”
1. Wrong: He prefers tea than coffee. ❌
2. Correct: He prefers tea to coffee. ✅
4. So…that vs Such…that
1. He is so weak that he cannot walk. ✅
2. He is such a weak boy that he cannot walk. ✅
5. Not only…but also (parallelism rule)
1. Wrong: She not only sings but also dancing. ❌
2. Correct: She not only sings but also dances. ✅

FPSC Style Questions

Fill in the blank

 He worked hard, ___ he failed.

o (and / but / so) → ✅ but
 You must hurry, ___ you will miss the train.
o (so / yet / nor) → ✅ or
 I don’t know ___ he will come ___ he will not.
o (either / whether / neither) → ✅ whether…or
Error Spotting

1. Although he was poor but he was honest. ❌

→ Remove but.
2. Neither Ali nor his friends was present. ❌
→ Verb must agree with nearest subject → were present.
3. He is both intelligent as well as hardworking. ❌
→ Use and → He is both intelligent and hardworking. ✅

Type Sub-Type Examples Usage Rule / Exampl Common FPSC

Trick e Traps
Sentenc
es
Coordinating Addition and Connects Ali is Overuse of and
(FANBOYS) equal/related tall and in place of
ideas strong. contrast/consequ
ence
Contrast but, yet Shows He is Using
opposition poor although…but ❌
but
honest.
Choice/ or, nor Offers Do you Misuse of nor
Alternative choice/negati want with positive
ve tea or sentences
coffee?
/ He
didn’t
call,
nor did
he
write.
Cause/Reason for Explains He Rarely used in
reason stayed modern style →
home, exam trick
for it
was
raining.
Result so Shows It Misplaced so in
consequence rained, sentence
so we
stayed
inside.
Subordinatin Cause/Reason because, Joins He left Confusion with
g since, as dependent because for (coordination
 clause with he was vs
cause tired. subordination)
Contrast/ although, Contrast idea Althoug ❌ Double use:
Concession though, with main h he is Although…but
whereas, clause rich, he
even is
though unhapp
y.
Condition if, unless, State If you Unless = if not
provided condition for study, (students
that, in main clause you will confuse)
case pass.
Time when, Expresses Wait Confusion b/w
while, time relation until I when vs while
until, after, return.
before, as
soon as
Purpose so that, in Show He Lest takes
order that, intention/pur studies should: Work
lest pose so that hard lest you
he may should fail.
succeed
.
Result so…that, Expresses He was Mixing up so vs
such…that result so tired such
that he
slept. /
It was
such a
hot day
that we
stayed
inside.
Correlative Pair either…or Expresses Either Verb agrees with
Conjunctions choice Ali or nearest subject
Ahmed
will
win.
neither… Double Neither Singular vs
nor negative the plural verb
teacher confusion
nor the
student
s were
present.
both…and Adds Both Mixing with as
 emphasis the well as
teacher
and the
student
s were
present.
not only… Emphasis She is Parallelism
but also with balance not only error: not only
kind but sings but also
also dancing ❌
brave.
whether… Alternative I don’t Confusion with
or possibility know if
whether
he is at
home
or at
office.
Special/ Phrasal as well as, Special Ali, as Verb agrees with
Idiomatic rather phrases with well as first subject (as
than, no fixed his well as rule)
sooner… grammar friends,
than, is
hardly… going.
when
Comparative than, as… Used for He is ❌ “prefer than”
as comparisons taller → prefer to
than his
brother.
/ She is
as
brave
as her
sister.
Negative lest Means “for She ran lest always takes
Purpose fear that” fast lest should, not will
she
should
miss the
bus.

Absolutely! Let’s create a comprehensive, detailed guide on Interjections tailored for

FPSC/FGEI exams, including types, usage rules, tricks, exceptions, examples, common traps,
and table format for quick revision. I’ll also include sentence examples and exam-oriented tips.
INTERJECTIONS – Complete FPSC Guide
Definition:

An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses sudden emotion, feeling, or reaction. It is

usually independent of the sentence structure and can stand alone.

Key points for exams:

1. Often punctuated with exclamation marks (!)

2. Can convey joy, surprise, pain, anger, hesitation, or greeting
3. Usually not grammatically connected to the main sentence

Types of Interjections, Usage & Examples

Type Sub-Type / Examples Usage Rule / Example Common FPSC

Emotion Trick Sentences Traps
Joy / Happiness Express Hurray!, Often used Hurray! We Confused with
happiness, Bravo!, with won the exclamatory
delight Hurrah!, exclamation match. sentence vs
Wow! mark (!) interjection
standalone
Surprise / Shock Sudden Oh!, Ah!, Can be mid- Oh! I didn’t FPSC may ask
surprise, Whoa!, My sentence or see you correct placement:
astonishment God! standalone there. mid-sentence vs
start
Pain / Suffering Physical or Ouch!, Shows pain or Ouch! I cut Don’t confuse Alas
emotional pain Alas!, Ai!, regret my finger. (regret) with Ouch
Oh dear! (physical pain)
Anger / Express anger Bah!, Ugh!, Usually Ugh! I can’t Confused with
Frustration or annoyance Tsk! informal, believe this sound words, not
express dislike happened. interjection
Greeting / Welcome / Hello!, Hi!, Can be formal Hello! How FPSC may ask
Salutation farewell Bye!, Good or informal are you? correct punctuation:
morning! exclamation mark vs
comma
Hesitation / Pause or Er…, Um…, Often before a Um… I think Confused with filler
Thinking uncertainty Hmm… statement we should words in formal
leave now. writing
 Attention / Call Draw attention Look!, Often Hey! Don’t FPSC may ask
Listen!, Hey! imperative, can touch that. difference between
start sentence imperative verb and
interjection
Disgust / Express dislike Yuck!, Ew!, Expresses Yuck! This Misplacing Phew!
Rejection Phew! revulsion or food tastes (relief) vs disgust
relief bad.
Encouragement Praise or Bravo!, Well Shows approval Bravo! You Confused with
/ Approval agreement done!, solved it regular adverbs
Hurrah! correctly. expressing praise
Surprise + Fear Shock + fear Ah!, Oh no!, Often shows Ah! That was FPSC may combine
Whoa! mixed emotion a close call. meaning: shock vs
fear

Key Exam Rules & Tricks for Interjections:

 Always standalone or separated by commas:

1. Correct: Oh! I forgot my bag.
2. Incorrect: I Oh forgot my bag.
 Exclamation mark (!) is common but not mandatory:
1. FPSC often asks: Choose the correct punctuation for the interjection.
 Do not confuse with other parts of speech:
1. Alas = interjection (regret)
2. Alas ≠ adverb or noun
 Common FPSC traps:
1. Interjections vs interjection-like phrases (Wow, she sings well! → interjection vs
Wow, what a singer! → exclamatory sentence)
2. Placement: start, mid, or end of sentence (Wow, he is tall. / He is tall, wow!)
 Tip: Remember 8 major emotions for interjections:
1. Joy, Surprise, Pain, Anger, Greeting, Hesitation, Disgust, Encouragement

Quick Tricks for FPSC:

Trick / Shortcut Explanation / Use in Exams

“O” rule Many interjections start with O: Oh! Ouch! Oops! Alas! → signals emotion

Exclamation test If a word can be followed by “!” and express emotion → interjection

Standalone test Remove word: if sentence still makes sense → interjection is correct

Context clue Interjections express sudden feeling → never describe nouns or verbs directly
Exam-Oriented Examples (FPSC Style):

 _____! I can’t believe my eyes. → Oh!

 _____! That was an amazing performance. → Bravo!
 _____ I forgot my homework again. → Alas!
 _____! Don’t step on the wet paint. → Hey!
 _____! That cake tastes horrible. → Yuck!

CLAUSES AND PHRASES – Complete

FPSC Notes

1. Definitions
Term Definition FPSC Tip

Clause A group of words containing a subject and a Clauses can be independent or dependent.
predicate (verb). Exams often ask to identify type.

Phras A group of words without both subject and Usually functions as noun, adjective, or
e verb that acts as a single part of speech. adverb. Trick: phrases cannot stand alone.

2. Difference Between Clause and Phrase

Feature Clause Phrase

Subject & Has both subject and verb May have only one or none
Verb

Completeness Can be complete or incomplete Always incomplete

Standalone Independent clause can stand alone Cannot stand alone
Example She is reading a book. Reading a book
FPSC Trick Clause = verb + subject, Phrase ≠ complete Look for verb + subject to identify
sentence clause
3. Types of Clauses
A. Independent / Main Clause

 Definition: A clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand alone.
 Examples:
1. She likes ice cream.
2. Ali is studying for the exam.
 FPSC Tips:

o Often linked with coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so).

o Question trap: Identify which part can stand alone.

B. Dependent / Subordinate Clause

 Definition: A clause that cannot stand alone and depends on the main clause.
 Subtypes:

Type Subordinating Conjunction / Example FPSC Trap / Note

Signal Words

Adverbial because, since, if, although, He stayed home Expresses reason, time,
Clause unless, when, while because he was sick. condition, purpose, result

Relative / who, whom, whose, which, The boy who is tall Describes noun; don’t confuse
Adjective that won the race. with independent clause

Noun Clause what, that, whoever, whether I know that he is Functions as subject, object, or
honest. complement

Definition:

A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence.

 It can act as subject, object, or complement.

 Starts with words like that, what, who, whoever, whether, how, why, when, where.

Examples:
 Function Example Sentence Explanation

Subject What he said surprised everyone. The entire clause What he said acts as the
subject.

Object I know that she is honest. Clause that she is honest acts as the object of
know.

Subject The problem is who will lead the Clause who will lead the team describes the
Complement team. subject.

FPSC Tricks / Tips:

1. Ask: “Can I replace this clause with a pronoun like ‘it’ or ‘something’?” → then it’s a
noun clause.
o I know that she is honest → I know it ✅
2. Starts with question words or ‘that’, but not all question words introduce noun
clauses (e.g., “How fast is he?” = direct question, not noun clause).
3. Cannot stand alone; it’s always dependent.

4. Types of Phrases

Phrase Type Definition / Function Example FPSC Tip / Trap

Noun Phrase Acts as a noun; usually noun + The tall boy Can be subject or object
modifiers
Verb Phrase Main verb + auxiliary/helping is reading, has been Key in identifying tenses
verbs studying
Adjective Modifies a noun Full of energy, happy Usually comes after the noun
Phrase with results
Adverb Phrase Modifies a verb, adjective, or With great speed, in Look for how, when, where
adverb the morning
Prepositional Begins with preposition + On the table, under Exam trick: sometimes
Phrase object the bed mistaken as clause
Participial Verb form (-ing/-ed) used as Running fast, Often modifies noun, not
Phrase adjective exhausted by the verb
race

Infinitive “to + verb” acting as noun, To win the race is his FPSC trap: don’t confuse with
Phrase adjective, or adverb goal “to + verb” in a clause
Gerund Phrase Verb + ing acting as noun Swimming is fun Can be subject, object
5. Key Rules & Tricks for FPSC
1. Clause = subject + verb, Phrase ≠ complete thought.
o She reads. → Clause
o Reading books → Phrase
2. Dependent clause starts with subordinating conjunctions: because, although, if, when,
unless, while.
3. Relative clauses modify nouns and often start with: who, whom, whose, which, that.
4. Noun clauses can be replaced by a pronoun:
o I know that he is honest. → I know it.
5. Phrase vs Clause tip:
o If it cannot stand alone, check: does it have subject + verb? → Clause
o If not → Phrase
6. FPSC Common Traps:
o Mistaking prepositional phrase for adverb clause
o Confusing noun clause with relative clause
o Identifying independent clause inside a long sentence

6. Examples for Exam Practice

Sentence Clause / Phrase Type
She sings beautifully. Independent clause
Because he was late, he missed the bus. Dependent (Adverbial) clause
The man who called you is my uncle. Relative / Adjective clause
I don’t know what he wants. Noun clause
Running quickly, he reached the station. Participial phrase
On the table, there is a book. Prepositional phrase
To win the race is his ambition. Infinitive phrase
Swimming in the pool is fun. Gerund phrase
The boy with red hair is my friend. Adjective phrase
She answered with a smile. Adverb phrase

7. Summary Table for Quick Revision

Categor Type / Signal Words / Markers Examples FPSCT Tip / Trap
y Function
 Clause Independent — She runs fast. Can stand alone
Clause Dependent because, if, although, Because he was Cannot stand alone; link with
when, that, who late… main clause
Phrase Noun — The tall boy Acts as subject/object
Phrase Verb Auxiliary + main has been Identifies tense
studying
Phrase Adjective — Full of energy Modifies noun
Phrase Adverb — In the morning Modifies verb/adjective
Phrase Prepositional in, on, at, under, with On the table Confused with adverb clause
Phrase Participial Verb-ing / Verb-ed Exhausted by Modifies noun
work
Phrase Infinitive to + verb To win the race Acts as noun/adjective/adverb
Phrase Gerund verb-ing Swimming is fun Acts as noun

Got it! Let’s make complete, detailed FPSC-style notes on Conditional Sentences, covering
all types, rules, exceptions, tricks, common traps, and plenty of examples. I’ll structure it for
tough job tests, so it’s fully exam-oriented and easy to revise.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
A conditional sentence expresses a condition and its result.
 Form: If + condition, result
 Parts:
1. If-clause (Condition / Protasis) → The condition
2. Main clause (Result / Apodosis) → The result or consequence

2. Types of Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences are classified by reality and time:

Type Usage / Meaning Tense / Form Example Sentence FPSC Tips / Traps
Zero Conditional General truths, If + Present Simple, If you heat water, Trap: do not use future
scientific facts Present Simple it boils. tense; always present
facts

First Conditional Real possibility / If + Present Simple, will If it rains, we will Trick: do not use will in
probable future + base verb cancel the match. if-clause
events

Second Conditional Unreal / hypothetical If + Past Simple, would If I won the lottery, Trap: Past tense in if-
situations in + base verb I would buy a car. clause does not refer to
present/future past time; it’s
hypothetical now

Third Conditional Unreal past / If + Past Perfect, would If he had studied, Trick: do not use would
hypothetical past have + past participle he would have in if-clause; watch
situations passed. perfect tense

Mixed Conditional Past condition with 1. Past perfect + would If I had studied FPSC trap: tense
present result or vice + base verb → past harder, I would be mismatch; check result
versa condition, present successful now. time
result

2. Present / Past + If I were more

would have + past careful, I would not
participle → present have made that
condition, past result mistake.

3. Detailed Explanation of Each Type

A. Zero Conditional (Fact / Certainty)

 Form: If + Present Simple, Present Simple

 Use: General truths, habits, scientific facts
 Examples:
1. If water reaches 100°C, it boils.
2. If you mix red and blue, you get purple.
3. If people eat too much, they gain weight.

FPSC Tricks:

 If-clause can be at the start or end

o It boils if water reaches 100°C. ✅
 Do not use future tense in if-clause (❌ If water will reach 100°C…).
B. First Conditional (Real Future Possibility)

 Form: If + Present Simple, will + base verb

 Use: Possible events in the future
 Examples:
1. If it rains tomorrow, we will cancel the trip.
2. If you study hard, you will pass the exam.
3. If Ali calls, I will answer immediately.

Tricks / FPSC Tips:

 Do NOT use ‘will’ in the if-clause → ❌ If it will rain…

 Can use other modals in main clause: might, can, should → If you work hard, you might
succeed.
 Swap clauses: If-clause can be after main clause → We will cancel the trip if it rains
tomorrow.

C. Second Conditional (Unreal Present / Future)

 Form: If + Past Simple, would + base verb

 Use: Hypothetical situations in present or future
 Examples:
1. If I were rich, I would buy a mansion.
2. If she knew his number, she would call him.
3. If we had more time, we would travel the world.

Tricks / FPSC Tips:

 Use ‘were’ for all subjects in hypothetical situations → If I were you… ✅

 Refers to present unreal → not past
 Modal verbs in main clause: could, might, should → If he studied more, he could pass.
 Common trap: Using past continuous → ❌ If I was sleeping… → better: If I were
sleeping…

D. Third Conditional (Unreal Past)

 Form: If + Past Perfect, would have + past participle

 Use: Unreal situations in the past; expressing regret
 Examples:
1. If he had left earlier, he would have caught the train.
 2. If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.
3. If they had invited me, I would have attended the party.

Tricks / FPSC Tips:

 Do not use ‘would’ in if-clause → ❌ If he would have left…

 Can replace would have with might have, could have → If I had tried, I might have
succeeded.

E. Mixed Conditionals

 1. Past Condition → Present Result:

o If + Past Perfect, would + base verb
o Example: If I had studied harder, I would be successful now.
 2. Present Condition → Past Result:
o If + Past Simple, would have + past participle
o Example: If she were more careful, she would not have made that mistake.

Tricks / FPSC Tips:

 Check time reference of condition vs result

 Mixed conditionals often confuse students in exams → pay attention to tense match

4. Common FPSC Traps & Tricks

Trap / Mistake Correct Usage / Trick
Using will in if-clause ❌ If it will rain… → ✅ If it rains…

Confusing second & third conditional Second = unreal present/future, Third = unreal past
Using was instead of were for ❌ If I was you… → ✅ If I were you…
hypotheticals

Tense mismatch in mixed conditional Past condition → present/future result → check tenses
carefully

Confusing modal verbs in main clause Can use would, might, could, should, but not in if-clause
Zero conditional for general truths only ❌ Don’t use future tense in if-clause
Common FPSC Example Sentences / Questions
1. Fill in the blank:
If she _____ (study) harder, she will pass the exam. → studies (First Conditional)
2. Correct the error:
If he will come, I will tell him the news. → ❌ → ✅ If he comes, I will tell him.
3. Choose the correct type:
If I had left earlier, I would have caught the train. → Third Conditional
4. Mixed Conditional:
If I had listened to your advice, I would be in a better situation now.
5. Zero Conditional:
If you heat ice, it melts.

Tip / Shortcut Explanation / Example

Zero = Fact Present → Present (scientific truth) → If water boils…
First = Real Future Present → Will (possible future) → If it rains, we will…
Second = Unreal Present/Future Past → Would (hypothetical) → If I were rich…
Third = Unreal Past Past Perfect → Would Have + V3 → If I had studied…
Mixed = Time Mismatch Past → Present / Present → Past → check tenses
Were Trick Always use were in hypothetical → If I were you…
Swap Trick If-clause can go second → We will cancel if it rains. ✅

✅ Summary Table – Conditional Sentences at a Glance

Type Form Example Sentence Use / Meaning

Zero If + Present, Present If water boils, it evaporates. General truth /
scientific fact

First If + Present, Will + base If it rains, we will stay home. Real future possibility
verb

Second If + Past Simple, Would If I were rich, I would travel the Unreal present/future
+ base verb world.

Third If + Past Perfect, Would If he had left early, he would have Unreal past
have + V3 caught the train.

Mixed (Past → If + Past Perfect, Would If I had studied harder, I would be Past condition, present
Present) + base verb successful now. result
 Mixed (Present If + Past Simple, Would If I were careful, I would not have Present condition, past
→ Past) have + V3 made that mistake. result

1. Tenses – Active → Passive Conversion

Tense Active Form Passive Form Example (Active → Passive)

Present Simple S + V1(s/es) + O O + is/are/am + V3 (+ She writes a letter → A letter is written by

by S) her

Past Simple S + V2 + O O + was/were + V3 They built a house → A house was built by

(+ by S) them

Future Simple S + will/shall + V1 + O + will/shall + be + Ali will complete work → Work will be
O V3 (+ by S) completed by Ali

Present Continuous S + is/are/am + O + is/are/am + She is reading a novel → A novel is being

V1+ing + O being + V3 read by her
Past Continuous S + was/were + O + was/were + They were playing football → Football was
V1+ing + O being + V3 being played by them

Future Continuous — — (Not used) He will be doing work ❌ No passive

Present Perfect S + has/have + V3 O + has/have + been He has finished the task → The task has
+O + V3 been finished by him

Past Perfect S + had + V3 + O O + had + been + V3 They had cleaned the room → The room had
been cleaned by them

Future Perfect S + will/shall + O + will/shall + have She will have solved the problem → The
have + V3 + O + been + V3 problem will have been solved by her

Future Perfect — — (Not used) He will have been studying ❌ No passive

Continuous

2. Passive for Questions

Type Active Example Passive Example Trick
Yes/No Did they invite Were you invited by them? Move helping verb first
Question you?

WH (subject) Who wrote this By whom was this book written? Use “By whom” if who is
book? subject

WH (object) Whom did you Who was met by you? (awkward → Better to rephrase
meet? avoid)

3. Imperatives (Commands)
 Type Active Passive Trick
Positive Open the door. Let the door be opened. Use Let + object + be
command + V3

Negative Don’t open the Let the door not be opened. / The door must Use Let…not or must
command door. not be opened. not

Polite/soft Please help me. Let me be helped (please). Add “please” at start
or end

4. Passive with Modals

Modal Active Example Passive Example Pattern
Must You must follow the rules. The rules must be followed by you. modal + be + V3
Can They can finish the job. The job can be finished by them. modal + be + V3
Should She should complete the The task should be completed by modal + be + V3
task. her.

May He may do it. It may be done by him. modal + be + V3

Ought to You ought to complete it. It ought to be completed (by you). modal + be + V3
Could She could have solved the The issue could have been solved by modal + have been +
have issue. her. V3

5. Reporting/Impersonal Passive
Active Passive Trick
People say that he is He is said to be honest. Use is/was said/believed/reported + to +
honest. be…

They think she is clever. She is thought to be clever. —

People believe him guilty. He is believed to be guilty. —
They say the road is The road is said to be —
dangerous. dangerous.
6. Double-Object Verbs (Give, Send, Show,
etc.)
Active Passive (Indirect Object as Passive (Direct Object as Subject)
Subject)
She gave him a medal. He was given a medal (by her). A medal was given to him (by her).
They sent the villagers The villagers were sent relief. Relief was sent to the villagers.
relief.

He showed me a picture. I was shown a picture (by him). A picture was shown to me (by
him).

7. Causative Verbs
Verb Active Example Passive Example Note

Make They made him resign. He was made to resign. Add to in passive

Let They let him go. He was allowed to go. Use allowed

Have (causative) I had the mechanic repair my bike. I had my bike repaired. Different structure

8. Exceptions (No Passive / Special Notes)

Case Why Not Passive? Example
Intransitive verbs No object → cannot be changed He slept. (❌ no passive)
Future Continuous “Will be being” sounds awkward He will be doing work. (❌ no passive)

Future Perfect Same problem He will have been studying. (❌ no

Continuous passive)

General subject “People/They” usually omitted in People speak Urdu → Urdu is spoken
passive
9. FPSC/Exam Tricks Table
Trick Shortcut / Memory Aid Example
Always find the Object becomes new subject Ali wrote a letter → A letter was written
object first
Verb must always Past participle only Build → built
be V3
Helping verb Present → is/are/am, Past → She has finished → It has been finished
matches tense was/were, Perfect → been
Imperatives Use Let + be + V3 Open the door → Let the door be opened
Modals Modal + be + V3 Must follow → Must be followed
WH Questions If who = subject → By whom… Who wrote book? → By whom was book
written?
General subject Drop people/they People say… → It is said…
Double objects Two possible passives She gave him a medal → He was given a
medal / A medal was given to him

1. Basics of Direct & Indirect Speech

 Direct Speech: Quoting someone’s exact words.
👉 Example: He said, “I am tired.”
 Indirect Speech: Reporting the meaning of what someone said, without exact words.
👉 Example: He said that he was tired.

🔑 In exams (FPSC, PPSC, CSS, etc.), you are asked to convert direct into indirect, so rules are
key.

1. Tense Changes
Direct Speech (Reported Indirect Speech Example
Part)

Present Simple Past Simple He said, “I eat mangoes.” → He said that he ate
mangoes.

Present Continuous Past Continuous She said, “I am working.” → She said that she
was working.
Present Perfect Past Perfect They said, “We have finished.” → They said that
they had finished.

Past Simple Past Perfect He said, “I went there.” → He said that he had
gone there.

Past Continuous Past Perfect She said, “I was reading.” → She said that she had
Continuous been reading.

Past Perfect Past Perfect (no He said, “I had left.” → He said that he had left.
change)

Future (will) Would She said, “I will go.” → She said that she would
go.

Shall Should He said, “I shall help you.” → He said that he

should help me.

Can Could He said, “I can solve it.” → He said that he could

solve it.

May Might She said, “It may rain.” → She said that it might
rain.

2. Pronoun Changes
Person Rule Example
1st person (I, we) Changes according to subject He said, “I am ready.” → He said that he
of reporting verb was ready.

2nd person (you) Changes according to object of She said to me, “You are kind.” → She
reporting verb told me that I was kind.

3rd person (he, No change They said, “He is late.” → They said that
she, they) he was late.

3. Time & Place Words

Direct Indirect
Today That day
Tomorrow The next day / following day
Yesterday The previous day / the day before
Now Then
Ago Before
This That
These Those
Here There
Tonight That night
Next week The following week
Last year The previous year

4. Statements (Assertive Sentences)

Direct Speech Indirect Speech Rule/Trick

He said, “I am busy.” He said that he was busy. Use that, change tense, pronouns,
time.

She said to me, “You are She told me that I was Said to → told
honest.” honest.

5. Questions
Type Direct Speech Indirect Speech Trick
Yes/No He said, “Do you like He asked if/whether I liked Use if/whether, change
tea?” tea. order

WH She said, “Where are you She asked where I was Keep WH word, no
going?” going. that

Who He said, “Who wrote this He asked who had written WH word acts as
(subject) book?” that book. subject

6. Imperatives (Commands/Requests/Advice)
 Type Direct Speech Indirect Speech Trick
Command He said, “Open the He ordered me to open Use to + V1
door.” the door.
Negative She said, “Don’t run.” She forbade me to run. Use not to or forbade
Command
Request He said to me, “Please He requested me to help Please →
help me.” him. requested/begged
Advice Teacher said, “Work Teacher advised us to Use advised
hard.” work hard.

7. Exclamations & Optatives

Direct Speech Indirect Speech Rule/Trick
He said, “Hurrah! We He exclaimed with joy that they had Hurrah → exclaimed with
won.” won. joy
She said, “Alas! He is She exclaimed with sorrow that he was Alas → exclaimed with
dead.” dead. sorrow
He said, “What a nice He exclaimed with joy that it was a Remove interjection, use
day!” very nice day. clause
She said, “May you She prayed that I might succeed. May → prayed/wished
succeed.”

8. Special Verbs
Direct Speech Indirect Speech Note
He said to me, “…” He told me… Said to → told
She said, “…” She said that… Said → said (no object)
He said, “Let’s go.” He suggested that we should go. Let’s →
suggested/proposed

She said, “Let him She suggested that he should be allowed Let him →
go.” to go. suggested/allowed
9. FPSC Exam Tricks (Cheat Table)
Trick Shortcut Example
Always step one Present → Past, Future → He said, “I am fine.” → He said that he
tense back Would was fine.

Pronoun Rule 1st → subject, 2nd → object, She said to me, “You are late.” → She
3rd → no change told me that I was late.

Question Rule Remove ?, use asked if/whether He said, “Do you know English?” → He
asked if I knew English.

Imperatives to + V1 (positive), not to + V1 He said, “Open the door.” → He ordered

(negative) me to open the door.

Exclamations Replace interjection → He said, “Hurrah!” → He exclaimed with

exclaimed with joy/sorrow joy.

Optatives May → wished/prayed She said, “May Allah bless you.” → She
prayed that Allah might bless me.

Literary Devices – Examples & Tricks Table

Device Example Sentence Trick to Remember / How to Spot
Metaphor “Time is a thief.” Direct comparison, no “like/as”. Look for
“is/was”.
Simile “He is brave as a lion.” Uses “like” or “as” → comparison.
Personification “The wind whispered through the trees.” Non-human + human action/verb.

Hyperbole “I’ve told you a thousand times.” Extreme exaggeration → look for
numbers, always/never.
Alliteration “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled Repetition of initial consonant sounds.
peppers.”
Assonance “The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain.” Repetition of vowel sounds in nearby
words.
Onomatopoeia “Bang! Crash! Buzz!” Words imitate actual sounds.
Oxymoron “Deafening silence.” Two contradictory words together →
contradiction clue.
Irony “Lovely weather!” (during storm) Opposite meaning → tone / context
matters.
Pun “Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a Play on words → double meaning /
banana.” humor.
Euphemism “He passed away” instead of “He died.” Polite/softer way → look for nicer
phrasing.
Metonymy “The crown will decide.” Related object → replaces
concept/person.
Synecdoche “All hands on deck.” Part represents whole or whole = part.

Allusion “He is a real Romeo.” Indirect reference to famous

person/place/work.
Imagery “The golden sunset bathed the hills in Sensory words → visual, sound, touch,
warm light.” smell, taste.
Anaphora “We shall fight on the beaches. We shall Repetition at the beginning of clauses →
fight on the landing grounds.” emphasis.
Epiphora / “See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil.” Repetition at the end of clauses →
Epistrophe emphasis.
Chiasmus “Never let a fool kiss you or a kiss fool you.” Words/phrases repeated in reverse
order → ABC → CBA.
Antithesis “It was the best of times, it was the worst Balanced contrast → opposite ideas
of times.” together.
Allegory “Animal Farm” → political corruption Whole story = metaphor →
moral/political lesson.
Paradox “Less is more.” Contradictory statement that is actually
true.
Symbolism “Dove = peace.” Object represents an idea → abstract
meaning.
Rhetorical “Who doesn’t want to be happy?” No answer needed → used for
Question emphasis/thought.

💡 Quick Memory Tricks for Exam:

1. Comparison → “like/as” = simile, “is/was” = metaphor.

2. Sound Devices → Alliteration (consonants), Assonance (vowels), Onomatopoeia (sound
words).
3. Opposites/Contradiction → Oxymoron, Antithesis, Paradox.
4. Human Qualities → Personification.
5. Exaggeration → Hyperbole.
6. Repetition → Beginning = Anaphora, End = Epiphora, Reverse = Chiasmus.
7. Indirect/Reference → Allusion (famous person), Metonymy (related word), Synecdoche
(part/whole).
8. Polite/soft words → Euphemism.
9. Object → Idea → Symbolism.
10. Questions for emphasis → Rhetorical Question
High-Frequency Literary Devices for FPSC /
FGEI Exams
Device Definition Example Trick / How to Spot
Metaphor Comparing two things “Time is money.” Look for “is/was” → direct
without “like/as” comparison. Very common in
comprehension.

Simile Comparing with like/as “He fought like a lion.” Look for “like” or “as”.

Personification Giving human traits to “The flowers danced in Non-human + human verb. Often
non-human things the wind.” appears in comprehension/extracts.

Hyperbole Extreme exaggeration “I’ve told you a million Numbers, extreme words → easy to
times.” spot in MCQs.

Alliteration Repetition of initial “She sells sea shells.” Consonant repetition → common in
consonant sounds poetry/extracts.
Irony Saying opposite of what “Lovely weather!” (in a Tone / context → often used in
is meant storm) comprehension questions.

Oxymoron Two opposite words “Bittersweet Contradictory words → often in

together experience.” phrases or sentences.

Pun Play on words / double “I used to be a baker, Wordplay → usually in tricky

meaning but I couldn’t make vocabulary or comprehension.
enough dough.”

Imagery Words that create “Golden sunset bathed Sensory description → look for
mental pictures the hills in warm light.” sights, sounds, feelings.

Symbolism Object representing an “Dove = peace” Symbol → abstract idea. Frequently

idea asked in comprehension/poetry.

Rhetorical Question with no “Who doesn’t want to Look for question mark but no literal
Question answer, for emphasis be happy?” answer.

Anaphora Repetition at start of “We shall fight… We Beginning repetition → emphasis.

sentences/clauses shall fight…” Seen in famous speeches.

Exam-Focused Tricks / Tips

1. Most Tested Devices: Metaphor, Simile, Personification, Hyperbole, Alliteration, Irony,
Oxymoron, Imagery, Symbolism, Rhetorical Question.
2. Spot Clues:
o “like/as” → Simile
o “is/was” → Metaphor
o Human traits → Personification
o Exaggeration → Hyperbole
o Repetition → Anaphora
o Contradiction → Oxymoron
3. Comprehension & Poetry: These devices are mostly in poetry/extracts; memorize
examples.
4. Tricky Phrases: Often exams will give one line and ask the device — e.g., “All the
world’s a stage” → Metaphor.
Quick Memorization Table (Cheat-Style)
Device Clue / How to Spot Example
Metaphor Direct comparison (is/was) “Time is money.”
Simile Like/as “She is brave like a lion.”
Personification Non-human + human verb “The trees whispered.”
Hyperbole Extreme / numbers / exaggeration “I told you a thousand times.”
Alliteration Consonant sound repetition “Peter Piper picked…”
Irony Opposite meaning / tone “Lovely weather!” (storm)
Oxymoron Contradictory words together “Deafening silence.”
Imagery Sensory words “Golden sunset bathed the hills.”
Symbolism Object → idea “Dove = peace”
Rhetorical Question Question not needing answer “Who doesn’t want happiness?”
Anaphora Repetition at sentence start “We shall fight… We shall fight…”

FPSC-style question bank

1. Literary Devices Questions (FPSC/FGEI

Style)
Q# Question Answer (1-liner)
1 “Time is money.” Name the literary device. Metaphor
2 “He is as brave as a lion.” Identify the device. Simile
3 “The wind whispered through the trees.” Personification
4 “I’ve told you a thousand times.” Hyperbole
5 “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.” Alliteration
6 “Lovely weather!” (during storm) Irony
7 “Bittersweet experience” Oxymoron
8 “Golden sunset bathed the hills in warm light.” Imagery
9 “Dove symbolizes peace.” Symbolism
10 “Who doesn’t want to be happy?” Rhetorical Question
11 “We shall fight on the beaches. We shall fight on the landing grounds.” Anaphora

2. Active-Passive Questions
Q Question Answer (Passive Form)
#
12 Convert to passive: “The teacher praised the student.” The student was praised by the teacher.

13 Convert to passive: “She will complete the project The project will be completed by her
tomorrow.” tomorrow.

14 Convert to passive: “People speak English all over the English is spoken all over the world.
world.”

15 Convert to passive: “They have finished the work.” The work has been finished by them.
16 Convert to passive: “Who wrote this book?” By whom was this book written?

3. Direct-Indirect Speech Questions

Q# Question Answer (Indirect)
17 He said, “I will help you tomorrow.” He said that he would help me the next day.
18 She said to me, “Do you know English?” She asked me if I knew English.
19 They said, “We are happy today.” They said that they were happy that day.
20 He said, “Alas! I lost my purse.” He exclaimed with sorrow that he had lost his purse.
21 Teacher said, “Don’t waste your time.” The teacher forbade us to waste our time.
22 She said, “May Allah bless you.” She prayed that Allah might bless me.
23 She said, “Where are you going?” She asked me where I was going.
24 He said, “Open the door.” He ordered me to open the door.

4. FPSC-Style One-Liner Misc Grammar

Questions
Q# Question Answer

25 Identify the tense: “She has been studying for two hours.” Present Perfect Continuous
26 Correct the sentence: “He go to school yesterday.” He went to school yesterday.
27 Fill in the blank (Preposition): “She is good ___ mathematics.” At
28 Choose correct article: “I saw ___ eagle in the sky.” An
29 Choose correct conjunction: “I like tea ___ coffee.” And
30 Identify error: “He don’t know the answer.” don’t → doesn’t

BEST OF LUCK
Dhuhazia